Throughout history, metals have held profound significance, shaping civilizations and symbolizing strength, resilience, justice, and divine provision. Sacred texts from across traditions reflect this importance, highlighting humanity’s relationship with metals like gold, silver, copper, and iron. The Old Testament, for instance, refers to iron and copper in mining and craftsmanship (e.g., Job 28:2), portraying the ingenuity of early metallurgical practices. The New Testament often uses gold and silver metaphorically, symbolizing wealth and spiritual lessons, while iron appears in the context of Roman military dominance. Similarly, the Qur’an emphasizes the significance of metals, dedicating an entire chapter—Surah Al-Hadid (Iron)—to explore the material and spiritual dimensions of iron. This chapter, “iron”ically, aligns with the atomic number of iron, which is 26. This connection is often interpreted symbolically to illustrate the Qur’an’s numerical and structural harmony rather than as direct scientific evidence [1]. Can such a connection between metals and sacred texts uncover a timeless narrative of innovation, faith, and the harmonious interplay between material resources and spiritual wisdom?

A divine gift to humanity

Holy Scriptures highlight the significance of iron in several verses. In the Old Testament, the verse “A land where the rocks are iron and you can dig copper out of the hills” (Deuteronomy 8:9) offers a remarkable insight into the understanding of metals during that period. Copper is described as being “dug from ore,” reflecting its extraction through mining and smelting, which was a well-established practice. In contrast, iron is referred to as “rocks,” a phrasing that aligns with the historical context (3300–1200 BCE) when iron was primarily sourced from meteoric material.

Iron is referred to in the Qur’an as follows (Al-Hadid 57:25): “Assuredly, We have sent Our Messengers with manifest truths (and clear proofs of their being Messengers), and We have sent down with them the Book and the Balance so that (relations among) humankind may live by equity. And We have sent down iron, in which is stern might and benefits for humankind, so that God may mark out those who help (the cause of) God and His Messengers, though they do not see Him. Surely God is All-Strong, All-Glorious with irresistible might.”

This verse conveys a dual message: iron as a resource of strength and utility and as a test of humanity’s ability to uphold justice. Its being “sent down” is both metaphorical, emphasizing its value as a divine provision, and literal, as modern science confirms its extraterrestrial origins. Scientists affirm that iron was formed in the cores of massive stars through nuclear fusion and later distributed across the universe via supernovae explosions. These celestial events brought iron to Earth, embedding it in the planet’s crust and even delivering it through meteoric impacts. This celestial journey reflects the Qur’anic portrayal of iron as a material uniquely provided for human benefit.

The descent of iron refers to its arrival on Earth during its formation via celestial processes like meteorite impacts. This process is scientifically understood as both a one-time event during Earth’s early development and an ongoing occurrence through sporadic meteorite showers. For more scientific and theological interpretations of iron’s celestial origins, see the reference by Dr. Eker.

Iron’s role in human civilization

Iron has been indispensable in shaping human history. Its use marked the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, revolutionizing agriculture, warfare, and infrastructure. Unlike metals like gold and silver, which are found in their native forms, iron is typically bound within ores, requiring advanced extraction techniques. This necessity reflects its value, and the ingenuity required to harness it.

The Qur’an acknowledges iron’s transformative role in civilization, particularly in the story of Dhul-Qarnayn in Surah Al-Kahf (18:96). Dhul-Qarnayn constructed an immense barrier using blocks of iron heated to glowing temperatures and bound with molten copper. This narrative highlights the sophistication of ancient metallurgical practices, which involved achieving high temperatures and carefully managing the properties of metals. The technique described mirrors the principles of modern semi-solid metalworking, where materials are heated to optimal states for shaping and bonding of dissimilar materials.

Prophet David’s mastery over iron

Another striking reference to iron in the Qur’an is found in Surah Saba (34:10): “And We made iron pliable for him.” This verse refers to Prophet David, who, by divine favor, was granted the ability to shape iron with ease. In an era when working with iron required immense effort, this gift was extraordinary. The ability to make iron pliable suggests a mastery of metallurgy far beyond the tools and techniques available at the time. It underscores both the practicality of iron and the divine facilitation granted to David in fulfilling his mission as a leader and protector. In parallel, verses in the Bible (Chronicles 22:3 and 29:2) indicate that Prophet David amassed substantial quantities of iron and other materials for the temple’s construction, demonstrating his role in organizing and supplying resources.

Historically, early ironworking was limited by the rudimentary furnaces of the time, which could not reach iron’s high melting point of 1,538°C. Instead, artisans relied on heating iron to a malleable state for shaping and combining it with other metals. The Qur’anic depiction of David’s skill thus points to a profound understanding of material science and a divinely inspired ability to harness it for good.

Prophet David’s era indeed aligns with the historical transition from the Copper Age to the Iron Age, as supported by archaeological findings, Biblical accounts, and Divine Texts. The Qur’an’s emphasis on his mastery of ironworking symbolizes this shift, portraying it as a divinely guided advancement in technology and human civilization. This harmony between historical evidence and sacred texts reinforces the idea that Prophet David played a key role in bridging these two transformative ages.

Iron’s transformative properties

What sets iron apart from other metals is its remarkable property of allotropy, allowing it to exist in different crystal structures depending on temperature and pressure. This unique characteristic enables iron to undergo phase transformations that enhance its strength, ductility, and hardness. When combined with carbon, iron forms steel, a material celebrated for its unparalleled versatility and resilience. The addition of other elements like nickel, chromium, and molybdenum further refines steel’s properties, enabling its use in everything from infrastructure to aerospace technology.

The Qur’an’s emphasis on iron’s strength and utility aligns with its material role in human progress. Its capacity to be shaped, alloyed, and tailored to specific needs has made it the backbone of technological advancement. From ancient tools to modern skyscrapers, iron has continuously empowered humanity to reach new heights of innovation.

The balance between might and morality

Beyond its physical properties, the Qur’an associates iron with justice and balance. In Surah Al-Hadid (57:25), the mention of the “Book” and the “Balance” alongside iron underscores this association. The balance represents the ethical framework guiding humanity, while iron symbolizes the strength to uphold justice. Together, they form a blueprint for societal harmony.

This emphasis on balance also mirrors the technical principles governing iron and steel. In modern metallurgy, the “equilibrium diagram” is a foundational reference in iron base production. This diagram maps the relationships between variables such as carbon content and temperature, defining the equilibrium states (e.g., ferrite, pearlite, or austenite) that yield optimal material properties. By maintaining this equilibrium, metallurgists create materials with the ideal balance of strength, ductility, and hardness, essential for diverse applications.

The symbolic and technical significance of balance aligns seamlessly here. Just as the equilibrium diagram guides metallurgists in achieving structural harmony in materials, the Qur’anic emphasis on balance calls upon humanity to seek ethical equilibrium in its use of power and resources.

In conclusion, the examination of iron within sacred texts reveals a profound interplay between divine wisdom, human ingenuity, and the material world. From the Old Testament’s descriptions of early metallurgy to the Qur’an’s dedicated Surah Al-Hadid, iron is consistently presented as a divinely provided resource of immense value. This value transcends mere material utility, encompassing spiritual and ethical dimensions. The Qur’an’s emphasis on iron’s being “sent down,” now corroborated by scientific understanding of its extraterrestrial origins, underscores its unique significance. The narratives of Prophet David’s mastery over iron and Dhul-Qarnayn’s use of it in constructing a formidable barrier highlight the advanced metallurgical knowledge and divinely inspired abilities associated with this metal. Furthermore, the Qur’an’s connection of iron with justice and balance resonates with the technical principles of modern metallurgy, where achieving equilibrium is crucial for optimizing material properties. This convergence of scriptural narratives, historical evidence, and scientific understanding reinforces the idea that iron is not merely a metal but a testament to divine wisdom, a catalyst for human advancement, and a symbol of the crucial balance between might and morality.

Note

For a deeper exploration of this numerical harmony, please refer to “Numerical Codes and Gematrical Mysteries in the Qur’an,” by Toprak in The Fountain.

References

• Colacino, Alessandro. Microstructural Evolution of Iron Meteorites. Thesis, University of Naples Federico II, 2020.
• Kamil Ezgin, “Iron Oxide Nanoparticles and Surah Iron (Hadeed),” The Fountain, Issue 74, March-April 2010.
• Noah Weaver, “Metals Have Character Too!” The Fountain, Issue 113, September-October 2016.
• Nuh Gedik, “Supernova Explosion and a Miracle of The Qur’an” – The Fountain, Issue 54, April-June 2006.
• Pense, Alan W. “Iron Through the Ages.” Materials Characterization, Vol. 45, 2001, pp. 1–20.
• Scott, David A. Metallography and Microstructure of Ancient and Historic Metals. Getty Conservation Institute, 1991.
• Sefik Hikmet Toprak, “Numerical Codes and Gematrical Mysteries in the Qur’an,” The Fountain, Issue 105, May-June 2015.
• Shahack-Gross, Ruth, et al. “Metalworking at Megiddo During the Late Bronze and Iron Ages.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 76, no. 1, 2017, pp. 53–74.
• Tylecote, R. F. A History of Metallurgy. 2nd ed., Maney Publishing for the Institute of Materials, 1992.
• Vander Voort, George. Metallography of Iron-Nickel Meteorites. Vac Aero International, 2018.
• Wertime, Theodore A. “The Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New Look.” Science, vol. 182, no. 4115, 1973, pp. 875–887.
• Yamauchi, Edwin. Metallurgy in the Biblical World, Department of History, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056. Published in PSCF, Vol. 45, December 1993, pp. 252-259.
• Zeki Eker, “‘Demiri Biz İndirdik’ Mealindeki Âyetin Yorumu Üzerine,” Katre International Human Studies Journal, Issue 14, December 2022.

Blood is a miraculous fluid within our body. With millions of cells flowing in the blood system like stars in outer space, this fluid has a complex structure and composition that performs many vital tasks essential for our survival. For those who reflect, blood offers much to ponder.

Blood production begins around the second or third week in the mother’s womb within the vitellus, a sac that resembles the yolk of a bird’s egg. This production then continues in the liver, spleen, thymus gland, and bone marrow, respectively. After birth, long bones take on this task, with spongy flat bones such as the skull, breastbone, vertebrae, and hip bones producing blood in adulthood.

In a healthy individual, blood volume is about 7% of body weight in adults and 8% in infants. For example, an adult weighing 70 kg (154 lb) has about 5 liters of blood, while a baby weighing 4 kg (8.8 lb) has about 0.32 liters of blood. Of the total blood volume, 55% consists of a fluid called plasma, while the remaining 45% is composed of cells. Plasma is 90–95% water, with the rest made up of fats, sugar, plasma proteins (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen), clotting factors, electrolytes (salts), and hormones. Blood cells, which constitute 45% of the blood, originate from the same stem cell and undergo specific differentiation processes. They then enter the bloodstream as three distinct cell types: erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and platelets (thrombocytes). Of these cells, the red blood cells—which give blood its red color—are directly related to the condition known as “anemia.” A healthy adult has about 25 trillion blood cells (20–100 billion leukocytes/white blood cells, the rest are red blood cells). The average lifespan of a red blood cell is about 120 days. During these four months of life, they circulate the blood vessels in the body 300,000 times. There are about five million red blood cells in one cubic millimeter of blood. Erythrocytes that have completed their function and are worn out are recognized and destroyed by the cells (macrophages) responsible for destruction and are recycled in the bone marrow to be used in the production of new red blood cells [1].

The body maintains a balance between the rate of erythrocyte (red blood cell) destruction and production, ensuring a stable number of active erythrocytes in circulation. New red blood cells are continually produced and introduced into the circulatory system at an astonishing rate—2.4 million per second, or 208 billion per day.

Red blood cells are morphologically disc-shaped, with a diameter of 6.2–8.2 micrometers. If we line up each of our red blood cells side by side, their length would be 192,500 km (120,000 miles, which is about five times the length of the equator). If we stack the same cells on top of each other, the height of the resulting tower would be approximately 60,000 km. When the membranes of all cells are opened and spread out, the total surface area would be 3,100 m2 in men and 2,500 m2 in women. (one can compare this with a football field which is 7,500 m2). If we spread all the cells each touching another and without opening their membranes, they would cover an area of more than 1000 m2. The large surface area of red blood cells is a merciful design, as it allows for the rapid supply needed to meet the body’s high oxygen demand. Such a large surface divided into small units as many as 25 trillion cells enables rapid diffusion of a large amount of oxygen from the lungs to the red blood cells, and its transportation to other cells through blood vessels. The exchange time between blood plasma (where the cells are suspended) and the fluid surrounding the body’s cells is just three seconds. Such an extraordinary system of transportation and supply can only be the work of an infinite wisdom that knows every detail in its finest features.

Functions of blood

The vast majority of functions essential for our survival are carried out by blood. These include transporting vital substances—such as oxygen, glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals—to the cells, and removing waste products like carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid produced through metabolism. Other essential tasks, such as preventing blood loss through coagulation, providing defense cells (antibodies) and their substances, transporting hormones, and regulating body temperature and water balance, are also crucial for the smooth operation of the body.

What is anemia?

Anemia is a blood disease that occurs as a result of insufficient number of red blood cells or their oxygen carrying capacity. The task of transporting oxygen in the blood is the task of a molecule called hemoglobin, which is found in red blood cells. Hemoglobin is a protein-like molecule that carries the oxygen it takes from the lungs to the tissues and the carbon dioxide it takes from the tissues to the lungs. It contains iron and gives the blood its red color. More than 98% of the oxygen in the body is loaded with hemoglobin, and 2% is dissolved in the blood plasma. There are approximately 270 million hemoglobin molecules in each red blood cell [2]. Anemia occurs if the amount of hemoglobin in a blood test is <13 g per deciliter (less than 13 grams) in men, <12 g in women, and <11 g in pregnant women. In children, these values vary according to age [3]. The number of patients with anemia in children and women of childbearing age in a society is accepted as an important public health indicator by the World Health Organization [4]. According to the World Health Organization, anemia affects

approximately one in four people worldwide, though its prevalence varies across countries and communities. The rates are 47.4% in preschool-aged children, 25.4% in school-aged children, 12.7% in men, 30.2% in women, 41.8% in pregnant women, and 23.9% in people aged 65 and over [5].

The causes of anemia can be grouped into three main categories: bleeding, reduced red blood cell production, and increased red blood cell destruction. There are many types of anemia, each with its own diagnosis and treatment methods, and some are genetically inherited. The first group of anemias arises from blood loss due to internal bleeding, often in the digestive tract, uterus, or bladder. If left unaddressed, such bleeding can lead to iron deficiency anemia over time. Therefore, it is important to examine these systems and organs closely in patients with unexplained iron deficiency anemia. A common example in this category is anemia caused by excessive menstrual bleeding, which should be carefully monitored in women and adolescent girls. The second group is called “aplastic anemias,” in which blood cells are not produced in the bone marrow, and the third group is called “hemolytic anemias.” In these types of anemia, erythrocytes lose their resistance due to intracellular or extracellular causes and break down easily. If the production of the bone marrow cannot compensate for these losses, severe, life-threatening anemia occurs in the acute or chronic stages [6]. Aplastic and hemolytic anemias, which can also be genetically inherited, are more serious and dangerous than the anemias mentioned in the first group. In these cases, depending on the severity of the disease, treatment methods such as splenectomy (removal of the spleen), lifelong blood transfusion or stem cell transplantation may be considered.

Iron deficiency anemia

This type of anemia occurs when the body does not have the amount of iron required for blood production. It is the most common type of anemia in all age groups worldwide. The element iron is found in the structure of hemoglobin and is essential for its production. Anemia occurs when the iron intake in the body is low. The oxygen amount transported to cells and tissues is not enough. As a result, various complaints and symptoms may begin to appear, including weakness, loss of appetite, difficulty concentrating, decreased mental function and physical stamina, dizziness, palpitations and shortness of breath that worsens with exertion, headache, fatigue, chest pain, tinnitus, cold hands and feet, pale skin, cravings for non-food substances like soil, ash, ice, or paper, pain and flattening of the tongue, nail deformities, and hair loss. In some patients with long-standing or mild anemia, these symptoms may go unnoticed. In such cases, anemia can be detected through a blood test [8].

Iron is essential for producing hemoglobin and is a crucial component for brain development in fetuses and newborns. It supports neurological development in infancy and early childhood and plays a key role in the formation of the myelin sheath—a substance that surrounds nerve cells. When myelin production is reduced, issues arise in nervous system development. If brain cells’ iron needs are unmet, body, cognitive, and mental health issues can emerge in later life. This condition can also affect babies born to mothers with iron deficiency anemia during pregnancy [7, 8]. Due to its importance, nutrition guidelines recommend giving additional iron supplements to babies [9].

When we look at the data of the World Health Organization on the frequency of anemia, it is seen that there is an increase in anemia rates in infancy, adolescence, pregnancy and old age (65 years and older). The problems caused by anemia in the elderly are as serious as those in infancy and childhood. The most common causes of anemia in the elderly are chronic diseases (such as kidney, lung, heart, endocrine, intestinal diseases), iron deficiency, B12 and folic acid deficiency. In this age group, it was observed that there was a decrease in mental functions, and an acceleration in the development of dementia, physical injuries, confusion, behavioral disorders and mortality rates due to anemia [10, 11, 12].

For all age groups, the primary goal of treatment is to identify and address the underlying cause of iron deficiency. Treating iron deficiency anemia is generally straightforward and effective. Iron supplements can be administered orally or intravenously, depending on the need. A diet rich in iron-containing foods, such as red meat, eggs, and green leafy vegetables, is recommended, along with vitamin C sources (e.g., oranges, lemons, grapefruit, rosehip, vine leaves, fresh red and green peppers, parsley) to enhance iron absorption. Infants, adolescents, pregnant women and the elderly, who are at higher risk for iron deficiency anemia, should be closely monitored. In each case, the levels of substances such as vitamin B12, folic acid, and zinc in the body should be evaluated along with iron, and any deficiencies should be supplemented as needed. Since iron from animal sources is more bioavailable than from plant sources, vegetarians may require additional iron and vitamin B12 supplementation [13, 14].

“Atoms, especially those that come as a caravan of sustenance, travel with an astonishing order and wisdom through layers of existence and in many different modes. They pace along as if consciously without losing their direction and are strained through the four filters (digestive organs) in the body. In obedience to a law of generosity, they embark on red blood cells to come to the rescue of body parts and cells which are in need of that sustenance.” (Bediuzzaman, Thirtieth Word)

References

1. Birbrair A, Frenette PS. Niche heterogeneity in the bone marrow. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2016;1370:82-96.

2. D’Alessandro A ve ark. Red blood cell proteomics update: is there more to discover?, Blood Transfusion. 2017;15:182-187.

3. Haemoglobin concentrations for the diagnosis of anaemia and assessment of severity. WHO, 2011.

4. Global Reference List of 100 Core Health Indicators (plus health-related SDGs). WHO, 2018.

5. de Benoist B et al., ed. Worldwide prevalence of anaemia 1993–2005. WHO Global Database on Anaemia Geneva, WHO, 2008.

6. Rodak BF. Hematology: Clinical Principles and Applications, Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier, 2007.

7. Basu S et al. Effect of maternal iron deficiency anemia on fetal neural development. J Perinatol. 2018; 38:233–239.

8. Doom JR et al. Infant Iron Deficiency and Iron Supplementation Predict Adolescent Internalizing, Externalizing, and Social Problems. J Pediatr. 2018; 195:199–205.

9. WHO Guideline: Daily iron supplementation in infants and children. Geneva, 2016

10. Andro M ve ark. Anaemia and cognitive performances in the elderly: a systematic review. Eur J Neurol. 2013;20:1234-1240.

11. den Elzen WP et al. Effect of anemia and comorbidity on functional status and mortality in old age: results from the Leiden 85-plus study. CMAJ. 2009; 181:151–157.

12. Girelli D, Marchi G, Camaschella C. Anemia in the Elderly. Hemasphere. 2018; 2:e40.

13. Pawlak R, Berger J, BS, Hines I. Iron Status of Vegetarian Adults: A Review of Literature. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2016; 12:486–498.

14. Pawlak R. Is vitamin B12 deficiency a risk factor for cardiovascular disease in vegetarians? Am J Prev Med. 2015; 48:e11-e26

When I visited Thailand years ago, I had the pleasure of tasting about 20 different types of exotic, tropical fruits like pineapple and mango, some of which were first in my life. Each had a unique color, shape, smell, and taste. It occurred to me then that there were plants and fruits in places that we would never visit in our lifetimes and we would never have the chance to taste or smell them, but our tongue was still capable of tasting, smelling, and getting pleasure out of every one of them.

Take the orange for instance. Since it is more easily available and not as exotic as other fruits, we may incline to underestimate it; but in fact it is one of the countless bounties we are blessed with. There are currently over 600 known different types of oranges and they serve as a rich source of vitamin C that helps enhance our body’s resistance against illnesses such as the common cold. Therefore, our need for this vitamin increases particularly in the winter. With a beautiful color and smell, oranges contain a plethora of beneficial minerals such as thiamine, and vitamins such as vitamin A [1]. Vitamin C, another vitamin richly found in oranges, is an excellent antioxidant substance that fights carcinogenic free radicals. It is also essential for the protection of skin health. Oranges are also good sources of fibers and potassium that are crucial for heart health. Potassium lowers the risk of high blood pressure. Fibrous content of oranges helps to prevent diabetes development [2].

This fruit is only one of so many blessings that we are unable to count. For us to be able to appreciate these blessings we need to see, taste, feel, smell, and digest them, each of which is another reason to be grateful.

Seeing

We have to see and like the appearance of a food first before deciding to eat it, don’t we? We do not want to eat it if we feel disgusted from the way it looks. Our eyes are windows unto life so that we can see and observe the great book of the universe which is filled with miraculous works of art and get to know the divine names and attributes that manifest on them.

“Indeed, the Compassionate Provider, in order to give to them provision in more generous measure has created each of man’s subtle capacities – eye and ear, heart, imagination, and intellect – in the form of a key to His treasury of mercy. For example, the eye is a key to the treasury containing such precious jewels as the fairness and beauty to be seen on the face of the universe, and the same holds true of all the others mentioned; they all benefit through faith.” [3]

Everything – from fruits and vegetables to the eggs served by the chicken and the honey put together by bees – is created subtly and packaged in a way to appeal to our eyes in unique and protective enclosures.

Appetite

We have to have appetite so that we develop a desire to eat food. This desire is a capacity encoded into our being so we can enjoy good food and feel aversion for certain things.

“Appetite and desire for sustenance are a sort of innate or instinctive thanks.” [4]

Consuming sustenance with appetite is a way of expressing our thankfulness to the One who provides them for us, for we have appetite for the things we are appreciative of. If we do not have any appetite then we would have no desire to eat even the most delicious food. This is sometimes the case when we are ill and refuse to eat even our most favorite dishes. But think of our commonplace orange again. Like other fruits and vegetables, the orange is created with a shape or allure that will whet our appetite. God has placed sustenance at the very center of His workings in the world of living beings and guides us to this sustenance through the urges of appetite. His servants, on the other hand, are supposed to respond to these blessings with remembrance, reflection, and thankfulness.

Touching

For us to be able to taste and eat an orange, we first have to hold it in our hands. For an action as apparently simple as touching or holding anything, what “we” have to do is only to exhibit willingness to do so. Most of the processes in our bodies occur beyond our control. The joints in our fingers, the size of our hands, and the design of our arms meet our needs in the best way.

It may be an ordinary act for us to move our hands and finger joints with the help of the muscles wrapped around our bonds and triggered into action with electric signals coming through nerve cells. However, when we contemplate on all of these processes we come to the conclusion that they are not casual at all:

“Yes, we see for instance that the members and bodily systems of a fly or human being, and even the cells of the body and red and white corpuscles in the blood, are placed with so sensitive a balance and fine a measure, and they are so fitting and suitable for each other, and their mutual proportion with the other members of the body is so orderly, and they are in such harmony with them, that it is in no way possible that one lacking infinite knowledge could have given them those situations.” [5]

Smelling

The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) likens believers who read the divine revelation to an orange “whose fragrance is sweet and whose taste is sweet” and those believers who don’t recite are like a date fruit, which tastes sweet, but with no fragrance [6].

Bediuzzaman Said Nursi draws attention to the manner of benefiting from the bounties of God as follows:

“Know, O Friend, that the gifts God has ordained that humanity attain or make use of come with conditions. Some of these conditions are established by God, while others pertain to human beings themselves. For example, light, air, food, and speech are God’s gifts, and how much we benefit from them depends upon our respective organs’ soundness and health. All senses and organs have been created by God Almighty; our role is to keep them sound and healthy.” [7]

The role of our willpower is limited to the functioning of these organs which are required for obtaining and consuming the sustenance needed for our survival.

When we look at an orange closely its shiny skin with thousands of tiny holes catches our attention. After the fruit is picked from a tree it remains fresh for a long time thanks to air coming through the holes in its peel.

It sends out a fragrant smell as it is sliced down. The inner parts of the peel are covered with a white, thick, and soft layer as if it is plastered. There are round, tiny buds with voids between them immediately beneath the outer peel. Like cushions, they add flexibility and strength to the peel. Inside we find segments that look like each other and are placed in an aesthetically pleasing manner. The segments are covered with a strong membrane and protected with white, fibrous walls. The segments contain hundreds of shiny and swollen tiny sacs, each of which are arranged regularly like miniaturized grapes and are also covered with membranes. These juice sacs are protected in this manner because the juice in these sacs contains vitamin C which quickly degrades upon contact with air.

“Let us imagine an army which consists of four hundred thousand nations, and each nation requires different provisions, uses different weapons, wears different uniforms, undergoes different drill, and is discharged from its duties differently. If this army and camp has a miracle-working commander who on his own provides all those different nations with all their different provisions, weapons, uniforms, and equipment without forgetting or confusing any of them, then surely the army and camp point to the commander and make him loved appreciatively.” [8]

Digesting

“Especially the members, faculties, and senses of a single of the innumerable members of those species; they are related to each other with so fine a balance and equilibrium that their balance and mutual proportion point to an All-Wise and Just Maker so clearly as to be self-evident.” [9]

The arrangement of teeth, the shape of the tongue, and the structure of the mouth function in perfect harmony with the alimentary canal, the stomach, and other digestive organs. Teeth are responsible for biting and grinding food, but if the structure and arrangement order of our teeth had differed, i.e., if our grinders had been replaced with incisors, the acts of biting and chewing would be much harder.

If our tongue did not assist us in the acts of turning and grinding food in our mouth, or if it had been larger or smaller, this would have complicated food consumption for us. This also applies to many other wise purposes related to the mobility of our chin or functions of saliva.

Oranges, or whichever blessing you may take as an example, are a sign for us to contemplate and be grateful to the One who generously provides them for us.

“He it is Who sends down water from the sky, and therewith We bring forth vegetation of every kind (from their seeds under the soil), and then from it We bring forth a lively shoot, from which We bring forth close-packed and compounded ears of grain, and from the palm-tree – from the spathe of it – dates thick-clustered hanging (ready to the hand), and gardens of vines, and the olive tree, and the pomegranate: alike (in the fundamentals of life and growth) and diverse (in structure, look, taste, and smell). Look at their fruit, when they begin to fruit and as they ripen. Surely in that there are signs for people who will believe and who will deepen in faith (as they see new signs)” (An-An’am, 6/99).

References

1. “What to know about oranges”, www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/272782.
2. Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, Şualar (Rays), Istanbul: Şahdamar Yayınları, 2010, p. 162.
3. Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, Mektubat (Letters), Istanbul: Şahdamar Yayınları, 2010, p. 412.
4. Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, Şualar (Rays), Istanbul: Şahdamar Yayınları, 2010, p. 635.
5. Bukhari, At’imah, 30.
6. Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, Mesnevî-i Nȗriye (Epitomes of Light: Mathnawi al-Nuriya), Istanbul: Şahdamar Yayınları, 2010, p. 84.
7. Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, Asâ-yı Musa (Staff of Moses), Istanbul: Şahdamar Yayınları, 2010, p. 20.
8. Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, Şualar (Flashes), Istanbul: Şahdamar Yayınları, 2010, p. 384.

The teeth of a tiny mollusk (Patella vulgata), which is a species of sea snails, have been found to be some of the strongest biomaterials in the world. Also known as limpets, these mollusks are a very small crustacean, often around 0.05-2 cm in size with a large cone shell and possess an incredibly complex system of teeth that dazzles the mind.

Research has revealed that the tensile strength of the sea snail’s teeth is higher than that of spider silk and is comparable to only the strongest commercial carbon fibers. It was found that the teeth of sea snails scraping algae off of rocks showed a tensile strength between 3 and 6.5 GPa (gigapascals). Spider silk roughly reaches a tensile strength of about only 1.3 Gpa. Scientists say that the snail’s teeth can even withstand the pressure that turns carbon into diamonds. Studies have determined that, to our current knowledge, there is no other material of this size (roughly 100 μm micrometers) with as much strength and durability.

This exceptional durability has led scientists to do research on the structure and functioning of these teeth, and the studies showed fascinating results.

The role of teeth in nutrition

Sea snails have a special tongue, called a radula, which they use to scrape off food from rocks. The most important feature of the radula is that it contains more than 100 rows of iron-mineral teeth. However, those used for food intake consist of only 10 rows on the outermost part of the teeth. During eating, a tremendous mechanism operates: the teeth are constantly repositioned according to their conditions of maturation and wear. Worn teeth are replaced by newly matured teeth over the course of 12 to 48 hours to ensure that fresh, sharp teeth are used instead of dulled ones.

This wonderful displacement system operates in a similar way to the movement mechanism on a conveyor belt where the teeth begin to grow primarily in the posterior part of the radula. Meanwhile, they are strengthened and matured by iron mineralization. When this mineralization is complete, they are moved towards the front of the radula. In this way, completely matured teeth are permanently retained at the far-front scraping area. During the scraping process, the matured teeth wear out at a rate equal to the growth rate. In the meantime, a new set of teeth begins to grow. By means of this magnificent cycle, new teeth are constantly created and matured so that there are no disruptions in nutrition.

Biomineralization

The structure of the sea snail’s teeth is also a masterpiece of material science. The dazzling durability of its structure provides optimum strength when scraping food off of rock surfaces.

Although the exact process of biomineralization of the teeth is not known, it is believed that it involves reactions of dissolution and re-precipitation. When the non-mineralized matrix is examined, well-arranged and densely packed chitin fibers are observed that are only a few nanometers apart. The matrix is a structure which keeps the reinforcing material together in layers that are composed of different materials. This organic matrix serves as a framework for crystallization in the structure of the teeth. In the mineralization system, the basic macromolecule α-chitin component is created first. The first mineral that then precipitates is the “goethite,” i.e. the aqueous iron-oxide mineral, which crystallizes parallel to the chitin fibers. These crystals are nucleated on the chitin fibers and formed between them by pushing and pulling the fibers. This way, crystals placed in order cause biomineralization of the structure.

It was found that 80% of the overall volume of the structure is composed of these crystals. The gap between the crystals and the chitin matrix is filled with amorphous silica (SiO₂). The iron contained in the aqueous iron-oxide mineral is the metal that constitutes the largest proportion of the composition. Other metals such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and copper are present in different proportions depending on the sea snail’s exact geographic location.

Critical factors in durability

The most important reason that the sea snail’s teeth have such high durability is because the fibers of the aqueous iron-oxide minerals in the teeth are nano-scale. This is due to the fact that materials of this size are not affected by the conditions that reduce strength.

Another critical durability factor is the small length of critical fibers. Critical fiber length is a parameter that defines the length of a material required to transfer strain from the matrix to the fibers at the time of external pressure. To achieve maximum strain, the length must be greater than the critical length. Materials with a large critical fiber length can hardly reinforce the matrix because most of the strain is not transferred to the fibers and remains on the matrix. On the contrary, materials with smaller critical lengths can transfer the strain on the matrix to the fibers. Therefore, they serve as an effective reinforcement for the matrix.

Fibers of aqueous iron-oxide minerals are of a critical length of 420 to 800 nanometers. This is much smaller than the length of the fibers in the teeth of about 3.1 µm (micrometers). This shows that nanofibers are an effective reinforcer for the matrix and contribute greatly to the ability of the teeth to bear loads.

Besides the structure and composition of the snail’s teeth, its morphological shape is also important in providing strength. It ensures that the strain is evenly distributed all over the tooth.

Modeling of biomaterials

All these studies indicate the presence of high-strength composites, which is when a material obtained by combining two or more materials with different physical characteristics, in nature.

Sea snail teeth, which have been created as a highly resistant and strong biomaterial, act as an inspiration for engineering and material science. Their characteristics, such as content and design, are expected to be modeled in areas that require durability and rigidity.

These marvelous systems found in the natural world, sometimes in creatures as tiny as a snail or mollusk, serve as a reminder that nature is filled with wonders for us to explore.

References

· Barber, Asa H., Dun Lu ve Nicola M. Pugno, Extreme Strength Observed in Limpet Teeth,  Journal of The Royal Society Interface, April 2015, DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2014.1326, PubMed.

· World’s Strongest Natural Material Discovered, How It Works, Imagine Publishing, No. 71, p. 11.

· en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limpet
www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/worlds-strongest-natural-material-limpet-teeth/

· www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Limpet

· Barber Asa H., Lu Dun and Pugno Nicola M. “Extreme strength observed in limpet teeth.” 12. J.R. Soc. Interface. http://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2014.1326

Most living things, including the human body, are made up of only 11 elements. We know the major elements, like hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon, but what about the lesser known trace elements? They, too, have vital tasks.

Everything living and inanimate in the universe is built of atoms – that is, the elements. The endless variety of substances in the universe consist of various compounds and mixtures, but they’re all built of only 92 natural elements. This number is much smaller if we deal with living things: only eleven elements (carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sodium, magnesium, phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine, potassium and calcium) constitute about 99.9% of all living organisms.

The fact that the same element, although in different forms, has functions both in the living body and in inanimate matter is interesting. For example, an average 70 kg adult body contains 14 kg of carbon (C), which is the main component of both coal and oil. A human body, on average, contains 44 kg of oxygen (O2), the chief instigator of the respiratory system. Hydrogen (H), which is approximately 7 kg of a body, is used today as car fuel.

In a way, then, the human body is a pastiche of elements: it contains 2.1 kg of nitrogen (N2), 1 kg of calcium (Ca), 700 g of phosphorus (P), 170g of potassium (K), 140g of sulphur (S), 70g of chlorine (Cl), 70g of sodium (Na), and 30g of magnesium (Mg). More than 60 other elements are detected in the body in trace quantities, including gold, silver, and even uranium. (Trace quantities means as little as 100 mg – or, as big as four grains of rice.) These are usually ingested accidentally, often in food.

But our bodies need these trace elements. For example, a selenium (Se) deficiency may cause muscle weakness, a chrome deficiency may cause fatigue, and a lithium deficiency may lead to bipolar disorder.

The total percentage of these elements is about eight out of a thousand. The main trace elements in our body are chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), iodine (I), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), selenium (Se), and zinc (Zn).

Trace elements are found in very small amounts in the human body. While the function of some trace elements in the body has not yet been fully understood, many of them have vital tasks.

Copper (Cu)

100-150 mg of copper are found in the average adult human body. 65 mg are found in the muscles, 23 mg in the bones, and 18 mg in the liver. Copper moves through the blood after its absorption into the body and takes its place in the structure of some amino acids. Our daily copper need is 0.05 mg / kg in children and 3.5 mg / kg in adults. The main sources of copper are meat, shellfish, nuts, grains, and pulses. The main problems caused by a copper deficiency are excessive weight loss, bone disorders, anaemia, hair whitening, and irregularities in the heart muscles.

Iron (Fe)

Iron is an indispensable element for the circulation of oxygen in the body. Smaller quantities of iron are found in the blood plasma, whereas larger amounts are found in the structure of haemoglobin. The amount of iron in adults is about 4 g, which is enough to make a small nail.

Iron is mostly stored in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. How much iron a body needs varies according to age and person. Adult men and women need around 10 mg per day, while in women it increases to 15 mg during certain time periods.

Iron is found in food such as liver, other meat, beans, oats, and cocoa. The most important indications of iron deficiency are fatigue, shortness of breath, jaundice, headache, sleeping disorder, excessive tiredness, collapsed nails, and hair loss.

Zinc (Zn)

The average human body has 1.8 mg of zinc, which is found especially in the structures of the skin, prostate, bones, and teeth – though it can also be found in the kidneys, spleen, heart, brain, pancreas, and lungs in small amounts. Major zinc sources include unground cereal, pulses, spinach, lettuce, liver, eggs, milk, and dairy products. Zinc, which is found in the structures of some enzymes, plays an important role in the passage of vitamin A into the blood; it is also responsible for insulin secretion, and plays an active role in the growth and development of the body. A zinc deficiency results in forgetfulness, impaired genital development, weakening of the immune system, tissue problems in the skin, reduced mobility, and an impaired sense of smell and taste. The daily zinc requirement is about 12-15 mg.

Iodine (I)

The human body needs about 150 micrograms of iodine every day. Found in the body in the range of 20-50 mg, iodine is especially prevalent in the thyroid glands, the skin, and the skeletal system. The basic function of iodine in the body is assisting in the production of thyroid hormones. It is also used in the nervous system. Our main iodine sources are fish, other seafood, spinach, and rice. An iodine deficiency causes “goitre” disease. It also causes discomforts such as weakening heart rate and a slowing metabolism.

Cobalt (Co)

Cobalt element, the source of which is animal food, is found in the structure of the vitamin B12 and is stored in the liver. B12 is one of the most important vitamins for our body’s metabolism: it helps form red blood cells and thus makes us more energetic. It also is integral in the healthy functioning of the central nervous system.

One of the most critical tasks of trace elements is being part of the structures of enzymes. Enzymes are catalysts that speed up intracellular and extracellular biochemical reactions. These enzymes are involved in dozens of vital reactions. If the same reactions took place without enzymes, they would take a very long time and need very high temperatures.

Just as a deficiency of any of these elements can cause problems for the body, so can an excess of them. For instance, excess copper can cause cirrhosis, liver failure, or brain damage. Excess iron can lead to liver or other organ failure. Many of the trace elements, if consumed in excess, can lead to different kinds of cancers. If you suspect any of these problems, a doctor should be consulted, and all the trace elements should be consumed in moderation.

According to what our body needs, the amount of material that should be absorbed is encoded in our digestive system. The absorption process usually happens in the small intestine. Foods are first reduced in size by enzymes and bile salts from the stomach, pancreas, and liver. Later, during the journey through the intestines, the disintegrated molecules are absorbed into the blood. Of course, in this process, it is very important for specific molecules to absorb the right enzyme. Also important are the amount of specific enzymes to be secreted and how much of the element should be absorbed. All of this continuously happens in our bowels without our knowledge.

It’s quite remarkable: the elements we need are created in food, and the body has been specifically designed to break down these foods and extract exactly the elements our body needs. At the atomic level, we neither intervene nor know about the operations being performed with extraordinary precision. One can’t help but ask: how could all of this be so perfectly calibrated?                                                                                           

Reference

• MN Chatterjea, Rana Shinde, Textbook of Medical Biochemistry, JAYPEE, 2012

Almost every element can be useful to people: every living and non-living thing is made-up of the 92 natural elements. Like all elements, different metals have different properties. As such, they have different melting points, and different degrees of hardness and conductivity. The reason these differences exist have to do with the number of protons and electrons in each metal’s atoms, as well as the atomic diameter, their intensity, and tendency to react. There are dramatic differences in the properties of different metals. Gallium (31Ga) has such a low melting point (29,7 0C) that it can melt in your hand, whereas tungsten (74W), which is used for the wiring in light bulbs, has as a melting point as high as 3410 0C. While sodium (11Na) is a metal so soft it can be cut with a knife, chrome (24Cr) is so hard that it can only be cut with diamond. While potassium (19K) has an instantaneous and very violent reaction when mixed with water, silver (47Ag) does not react to water at all.

The fact that metals have different properties is a great advantage for their uses in different fields. A decrease or increase in the number of protons, a change in the speed of the electrons rotating around the nucleus, or a differentiation in the distance between the nucleus and the electrons, will change the properties of the metal.

For a metal to be “plasticized” – for it can change shape without breaking – it must have atoms that can slide against one another. Thanks to this property, it is possible to shape steel on an anvil or to wring steel construction material. Otherwise, these metals would be useless materials which could not be made into wires or sheets. Thankfully, many metals were designed to be malleable.  

Another quality given to metals is their ability to combine with other metals and form substances called alloys. These combinations develop different characteristics from their base metals. For instance, many metals have what are called “crystal gaps.” As such, they are not very strong in their pure state. But when combined with another metal to make an alloy, these gaps are filled by the atoms of other metals. The alloy thus becomes more durable. These new substances present different qualities than the individual metals that form the alloy. Some of the best known alloys are bronze (copper-tin), brass (copper-zinc), and solder (lead-tin). Alloys are commonly used for producing items with ideal physical properties for their intended field of use. For example, steel is an alloy of iron, and there are tens of different kinds of steel depending on the type and amount of other elements mixed with the iron. Although carbon is generally used when making steel, it is also possible to use metals like magnesium, chrome, vanadium, and wolfram. Thanks to being an alloy, steel has more advantageous qualities than iron, such as its hardness, being stainless, and its stress threshold.

Alloys with shape-memory Certain alloys, after being altered by pressure or heat (martensitic state), have the ability to return to their original or initial shape (austenite state) when heated. The most widely used alloy with this “shape-memory” is “nitinol,” which is an alloy of nickel and titanium. If an item made from nitinol is heated beyond its limits, it will return to its original form.

This “shape-memory” trait can be useful, including in unexpected ways, such as preventing strokes. Medical filters made from nitinol are planted in blood vessels. This filter is flattened before it is planted in the blood vessel, so when it enters the body, the body’s heat allows the nitinol to regain its original shape, thus catching any clots that pass through the vein and helping to lessen the likelihood of strokes or heart attacks. Shape-memory metals are now used as connection units, leakage preventers, pincers, and electric keys in a wide variety of industries. These metals are also used as construction materials.

Iron – from the heavens For most of human history, iron has been the commonly used metal in the world. 95% of the metals used, in weight, consist of iron. Iron is so frequently used because it is abundant in nature, cheap, and can be made into many different alloys. Iron is also integral to the human body. The amount of iron in human body is, on average, equal to the amount of iron needed to produce a common nail. It is found in the structure of hemoglobin, and helps circulate oxygen throughout the body. Perhaps due to its importance, there is a chapter in the Qur’an named Hadid – or, Iron. The 25th verse of this chapter reads, “And We have sent down iron, in which is stern might and benefits for humankind, so that God may mark out those who help (the cause of) God and His Messengers, though they do not see Him. Surely God is All- Strong, All-Glorious with irresistible might” (Hadid 57:25).

The expression “We have sent down” is also very interesting. Iron can only be formed in stars much bigger than the sun, by heat that reaches a few hundred million degrees Celsius. The nearly 15 million 0C heat in the sun is not sufficient for forming iron atoms. When stars supernova, the meteors containing iron explode out into space, and keep soaring until they are caught by the gravity of a celestial body. There are other elements that originate in deep space, too, such as Nickel (59Ni). These elements are “sent down” to us from the heavens.

Another opinion about iron being “sent down” is as follows: thousands of meteors of different sizes hit our atmosphere every day and fall to the earth as dust. The iron atoms abundantly found in such dust are the nutrition for the plankton in the world’s oceans. Plankton, which play a huge role in the entire world’s food chain, get the iron they need for photosynthesis from this space dust.   In our everyday lives, we tend to take most things for granted and ignore the amazing reality of our world. We should stop sometimes to think about how remarkable it is that some of the metals we use are produced in remote stars and then “sent down” to us by grace.

Reference http://www.ajnr.org/content/28/5/872.full

After the discovery of using steel to reinforce concrete, reinforced concrete buildings became extremely popular and presented a significant solution to the housing needs of urban populations.

The composition of concrete

Concrete is a structural material formed via blending sand, gravel, cement, and water. The specifications and ratios of the materials present in the mix directly determine the quality of the concrete. Generally, this ratio is 31 sand, 46 gravel, 15 cement, and 8 water. These ratios may vary depending on the construction needs.

The mixture of sand and gravel is described as an aggregate. Usually, aggregates up to 7 mm are called sand, and aggregates between 7-70 mm are called gravel. The most important role of the aggregate as a fill material is to reduce the volumetric changes of the concrete. The dough composed of water and cement displays great changes in volume. The introduction of sand and gravel into the cement helps to lessen these changes and also saves resources, since it is cheaper than cement. In order to obtain a concrete of good quality and applicable texture, the sand and gravel grains should be as round as possible and have similar diameters to each other.

Cement is produced from grinding a mixture of clay stones and limestone (CaCO3) that are cured at high temperatures. Cement is very important; when combined with water, it helps concrete to quickly solidify. The time the mix takes to solidify is called the setting time, and it is usually between an hour and an hour and a half, depending on environmental conditions. This time is shorter on warmer days and longer on colder days. Concrete begins to gain endurance (hardening) as it solidifies. It takes 28 days for the concrete to reach an endurance of 60-90 , and a much longer time to reach 100, depending on conditions. The cement amount in a cubic meter of concrete is called the dosage. One common and incorrect perception is that concrete endurance changes with the dosage. However in a mixture of a well adjusted sand and gravel ratio, concrete endurance depends on the water-cement ratio.

The water that can be used in the concrete mixture should be drinkable water that does not contain acids and salts. It is important that the water has a pH value higher than 7 and is free of carbonic acid, manganese compounds, ammonium salts, free chlorine, mineral oils, and industrial waste. Therefore, it should not be forgotten that sea water must not be used in the concrete mixture because of the salt it contains.

The properties of steel

Iron alloys that can be processed mechanically – either through pressing or rolling – are called steel. Iron is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust, making up nearly 4.5 of it. The most important element that specifies the property of steel is carbon. The role of carbon in steel’s structure is to harden the iron alloy and prevent the shifting of iron atoms. By adjusting the amount of carbon in the alloy, steel’s hardness, ductility, and endurance can be changed. Both the endurance and hardness of steel increases as the amount of carbon is enriched. However, this application increases steel’s fragility, reducing some of its features, such as ductility. Therefore, a 5 carbon level in the raw iron obtained through the melting of iron ore is decreased to 0.1 0.2, enabling steel to be processed. Iron alloys (steel) composed of elements such as carbon, silicon, manganese, chromium, copper, nickel and molybdenum are utilized in building structures.

The conformity of concrete and steel as reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete materials are used in the construction of buildings, bridges, dams, and tunnels. The use of reinforced concrete became common at the end of the nineteenth century. For the best final product, the concrete and steel should be well integrated, and both should be of high quality.

Concrete and steel are two substances with very different characteristics. However, an inseparable coupling forms by balancing one’s disadvantages with the other’s advantages. Concrete is a material of high pressure endurance. And even though steel also has high pressure endurance, it still faces the risk of bending. The tensile strength of concrete is weak, but it is high in steel. Concrete is fire resistant; steel is vulnerable. Concrete is durable against external impacts, whereas steel is vulnerable, with a high risk of corrosion. Concrete has a brittle, breakable structure; steel, however, has a higher level of ductility. Even though concrete and steel generally behave the opposite of each other, they compensate for each other when they are together. For example, the tendency of steel to bend disappears after it is surrounded with concrete; concrete also increases steel’s resistance to fire and corrosion. Furthermore, with the steel’s presence inside it, the tensile strength of concrete is enhanced.

The first of the three characteristic features of reinforced concrete buildings is the compensation of all tensile forces via steel rods; the second one is the integration of concrete and steel into each other like the adherence of flesh and bone; and finally, concrete and steel have the same thermal expansion coefficients. The thermal expansion coefficient is the value that determines the amount a material will expand or retract when impacted by heat. The thermal expansion coefficients of substances on Earth vary greatly. For instance, aluminum has a coefficient of 2,2×10-5 L/0C, copper of 1,7×10-5 L/0C, gold of 1,4×10-5 L/0C and glass of 0,85×10-5 L/0C (L= Length). It is harder for materials of different thermal expansion coefficients to have conforming movements. The most important reason for the harmonious union of concrete and steel is that their thermal coefficient values are almost the same (1,2×10-5 L/0C). If this was not the case, because of the temperature differences of inside and outside environments, the concrete and steel that make up the reinforced concrete would expand at different speeds, resulting in cracks and fractures of the load bearing elements of the building (columns, beams, flooring).

Though concrete and steel have vastly different properties, their thermal expansion coefficient values are the same and this causes them to move together during temperature changes. A similar system is put to use during the creation of cartilage, bone, and connective tissues in our body. The fibers of the connective tissue resemble the iron and steel, the cells are similar to gravel, and the intercellular matrix resembles the cement. The difference is that this system is renewed dynamically, and is flexible and strong.

Organic substances in the soil go through oxidative decomposition depending on factors such as temperature, air, humidity, and pH balance. This is a slow burning (oxidation) event of organic substances. However, oxidative decay is hindered if one of the aforementioned factors is lacking. Then, a slow decay of organic materials in soil called humification takes place.

Humification occurs in an open system in contact with air. For example, early chemical processes start with leaves changing color in autumn. The break down and partial ingestion of leaves by soil organisms follows. During this time, water soluble carbohydrates and proteins leave the leaf tissue. What remains behind are plant structures like cellulose and lignin, which are not broken down yet. Since leaf shapes are not completely deformed, species identification can still be possible at this stage. In the decay step, however, the cellulose and lignin are decomposed by various fungi species and converted to humus.

Humic substances and their properties

Humic substances are intermediate products that occur as the result of organic materials going through a series of chemical reactions. These intermediate products are humic acid, fulvic acid, and humate. Their molecular weights are around 1.000-10.000 gr/mol, 10.000-100.000 gr/mol, and 100.000-10.000.000 gr/mol, respectively. Humic acids contain weak aliphatic (carbon chains) and aromatic (carbon rings) organic acids that are soluble in water when it has a base medium but insoluble under acidic conditions.

Fulvic acids with smaller size molecular structures can reach plant roots, branches, and leaves easily because they are soluble in water under all pH conditions (acidic, neutral, and basic). Thus, trace elements such as iron, zinc, copper, manganese, and boron can be easily transported to plant tissues via fulvic acid.

Humates, however, are insoluble in water. Only the portion of a humate called ulmic acid can dissolve in alcohol.

Major functions have been assigned to humic matter in the nutrient and carbon cycle, as they are inseparable members of the ecosystem. Plants capture significantly more nutrients from humic matter than from clay minerals. Even though they can be depleted from soil by certain agricultural practices in less than 50 years, they can still remain in natural soils, outside human activity, for hundreds or even thousands of years without being degraded. This very long presence in soil enables them to continue their functions longer. According to radiocarbon dating, humates can last approximately 1140 years; and humic acid and fulvic acid last for 1235 and 870 years, respectively, in natural soils.

Positively charged nutritious elements (cations) remain in the soil by binding to negatively charged (anions) in humic matter. Because this bond is weak, useful elements for the plant can easily be exchanged with another cation, becoming free and getting absorbed by the plant. On the other side, cations such as iron, copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and calcium, which are hazardous to plants when taken excessively, are held in the soil, bound to humic matter and thus not causing toxicity.

Another significant feature of humic and fulvic acid is their ability to form water bridges. Water bridges facilitate the movement of nutrient ions towards roots via soil solutions.

Aside from agriculture, humic matter, with its aforementioned properties, serve humankind in the industrial, environmental, and biomedical fields.

Industrial and environmental applications

Humic matter is utilized in the staining of leather works, as wood lining paint (natural blue color), as well as water based stripping material for furniture stains. Humic matter is also used in the production of durable, resistant papers in the paper industry, to provide mechanical strength to processed ceramics, and as an additive. It is also applied as a coloring, hardening, and plasticizing agent in plastic fabrication.

Humic and fulvic acids gain significance regarding their ability to form water soluble substances with many metal compounds containing radioactive elements in their structure.

In environmental chemistry, the main role of the humic matter is to remove toxic substances, human sourced organic chemical matter, and other pollutants from water. Calcium humate, obtained from humic matter, can bind and remove nickel, iron, cadmium, and copper in addition to radioactive elements produced at nuclear power plants from water.

Humus based filters are designed to treat sewage water and mud waste. Oils, stains, poisonous phenolic substances, and pesticides are removed from sewage via these materials. In poultry, humic substances are employed to absorb and eliminate the odor of waste gases.

Biomedical applications

Drugs for the treatment of human and animal diseases are developed from humic matter. These can be used for the treatment of viral and bacterial illnesses, in the prevention of blood clots, to cure infections, and to remedy estrogen deficiencies. Clinical studies have shown that common viral diseases of children’s respiratory tracks can be treated with fulvic acid supplements. A lot of medical research has shown that humic matter, especially fulvic acids, have the ability to provide protection against cancer causing viruses. In a study, laboratory mice were given ethanol to trigger gastritis and it was determined that humic acids supplied to mice led to a significant reduction in the harm gastritis caused. The fact that humic acids can form compounds with heavy metals, such as cadmium, enables the excretion of heavy metals from organisms.

In our universe there is no place for waste. Once every particle completes its task, it is returned in a different fashion to be assigned another job. Humification is a good example to this reassignment as a complex recycling event in the soil. It is amazing to observe everything being generated from one thing and everything converted into one thing so easily and in such a crafty, balanced, and organized fashion. In fact, the power and wisdom behind the conversion of the remains of millions of different organisms into a few similar substances to be employed in different tasks are no less amazing.

Will there be wars over elements like there have been over petroleum and water? What element have we been using in color televisions? What substance is used to make energy saving, environmental light bulbs?

Each of the elements found in the periodic table have their own characteristics. After they have been cooked in the pot of the universe, these substances that are offered to our service can be radioactive (like uranium), metallic (like magnesium) and even gaseous (like helium). Seventeen of the elements not easily found among the layers underground have unique properties. These elements are called rare-earth elements, because it is hard to discover and mine them.

Rare-earth elements are in many of our everyday devices. The data projected on a computer screen is transmitted via optic cables containing erbium. The light of a tablet device is generated by the phosphorescent element europium. We actually touch indium covered surfaces when we scroll our fingers on touch screen monitors. When listening through headphones, we are using neodymium magnets that are ten times stronger than iron magnets.

From space technologies to defense industries, from cell phones to LED lighting, many such rare-earth elements are used in every stage of our lives. These elements – many of which we cannot live without, even though we’ve never heard of them – were recorded into the Critical Materials Strategy Document published by the U.S. Department of Energy in 2010. In a public announcement, the department declared fourteen of the elements as specially significant regarding clean energy, listed six of them as critical, and the other four as near critical. Fifteen elements, beginning with lanthanum and ending with lutetium, numbered between 57 and 71, comprise lanthanides. Combined with scandium and yttrium, these make up the seventeen rare-earth elements.

The elements that we touch on screens

Indium (atomic number 49) gains the properties of electrical conductivity and optic transparency when combined with tin, which, at number 50, is indiums’s neighbor on the periodic table. Optical transparency is a desired property for plasma screen and television technologies. Indium is also an important material for mobile phone touchscreens. Interestingly, when indium combines with cadmium, also as a neighbor at number 48, it loses the optical transparency. Instead, it is able to absorb light. Light harvesting is a very critical feature in the production of solar cells.

The relationship of indium with its two neighbors opens new horizons for scientists. In the near future, it is hoped that many unknown and interesting features will be unearthed by investigating the known elements of the periodic table. It is amazing that these elements have been around for thousands of years in the universe only to be discovered by technological advancements.

The need for rare-elements in the world is around fifty thousand tons. The current recorded reserve for rare-earth elements is 110 Million tons. Currently, 95% of the demand for rare-earth elements is supplied by China, yet the country only has 35% of the world’s reserves. Therefore scientists are constantly searching for rare-earth element mines to eliminate the Chinese monopoly and to boost the production of these rare materials. In recent years, China has gotten into political debates with Japan and the United States by curbing rare-earth element exports. Economic journals covering these debates wondered if “element wars” were near. In 2010, a massive reserve of elements, enough to sustain worldwide demand, was discovered in the Pacific Ocean. Developed countries are now planning to recycle rare-earth elements from used devices due to low reserves.

Yttrium, europium, and terbium (atomic numbers 39, 63 and 65) have been known for a long time. Terbium and yttrium are named after the Swedish town of Ytterby. Yttrium is the first rare-earth element discovered, at the end of 18th century. Plastics containing europium are used to make laser products; it’s also used as an element to provide the red color on television screens. Yttrium has a supplementary role that enhances europium’s red color production. And terbium oxide activates the green phosphorescence of television tubes with its yellow-green phosphorescent property.

Terbium also enables an 80% reduction of energy consumption in light bulbs. This makes it one of the most wanted elements in the $2 billion rare-earth element market. Today, when we purchase class A type light bulbs, we are actually buying rare elements like terbium.

Neodymium (number 60), which emits a green light via laser pointers, is also used in the magnets of electric motors. When neodymium combines with boron and iron, it makes a magnet twelve times stronger than simple iron magnets. Because it is significantly less dense than iron, it makes electric motors and laptop computers much lighter. Another interesting feature of neodymium is that it enhances the data storage capacity of hard drives. Furthermore, neodymium is wanted for electrical devices and wind turbines.

The union of elements

Dysprosium was discovered in 1886 and can never be found in a free form in nature. This is because it exists in a compound form with other minerals, like gadolinite. Dysprosium is also known for its magnetic property, and when mixed with terbium and iron, it forms a substance called Terfenol-D. In a magnetic field, Terfenol-D has unique transformational abilities. Dysprosium is utilized in laser production together with vanadium, and it emits infrared radiation when used with cadmium.

The magnetic alloys of iron, boron, and neodymium lose their magnetic features beyond 300 degrees Celsius. However when this alloy is combined with dysprosium at a 5% ratio, that problem disappears. Therefore, these magnets are used for electric turbines and hard disc motors. Dysprosium also makes magnets in electric motors 95% lighter. And dysprosium and nickel mixed fillings are used as cooling rods in nuclear reactors.

The human mind becomes fascinated after seeing all the wisdom and properties involved in these lifeless elements. Either we conclude that these elements have doctorate degrees in physics and chemistry from Harvard University, or we may express our weakness and fascination in front of The Grand Creator who created and presented these elements for our benefit.

Is the yellow color in glasses from the planet Ceres?

Since Dell recalled four million laptop computers in 2006, because of a possible explosion caused by overheating battery, scientists’ eyes have been focused on lanthanum and cerium. These two elements are considered to be safer than other alternatives. Lanthanum and cerium are used in electrical equipment and energy saving light bulbs, and are classified as critical elements in these processes, along with tellurium. Cerium, named after the planet Ceres, is responsible for the yellow coloration in glasses. Cerium is also used in polishes, ceramics, and petrol refineries. Tellurium is produced indirectly, unlike most other elements. The production of cadmium takes place during zinc production, and tellurium during copper refining. Tellurium is a cheaper element that has been used in combination with cadmium on solar cells since 2009; before then, most solar cells used expensive silicon panels.

Elements in our lives, from space rockets to ultrasound imaging

Hafnium, tantalum, erbium, and technetium are important elements, even though they are not listed critical. Even though hafnium and technetium are not rare-earth elements, they were still added to the critical material strategy document produced by the US Department of Energy. Hafnium is employed in space rockets for its resistance against extreme temperatures and wearing. Hafnium oxide is a valuable material for electronic transistors since it is a very effective electric insulator. It is 20% faster than the silicon oxide that is commonly used in transistors. A transistors length is around 65 nanometers when silicon oxide is used, but it is only 32 nanometers with transistors made of hafnium oxide. This 50% decrease enables smaller devices.

Touchscreens containing indium, laptop computers powered by lithium ion batteries, and cell phones with hafnium transistors are some of today’s technological wonders. Would these inventions still be possible without these elements? Could we reach the high capacities in hard discs without the tantalum? Would we be able to protect ourselves from electric leakage in computers without high quality electric insulators such as tantalum oxide?

Radioactive technetium, which was discovered in 1937, is the first artificially produced element. The technetium 99 isotope is used in nuclear medicine. Technetium produced from uranium has a half life of 211,000 years, as opposed to the 6 hour half life of the technetium 99 isotope. The number of technetium based nuclear medicinal tests, like ultrasounds and x-ray imaging, is estimated to be above thirty million annually.

We take advantage of these elements in every stage of our lives, from medicine to technology. Could we become dependent upon elements the way we are upon petroleum? Only time will tell. Either these elements will be replaced by other materials, or other technologies will outdate the current technologies. It is also possible new elements will be discovered.

A majority of our modern technologies would not exist without these elements that were dispersed among the earth billions of years ago. These elements were placed here for our benefit, and so we could utilize them, and produce institutes of scientific research and education to study them.

Kadir Can and Mehmet Ramazanoglu are science teachers in Ankara, Turkey.

Especially after the 1950s, divergent thinking has been studied a lot by psychologists. Innovations, discoveries and novelties have been associated with divergent thinking which intrigued the scholars in the fields of management, military and advertisement, as well as psychology and education. However, we lack studies that link the concept of divergent thinking to religious texts. One basic contribution of employing divergent thinking to religious texts would be to broaden the understanding of the texts and to seek alternative perspectives. Such endeavor seems consistent with the consideration that religion (hence, religious texts) is an everlasting source of wisdom and inspiration, and if so, why is it confined to the early interpretations? Why not become seekers of original interpreters of religious texts and discover the unveiled aspects of it? This article will discuss the perspective from psychology and religious texts to find an answer for these questions in the case of Islam.

Among the several views on divergent thinking, a brief psychological framework that can be applied to religious texts would be helpful. This framework was conceptualized by Donald Campbell (1960). According to this, in order for original ideas to appear, the initial task would be thinking in various ways. This phase is called “blind variation.” Think of the question “List possible uses of a brick.” Possible answers to such prompts would be “build a wall,” “break into pieces,” “step on it to reach something” or “use as a pillow.” Among those responses, the first one (“build a wall”) would be a conventional response while the second, third and fourth responses are non-conventional or original ideas. However, the fourth one “use as a pillow” does not seem to be an appropriate or useful response even though it is original. Therefore, appropriateness and originality may not go hand in hand and such original but non-useful and inappropriate ideas should be filtered out. This phase is called “selective retention” which makes the process of divergent thinking more valid and a functional way of idea generation. When we apply this two-stage method of idea generation to the field of theology, verse(s) of the spiritual texts could be regarded as prompts to ponder systematically.

Two basic approaches to religions should be recalled here. One school of thought, known as orthodoxy, refers to adherence to traditional and established views on the texts. Because of the persistence on the traditional views, orthodoxy was regarded in relation to dogmatism and accused of lacking originality (Shedd, 1893). Heterodoxy implies a departure from the established and traditional views of orthodoxy. Apparently, this article does not favor a strict orthodoxy as it does not add new perspectives to our understanding of the religions. On the other hand, the extent of departure which is not at odds with the general framework of a given religion is of interest. Given the two aspects of divergent thinking (blind variation and selective retention) discussed above, generation of original ideas and novel inspirations from the religious texts can be theoretically achieved without deviating from the given frameworks of the religions.

Divergent thinking for religious texts

If one thinks of religious texts of the monotheistic religions, Biblical Judaism goes back to 4th century BCE; Christianity has a history of more than two millennium. Islam, being the recent religion, has a history of 15 centuries. The texts are obviously old and for an academic field of study, there is an enormous amount of knowledge accumulated throughout the centuries by many scholars. On the other hand, those deeply rooted traditions have created their own ways of understanding which contributed to the convergence and contraction of the interpretations. Even though converging perspectives might yield more accurate interpretations, it is still possible that many subtle or alternative aspects of religious texts have probably been ignored or not yet discovered.

As time goes by, the discrepancy between the interpretation of human beings and the original texts have increased with excessive amounts of the interpretations masking the divine message of the original texts. Interpretations converged and shrank even more since new generations were simply taught what the early generations have understood instead of being encouraged to generate new meanings. The natural transmission of religious knowledge survived for centuries. Yet, it is possible to put forward that convergent thinking has been overwhelmingly weighted in the field of theology as in other fields for the purpose of finding the single best interpretation of religious texts. We owe current level of knowledge to those scholars with a divergent mind who intervened in the process of religious thinking and teaching, and enlarged the horizons of religious thought.

As a matter of fact, older interpretations of religious texts may not always be compatible with the problems and needs of contemporary life. Since the life conditions and the intellectual climate (or zeitgeist) have dramatically changed and today’s intellectuals are educated in a different mindset which separate religious thought and scientific/philosophical issues into two distinct categories, arguments of theologians have become less convincing than they used to be. Critically, this insufficiency has been attributed to the religion itself such as “opiate of the masses” rather than the religious scholars who are unable to reproduce the religious thinking in contemporary ages without removing it from its fundamentals or simply attempting to reform it. For a theologian who believes in the idea that the role and mission of religion never ends and the religion is able to guide human beings eternally, being satisfied with the traditional views and taken-for-granted interpretations should not suffice. Indeed, the attempt to inquire new ways of interpretations of the scriptures does not necessarily negate the previous interpretations because they had validity under certain conditions in the past, and can explain today to a considerable degree. In other words, employment of divergent thinking in understanding the texts should aim to enrich and widen perspectives of the individuals rather than replacing the current views and reforming the religions.

The contribution of divergent thinking to religions can be seen in the works of scholars who came up with divergent interpretations to the texts. Richness in their interpretations without imposing necessarily one unique truth provides the readers with room for elaborating on the texts and interpretations. This attitude helps people to diverge their thinking and even go beyond what they literally see in the texts.

Some examples

There are many examples of divergent interpretation in the works of Said Nursi who is a prominent twentieth century Muslim scholar. One of the foremost features of Nursi is his approach to questions, verses of Qur’an and hadiths (collection of writings that document the sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him) in multiple ways. For example, Nursi has shown several ways to interpret one hadith about cosmology:

People asked the Prophet what the earth rests upon. He replied that the earth rests upon a fish and another time upon an ox. This hadith has been discredited given the cosmology knowledge of human beings when it is taken literally. However, alternative explanations of the hadith show how some allegoric statements in the religious texts can be understood. His first interpretation was about the angels created by God who are responsible for every creation in the universe called as “commissioned angels.”

Two angels were created for the earth. Their names were “thawr” (meaning ox) and ‘hut’ (meaning fish). With that in mind, this verse means that the earth would not survive if these angels did not take care of it.

Another interpretation was related to the way people make their living. Especially in the past, people were making their living through farming and hunting. Ox represents the farming and fish represents hunting. The third interpretation is based on the different answers given at different times. According to this interpretation, the earth was on particular cosmological position or horoscope. Nursi also argued that this kind of response is legitimate because people at that time would not understand the complexity of the cosmology and the Prophet told them the truth in a way they would understand.

Another such example that Nursi interprets by going beyond its literal meaning is the verse about Moses (peace be upon him):

Again (remember) when Moses (on an occasion when his people were without water in the desert) beseeched water for his people, so We told him: “Strike the rock with your staff!” (As soon as he struck) there gushed forth from it twelve springs. Each tribe knew their drinking place. Eat and drink of that which God has provided, and do not go about acting wickedly on earth, causing disorder and corruption. (Qur’an 2:60)

According to Nursi, this verse prophesized the discovery of sounding underground to get water. This explanation is legitimate given the context that the solution is suggested “miraculously” after the people asked help from Moses for their need for water.

Nursi, as a divergent thinker, viewed the miracles in the Qur’an in a different way than others. In classical view, the extraordinary events that take place in Qur’an were indicative of the strength that God has granted some special people in history. Nursi did not restrict those verses within this view. According to him, those verses conveyed a more critical message for us as well as their message in their own contexts. The extraordinary events that happened in the past also indicate the ultimate level human beings can arrive at by working hard on sciences. This message of the miracles is the possibility that other people who work hard on understanding the rules of the nature designed by God could also achieve what have been wondrously achieved before. Therefore, those miracles that the Qur’an mentioned are not some stories that should solely bewilder, but call human beings to go beyond their limited knowledge and discover the further facts. If every technology that we take for granted was some sort of a miracle in the past, why not chase the new “miracles” by thinking outside of the box? As a result, the miracles in the Qur’an are more than the stories of unexplainable events. Such subtle messages however, are read only by divergent minds that transcend the cursory meanings.

There are many examples which scientific advances uncovered alternative interpretations of texts. The Fountain readers are very lucky to brainstorm novel interpretations. One example of divergent explanations about the verses of Holy Qur’an is the description of creation of iron. In one issue several years back Nuh Gedik (2006) brought an interesting comment on the 25th verse of Sura Hadid: “…And We sent down Iron, in which is great might, as well as many benefits for mankind….” Scholars used to interpret “sending down” the iron as one of the God-sent blessings coming from above, His supreme treasure consisting of everything. “Sending down” is taken as metaphorical, reflecting the relationship (status) between human beings and God, rather than its literal meaning. Even though this interpretation might be correct, Gedik argued that being “physically sent down from the sky miraculously points out to a very important scientific fact that was discovered only very recently” (Gedik, 2006).

According to Gedik, supernova explosions that create very high energy and heat can allow a heavy element like iron to form. According to this scenario, formation of iron can be attributed to supernova explosions that occur in Space and “sent down” on earth rather than the scenario that presumes iron resides under the soil as a consequence of some chemical reactions. While these two scenarios do not necessarily conflict, the former and more recent one gives birth to another interpretation.

The same verse inspired other divergent minds too. Salih S. Duran (2009) explained another mechanism that results in the “sending down” of iron. According to this argument, desert sands in varied magnitude travels on the air and are hanged on the atmosphere where the miraculous chemical reactions that reduce Fe+3 to Fe+2 are fulfilled with the help of water vapor and sun. Eventually, resultant iron materials are descended to earth with the rains. Those two novel explanations are neither the best nor the ultimate perspectives, but are worth considering while reading the Qur’an.

Limitations

More examples can be found, but a critical question still remains to be answered: Can we come up with any interpretation for the verses? Are there limitations to interpret the verses? The answer for these questions lies in the perspective that is provided in the beginning of this article where I discussed the processes of blind variation and selective retention. Religions (specifically Islam in the scope of this article) have basic belief systems and the understanding of the verses and hadiths have to be understood in accordance with this basic structure. For this reason, some original interpretations may not be the valid interpretations. In fact, Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, warned “Whoever explains the Qur’an according to his [wrong] personal opinion shall take his place in Hell.” Some experts who focused on the outward meanings of the Qur’an have argued that this hadith prohibits personal interpretations at all, and understanding and interpreting Qur’an should merely rely on early interpretations like those of Ibn Abbas and other exegetes. Quasam (1982) outlined Al-Gazali’s theory regarding the recitation and interpretation of the Qur’an where he objected to the interpretation of this hadith as evidence negating the attempts to make new interpretations. He argued that Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, also said that “Surely the Qur’an has an outward aspect, inward aspect, a limit and a prelude.” If there is an inward aspect, how can we achieve to learn it? Assuming that early interpretations have covered all possible meanings contradicts with the presence of inward aspect. If the outward meaning is clear and enough, and there is no need to seek anything new in it, why did Ali, the fourth caliph, say “If I so will I can certainly load seventy camels with the exegesis of the Opening Sura (chapter) of the Book” while this chapter is very short? Then the question is, how can we reconcile those hadiths which seem to conflict with each other?

Al-Gazali argued that this hadith actually prohibits the interpretations which aim to adduce arguments that favor interpreters’ own purposes or passions whether it is a valid purpose or not. With such incentive, the interpretation is simply corrupt rather than a personal effort to understand the Qur’an. A second reason is to prohibit those who try to interpret the Qur’an without any fundamental knowledge of the Qur’an and Arabic language which are necessary for the outward aspects. Therefore, this hadith should be seen as a warning for the appropriateness of the interpretations. Now, the nature of divergent thinking as suggested by Campbell (1960) should be recalled. Even though developing several meanings of the religious texts corresponding to blind variation is critical, it should be tested within the overall framework of the religions which is the criterion for the stage of selective retention.

To conclude, divergent thinking is one of the promising abilities of human intellect that many fields like education, psychology, management and military have utilized. However, the need for divergent thinkers is increased in the era which people cannot appreciate the intellectual depth in religious texts. Different and legitimate interpretations of religious texts will reform people’s minds regarding the potential in the old texts for our civilization and intellectual life. Contributions of Islamic scholars like Said Nursi should encourage other divergent minds for new inspirations and state-of-art perspectives.

Zekeriya Ozsoy is doctoral student studying educational psychology. For correspondence with the author: ozsoyzekeriya@gmail.com.

References

• Quasem, A. M. 1982. The recitation and interpretation of the Qurān. Al-Ghazālī’s theory. London: Kegan Paul International
• Duran, S. S. 2009. Iron: A boon that comes with desert sands. [Turkish-Col kumuyla gelen nimet: Demir]. Sizinti, 369, 454-457.
• Guilford, J. P. 1950. Creativity. American Psychologist. 5, 444-454.
• Gedik, N. 2006. Supernova Explosions and a Miracle of the Qur’an. Fountain, 54,
• Shedd, W.G.T. 1893. Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy. New York: Scribner’s Sons.
• At-Tirmidhi, Sunan, Tafsir, 1.