The presence of language stands as a defining human characteristic, setting us apart from other species. Even in early infancy, infants show positive responses to their exposure language’s melodies and tend to withdraw from those speaking a different dialect or language (Kinzler, Shutts, DeJesus & Spelke, 2009). Across the globe, people communicate through a diverse tapestry of approximately 7,000 languages, each imposing distinct demands on its speakers (Boroditsky, 2011).

Consider this: conveying that my aunt gave five blue gloves to her friend varies dramatically across languages. In Mian, the verb choice indicates whether the event occurred recently, yesterday, or in the distant past. Indonesian verbs don’t specify if the event happened or is forthcoming. Turkish verbs reveal whether I was present or heard it from someone else. Russian requires details about the shade of blue. Mandarin necessitates clarifying the aunt’s relation by blood or marriage and her maternal or paternal side. In Arabic, I have to indicate the gender of her friend. In Pirahã, expressing “five” is impossible; they use words for “few” or “many” instead of exact numbers. Despite these language differences, variations in speech don’t necessarily equate to different ways of thinking. How do we ascertain if speakers of Mian, Turkish, Russian, Indonesian, Mandarin, Arabic or Pirahã genuinely perceive, remember, and reason about the world differently due to their spoken languages?

The relation between language and thought

Many hold the belief that thought and language are inseparable, assuming that thinking occurs “in” language, implying that without language, thought itself ceases to exist. Helen Keller’s account (1955) of recognizing the signed symbol for “water” sparking thought and emotions previously absent supports this view. Numerous intellectual figures echo similar sentiments: “The limits of my language are the limits of my world” (Wittgenstein, 1922), and “The ‘real world’ is largely built upon the language habits of the group” (Sapir, 1941, as cited in Whorf, 1956, p. 75). According to this perspective, without language, many thoughts may be inaccessible, and different languages might lead to different modes of thought among various human communities. But is this indeed the case?

In a practical sense, language significantly shapes thought by facilitating the transfer of ideas between minds. According to the Whorf-Sapir hypothesis, individual languages heavily influence the conceptual frameworks available to their speakers, limiting or guiding mental activities like categorization, memory, reasoning, and decision-making. This view suggests that linguistic structures act as a blueprint for an individual’s mental processes. Exploring diverse linguistic systems could shed light on the varied modes of thinking cultivated or influenced by these languages. Slobin’s thinking-for-speaking framework (1996, 2003) suggests that speakers tend to conceptualize events in a way that aligns with their language’s structure, eventually adopting thinking patterns similar to their speech or writing habits over time.

We start with an influential example of language shaping perceptual categories: the phenomenon of categorical perception of phonemes. Initially, children can discern all acoustic-phonetic properties used by languages to convey meaning (Eimas, Siqueland, Jusczyk & Vigorito, 1971). However, around the time when language acquisition begins, infants, approximately a year old, start to lose sensitivity to phonetic differences that aren’t phonemic (i.e., don’t influence higher levels of linguistic structure) in the language they’re exposed to (Werker & Tees, 1984).

Let’s explore Pormpuraaw, where the Kuuk Thaayorre language takes a unique approach to spatial directions. Unlike English, which uses terms like left and right, Kuuk Thaayorre relies on absolute cardinal directions (north, south, east, west, etc.). While English uses cardinal directions mostly for larger scales, Kuuk Thaayorre incorporates them at every level. This means phrases like “the cup is southeast of the plate” or “the boy south of Mary is my brother” are common. In Pormpuraaw, constant orientation is necessary for proper communication.

Stephen C. Levinson’s groundbreaking research over the past two decades revealed that speakers of languages reliant on absolute directions excel in spatial orientation, even in unfamiliar environments. They surpass individuals in similar settings who don’t speak these languages, surpassing what scientists thought humans could achieve. Their languages cultivate and enhance this cognitive skill. Differences in spatial perception can also extend to temporal thinking. For instance, Alice Gaby and colleagues tested Kuuk Thaayorre speakers’ ability to sequence shuffled photographs depicting age progressions, growth, or consumption, observing unique approaches to arranging these images to reflect correct temporal order. They conducted two tests, with each person positioned in a different cardinal direction. In this task, English speakers typically arrange the cards from left to right, reflecting the progression of time. Hebrew speakers, on the other hand, tend to organize the cards from right to left, aligning with their writing direction. However, the Kuuk Thaayorre approach time differently. They arranged the cards from east to west, adjusting their arrangement based on their seated direction—facing south, the cards progressed left to right; facing north, it was right to left; facing east, it moved toward the body, and so forth. This unique spatial orientation was employed spontaneously without any external cues about their facing direction.

Time representations exhibit diversity globally. For instance, English speakers envision the future as “ahead” and the past as “behind.” In 2010, Lynden Miles and colleagues observed that English speakers tend to lean forward unconsciously when contemplating the future and backward for the past. Conversely, in Aymara, a language spoken in the Andes, the past is referred to as “ahead” and the future as “behind.” Interestingly, Aymara speakers’ gestures align with their language; research by Raphael Núñez and Eve Sweetser in 2006 noted that Aymara speakers gesture in front of them while discussing the past and behind them when discussing the future.

In certain languages, the organization of color categories and terms differs significantly from English. For instance, in Berinmo (spoken in Papua-New Guinea) and Himba (spoken in Namibia), there aren’t distinct terms for green and blue; instead, a single word is used to encompass both colors. Research by Roberson et al. (2000, 2005) explored the phenomenon of categorical perception (CP) of color among speakers of English, Berinmo, and Himba. CP refers to the enhanced discriminability of colors that cross a category boundary compared to those within a color category. During the study, participants were shown a colored target and had to identify which of two stimuli presented five seconds later matched the target. Across each language group, performance improved when the target and distractor stimuli had different color names (e.g., in English, a blue target with a purple distractor) compared to when they shared the same name (e.g., two different shades of blue in English). Results indicated CP among all three participant groups, but specifically at color boundaries explicitly marked in their respective languages. Critically, there was no CP effect at the proposed universal boundary between green and blue for speakers of Himba and Berinmo, whose languages do not distinguish between these colors.

Languages differ in how they categorize substances, like distinguishing between mass nouns and count nouns. In many languages, including English, count nouns are commonly used for countable items and appear in both singular and plural forms, allowing enumeration. On the other hand, mass nouns (e.g., sand and dirt) cannot be counted in the same manner and don’t have singular or plural contexts (*some sands and *two dirts). However, in languages like Yucatec Mayan, nouns lack the specification for individuation. Instead of indicating a unit, they refer simply to the substance or material of an object. For instance, rather than saying two candles, they might express “two units of long thin wax.” Lucy (1993) conducted a study with Yucatec Mayan and English-speaking participants. They were shown an object and asked to determine which of two options were most similar, one resembling the original in shape and the other in substance. The study revealed that while English speakers favored the choice that matched in shape, Yucatec Mayans divided their preferences between the two alternatives.

In a study by Boroditsky and colleagues (2003), German and Spanish speakers were asked to describe objects with gender assignments in their respective languages. The descriptions given aligned with the predicted grammatical gender. For instance, when prompted to describe a “key”—a masculine word in German and feminine in Spanish—German speakers tended to use words like “hard,” “heavy,” “jagged,” “metal,” “serrated,” and “useful,” whereas Spanish speakers leaned towards “golden,” “intricate,” “little,” “lovely,” “shiny,” and “tiny.” Conversely, for a “bridge,” feminine in German and masculine in Spanish, German speakers used descriptors like “beautiful,” “elegant,” “fragile,” “peaceful,” “pretty,” and “slender,” while Spanish speakers used “big,” “dangerous,” “long,” “strong,” “sturdy,” and “towering.” Remarkably, these differences persisted despite all testing being conducted in English, a language without grammatical gender.

Evidentiality, a linguistic feature, discloses the source of information regarding past events—whether it’s from direct sensory experience, hearsay, or inference. In languages like Turkish, evidentiality is grammatically embedded, requiring speakers to specify their information source. However, in languages like English, this is more flexible and optional, expressed through vocabulary rather than grammar. In a study by Tosun, Vaid, and Geraci (2013), Turkish speakers were proficient in recognizing firsthand information, similar to English speakers. But when it came to second-hand information, Turkish speakers lagged behind English speakers. Bilingual Turkish-English individuals performed like Turkish monolinguals in Turkish tests and akin to English monolinguals in English tests. However, late Turkish-English bilinguals continued to resemble Turkish monolinguals even in English tests, showing lower accuracy in recognizing second-hand information compared to firsthand details.

Research demonstrates that altering language impacts cognitive processes. Introducing new color terms or altering temporal expressions can shift individuals’ abilities to perceive colors or conceptualize time. This aligns with the Turkish saying ‘one language, one person,’ suggesting that each language learned shapes a distinct cognitive perspective. Considering this, when I encounter the following verses from the Quran, I interpret the purpose behind God’s creation of diversity as a means for us to understand one another better and strive towards personal growth and improvement.

And among His signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the diversity of your languages and colors. Surely in this are signs indeed for people who have knowledge (of the facts in creation and who are free of prejudices). (30:22)

O humankind! Surely We have created you from a single (pair of) male and female, and made you into tribes and families so that you may know one another (and so build mutuality and co-operative relationships, not so that you may take pride in your differences of race or social rank, and breed enmities). Surely the noblest, most honorable of you in God’s sight is the one best in piety, righteousness, and reverence for God. Surely God is All-Knowing, All-Aware. (49:13)

References

• Boroditsky, L., Schmidt, L. A., & Phillips, W. (2003). Sex, syntax, and semantics. Language in Mind: Advances in the Study of Language and Thought, 22, 61-79.
• Boroditsky, L. (2011). How language shapes thought. Scientific American, 304(2), 62-65.
• Boroditsky, L., & Gaby, A. (2010). Remembrances of times East: absolute spatial representations of time in an Australian aboriginal community. Psychological science, 21(11), 1635-1639.
• Eimas, P., Siqueland, E., Jusczyk, P., & Vigorito, J. (1971). Speech perception in infants. Science, 171, 303-306.
• Keller, H. (1955). Teacher: Anne Sullivan Macy. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.
• Kinzler, K. D., Shutts, K., DeJesus, J., & Spelke, E.S. (2009). Accent trumps race in guiding children’s social preferences. Social Cognition 27:4, 623-634.
• Levinson, S. C. (2003) Space in language and cognition: Explorations in linguistic diversity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Lucy, J. A. (1993). Metapragmatic presentationals: reporting speech with quotatives in Yucatec Maya. Reflexive Language: Reported Speech and Metapragmatics, 91-125.
• Miles, L., Nind, L., & Macrae, C. (2010). Moving through time. Psychological Science, 21(2), 222.
• Núñez, R. E., & Sweetser, E. (2006). With the future behind them: Convergent evidence from Aymara language and gesture in the crosslinguistic comparison of spatial construals of time. Cognitive Science, 30(3), 401-450.
• Roberson, D., Davidoff, J., Davies, I. R., & Shapiro, L. R. (2005). Color categories: Evidence for the cultural relativity hypothesis. Cognitive Psychology, 50(4), 378-411.
• Roberson, D., Davies, I., & Davidoff, J. (2000). Color categories are not universal: replications and new evidence from a stone-age culture. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 129(3), 369.
• Sapir, E. (1941). In L. Spier, Language, culture and personality: essays in memory of Edward Sapir. Menasha, WI: Memorial Publication Fund. Cited in Whorf (1956, p. 134).
• Slobin, D. (1996). From ‘thought and language’ to ‘thinking for speaking’. In J. Gumperz & S. C. Levinson (eds.), Rethinking linguistic relativity, 70-96. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Slobin, D. (2003). Language and thought online: Cognitive consequences of linguistic relativity. In D. Gentner & S. Goldin-Meadow (eds.), Language in mind: Advances in the investigation of language and thought, 157-191. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Tosun, S., Vaid, J., & Geraci, L. (2013). Does obligatory linguistic marking of source of evidence affect source memory? A Turkish/English investigation. Journal of Memory and Language, 69(2), 121-134.
• Werker, J., & Tees, R. (1984). Cross-language speech perception: Evidence for perceptual reorganization during the first year of life. Infant Behavior and Development, 7, 49-63.
• Whorf, B.L. (1956). Language, Thought and Reality. Ed. by J. Carroll. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Wittgenstein, L. (1922). Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Ed. by D.F. Pears.

“Do you not see how God strikes a parable of a good word: (a good word is) like a good tree its roots holding firm (in the ground) and its branches in heaven. It yields its fruit in every season due by its Lord’s leave. So God strikes parables for human beings, in order that they may reflect on them and infer the necessary lessons. And the parable of a corrupt word is that of a corrupt tree uprooted from upon the earth, having no constancy.” (Ibrahim 24-26)

Daily, we communicate with others and sometimes talk to ourselves (self-talk). In these actions, we can pick words that might be interpreted negatively or positively by other parties. We might be more optimistic or pessimistic in our relationship with others and ourselves. Yet, it is critical to understand how your choice of communication style will influence not only others but also yourself. In these communications, we use words to shape our thoughts, influencing our actions and emotions. We all experience how positive words might uplift and inspire us. On the other hand, negative words might harm our emotions, psychology, and even our physical body.

In their book titled Words Can Change Your Brain, Dr. Andrew Newberg, a neuroscientist at Thomas Jefferson University, and Mark Robert Waldman, a communications expert, state that “a single word has the power to influence the expression of genes that regulate physical and emotional stress.” Using negative words can evoke strong emotional responses. When we hear or read negative words, such as “failure,” “disappointment,” or “hopeless,” our emotional state can quickly shift from optimism to despair. Negative language potentially causes a climate of fear, anxiety, and sadness, leading to emotional distress and decreased overall well-being [1]. Furthermore, the use of negative words also result in self-doubt and lower self-esteem, thereby hindering  personal growth, resilience, and our ability to achieve our goals.

The experimental study called “Do words hurt?” [2] showed that negative words release stress and anxiety-inducing hormones. Other research also showed that when we repeatedly hear negative words, our cognitive processes become attuned to negative thinking patterns. This negativity bias can distort our perception of reality, making us more likely to focus on the negative aspects of situations while disregarding the positive. Over time, this can lead to a pessimistic worldview, feelings of worthlessness, making it difficult to find joy, hope, and optimism in life.

Negative words also affect our mental health. Whether spoken by others or directed inwardly as self-talk, they can harm our sense of self-worth, contribute to anxiety and depression, and impede our overall psychological well-being. In the case of depression, negative words can deepen the sense of despair and contribute to a negative worldview. Continuous exposure to negative language can reinforce feelings of sadness, drain motivation, and hinder the ability to find joy or meaning in life. At this point, it is essential to highlight that these negative words might come from different sources, such as your interaction with friends, co-workers, family members, and most importantly, your exposure to social media.

Now we should talk about two important concepts: self-talk and pessimism. Self-talk, or, internal dialogue, plays an essential role in our health. The words we speak to ourselves, whether positive or negative, significantly impact our well-being. Negative self-talk can cause a toxic internal environment, leading to a vicious cycle of negative emotions and self-perception. A study found a significant association between increased levels of anxiety and negative self-talk in children [3]. Ultimately, negative words, whether spoken, heard, or thought, not only cause situational stress, but also contribute to long-term anxiety. On the other hand, pessimism causes mental and physical health problems as well as contributes to stress. Pessimism can hinder people’s ability to cope with life challenges and can strain relationships with others by causing a constant negative atmosphere.

Finally, our physical health is also affected by negative words and language. Research has shown that chronic exposure to negative language can lead to increased long-term stress levels, compromised immune function, and cardiovascular problems [4]. When we encounter negative words, our bodies react by releasing stress hormones like cortisol. Prolonged exposure to cortisol can weaken the immune system, making us more susceptible to illnesses. Furthermore, it can disrupt our sleep patterns, impair digestion, and even contribute to weight gain. The mind-body connection is a powerful phenomenon, and negative words can disrupt this delicate balance, ultimately affecting our overall health.

Insights from religion

One of religion’s primary teachings and goals is to guide people to be good humans by attaining the best character. That is why religion takes a holistic approach and emphasizes the interconnectedness of the mind and body at both the individual and societal level. Abrahamic religions underline the power of the spoken word and its potential to shape reality. In the Bible, specifically in the book of Proverbs, it is written, “Death and life are in the power of the tongue, and those who love it will eat its fruits” (Proverbs 18:21). This verse underscores the profound impact of our words on our lives and those around us. Negative statements, such as harsh criticism, insults, or cursing, can potentially harm the recipient and the speaker. For instance, the teachings of Islam tell believers to avoid gossip and slander, recognizing that such behaviors not only harm the target but also affect the mental state of the speaker. Judaism also teaches the importance of “Shalom” or peace and well-being, so living in harmony with others and avoiding negative speech can contribute to peaceful societies.

In the Islamic tradition, the Qur’an and the Prophet’s tradition emphasize the significance of using positive language and caution against the harmful effects of negative words. “Tell My believing servants to say only what is best. Satan certainly seeks to sow discord among them. Satan is indeed a sworn enemy to humankind” (Qur’an, Isra 53). God encourages believers to speak in a manner that promotes harmony, compassion, and empathy. Negative words, on the other hand, foster discord, hurt, and, lead to emotional distress and strain on relationships. The following hadith also highlights the importance of using kind and gentle words in our interactions. Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) exemplified the power of positive speech, emphasizing the impact of kind words on emotional well-being. He stated, “Verily, God is gentle, and He loves gentleness. He rewards for gentleness what is not granted for harshness, and He does not reward anything else like it” (Muslim 2593). He also stated, “The believer does not insult others, he does not curse others, he is not vulgar, and he is not shameless” (Tirmidhi 1977).

Negative words can disrupt the delicate balance of the human body, leading to stress, anxiety, and even physical ailments. Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) emphasized the importance of guarding one’s speech, stating, “Whoever believes in God and the Last Day should speak good or remain silent” (Bukhari 6136). This wisdom highlights the importance of a positive mindset, refraining from negative self-talk, and promoting uplifting language in our interactions. Finally, the Qur’an offers guidance to individuals experiencing emotional distress. It encourages seeking comfort in prayer, remembrance of God, and connecting with positive and supportive individuals: “Those who have believed and whose hearts find rest and contentment in remembrance of, and whole-hearted devotion, to God. Be aware that it is remembrance of and whole-hearted devotion to God that hearts find rest and contentment” (Rad 28). These practices and avoiding negative words can significantly improve mental well-being and foster a positive psychological state.

The remedy

Understanding the detrimental effects of negative words emphasizes the significance of cultivating a positive linguistic environment. Positive language can uplift our spirits, inspire us to achieve our goals, and foster healthier relationships. Using positive words can pave the way for a more optimistic outlook, boost self-esteem, and enhance overall well-being. Practicing positive self-talk is particularly crucial. Replacing self-criticism and negative inner dialogue with positive affirmations can transform our mindset and improve our mental health.

Fostering positive language in our interactions can contribute to the establishment of a supportive and nurturing environment, thereby fostering stronger social connections and enhanced mental and emotional well-being. It is imperative to surround ourselves with supportive individuals who uplift us and promote positive communication. By choosing our social circle wisely, we can fashion a space that nurtures our mental health and well-being.

In the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, the use of negative words and pessimism is discouraged, as they are seen as counterproductive and potentially harmful to individuals and society. These traditions emphasize the power of words and encourage the use of honest, constructive, and kind language. Criticism is welcomed for improvement and growth, but pessimism is viewed as a lack of faith and hope in God’s plan. Islam emphasizes cultivating positive speech, which contributes to emotional well-being, physical health, and psychological balance. We should choose our words wisely, avoid negativity, and spread peace and harmony in our interactions with others to benefit ourselves and society. To conclude, let us end with a verse from the Quran serving as a comprehensive guiding principle: “Goodness and evil can never be equal. Repel evil with what is better (or best). Then see: the one between whom and you there was enmity has become a bosom friend (Fussilat 34).

References

• https://treehouserecovery.com/addiction-blog/the-impact-of-negative-language/
• Richter, M., Eck, J., Straube, T., Miltner, W. H., & Weiss, T. (2010). Do words hurt? Brain activation during the processing of pain-related words. Pain, 148(2), 198-205.
• Lodge, J., Harte, D. K., & Tripp, G. (1998). Children’s self-talk under conditions of mild anxiety. Journal of anxiety disorders, 12(2), 153-176.
• Dhabhar, F. S. (2014). Effects of stress on immune function: the good, the bad, and the beautiful. Immunologic research, 58, 193-210.

Researchers at Georgetown University Medical Center discovered that when we look at a written word, a special part of our brain perceives it “like a picture, not a group of letters needing to be processed” [1].

The researchers studied 25 participants through fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), focusing on a small area just behind the left ear called the “visual word form area.”

What’s particularly fascinating about this area is that a similar symmetrical segment in the right hemisphere of the brain, the “fusiform face area,” is the part of the brain tasked with recognizing human faces. Young children and illiterate adults use both this facial recognition and word imaging areas to recognize faces. Once they learn to read and write, the word imaging area performs word recognition only. As familiar faces are stored in our memory (facial recognition area), the words we learn are also entered one after another in this visual word dictionary.

Words we write, think, speak

The words studied in this research are written words, not spoken words, i.e., words produced by sound waves. What role, then, does hearing play in reading?

Neuroscientist Lorenzo Magrassi and his colleagues focused on neural activity in the language and speech processing/production center of the brain, known as Broca’s area [2], in 16 participants. One of the most interesting aspects of this experiment was that it could only be performed during “awake surgery”—i.e., when the participants were awake and their skull was partially open [3]. Since the brain itself does not feel pain, this form of research can be done with an open skull.

When people hear speech, it is transmitted from the ear to the brain as a sound signal or sound wave and triggers a neural activity and fluctuation in the brain via electromagnetic waves. This wave packet unit of sound is called the “sound envelope” or “sound sheath.” Hence, we can assume that each word has a sound envelope and a corresponding neural activity and electrical fluctuation in the brain.

Magrassi and his team discovered that the neural electromagnetic fluctuation matching of the sound envelope and neural electromagnetic fluctuations that occur when we read aloud or when we hear a word is the same when we read silently; neural activity in Broca’s area is the same as if the words were heard. Even before we speak, even before we intend and plan to speak, and although we only think about the word, the sound envelope of the word is already present in the brain. This discovery explains why we feel as if we hear the words inside us even when we are merely thinking about them. Accordingly, researchers started work on an interface software that would enable human-computer compatibility in transmitting thought words from the brain to the outside, even without speaking [4]. This will enable people with defective speech organs to convey what they think to their interlocutors helped by special software and hardware.

In sum, a word thought, whether read silently or pronounced, is first represented in the brain’s visual word form area and in Broca’s area as a sound envelope-neural activity. The word is given a certain form and, if we speak, it is reflected in the same areas of the listeners’ brains in a symmetrical process. These brain areas are created as “mirrors” where the word is reflected [5].

Since words also convey our feelings, when a word we choose is conveyed with its features, does it evoke similar feelings in the interlocutor? In another study on this matter [6], it was discovered that pitch changes in the pronunciation of words stimulate neurons in the brain—i.e., they mirror diverse reflections. By paying attention to the pitch of a speaker’s voice, it is possible to guess whether they are sincere or not. A person lying often averts their eyes because the feature of the word they pronounce does not match the word-imaging area in their brain.

It can be said in light of these studies that the human brain by default bears the ability to mirror the feature of words and that words are not any sound wave in the air. At this instant, let’s remember the following observation of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi:

Just as His art in the universe is in the form of a book, describing its perfect orderedness, so too His coloring and the inscription of His wisdom in human has opened the flower of speech. That is, His art is so meaningful, sensitive, and beautiful that it has caused the components of that animate machine to speak as though they were gramophones. It has given human such a dominical coloring in their ‘fairest of forms’ that the flower of speech and expression, which is immaterial, insubstantial and living, has opened in their material, corporeal and solid head. And it has equipped the power of speech and expression, which is situated in human’s head, with such exalted tools and abilities that it has caused it to develop and progress to a degree whereat they become the addressee of the Pre-Eternal Monarch. That is, the dominical coloring in human’s essential nature has opened the flower of divine address. Is it at all possible that anything other than the Single One of Unity could interfere in that art in creatures, which is so high as to be in the form of a book, and in that coloring in human whereby they attain the station of speech and address? [7]

Footnotes

• “After Learning New Words, Brain Sees Them as Pictures”, gumc.georgetown.edu/news-release/after-learning-new-words-brain-sees-them-as-pictures/
• “Broca’s area”, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Broca’s_area
• “Why you can ‘hear’ words inside your head”, www.bbc.com/future/article/20200929-what-your-thoughts-sound-like
• “The Long Search for a Computer That Speaks Your Mind”, www.wired.com/story/the-long-search-for-a-computer-that-speaks-your-mind/
• Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, Sözler [The Words], Istanbul: Sahdamar Yayinlari, 2010, s. 767.
• “How the human brain detects the ‘music’ of speech”, www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/08/170824141234.htm
• Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, Mektubat [The Letters], Istanbul: Sahdamar Yayinlari, 2010, s. 265.

Imagine that one day, in your garden, you find an ancient coin. On this coin are written unknown characters. It’s unlikely you’ll be able to read these figures until the code is cracked by a specialist. Even if you do not know about the period or civilization from which this coin comes, you will no doubt conclude that the symbols on it represents a language. Whether you can read them or not is irrelevant; language is recognizable.

To exemplify, Morse code is a system in which letters—let’s say the 26 letters of the English alphabet—are represented by only three basic parts: dots, dashes, and spaces. By combining these three symbols, one can produce more than 500,000 English words that, again, can be combined into an infinite number of phrases or sentences. The fact that we can communicate messages merely through simple dots and dashes is amazing and thought provoking.

The chirping of birds, especially in the early morning hours, cannot be considered primitive sounds that only consist of a couple of quack-quacks, woo-woos, or cock-a-doodle-doos. Akin to the symbols of Morse code, the chirping, which we commonly regard as unsophisticated and therefore mostly ignore, may in fact communicate a huge variety of valuable messages. For instance, the nightingale—whose songs might comfort us—may in reality be telling a completely different story. Limiting the language of animals to simple signals of warning, happiness, mating, and so on might be a mistake; these basic emotions may just be the tip of the iceberg when it comes to animal communication. Do animals, then, have a language like humans, perhaps with a different purpose or use?

Human-animal talk in the Quran

King Solomon, known in Islam as Prophet Suleyman, was endowed with the miraculous ability to communicate with all animals, including birds. Let me draw your attention to some related verses from the Holy Quran:

Solomon succeeded David. He would say (citing in gratitude God’s favors to him): “O people! We have been taught the language of birds, and we have been granted (some portion) of everything (which God provides for His servants). Surely this is a conspicuous favor. (27:16)

Another verse tells of a story where Prophet Suleyman came upon a colony of ants while on a military campaign with his great army:

Until, when they reached a valley of ants, one of the ants said: “O you ants! Get into your dwellings lest Solomon and his army crush you unawares.” (27:18)

Upon hearing the ants talk, Prophet Suleyman addressed God:

Smiling at her words (in humble contentment with God’s favors to him), he said: “My Lord! Inspire and guide me so that I may thank You for Your favor which You have bestowed on me and on my parents, and so that I may act righteously in a manner that will please You; and include me (out of Your mercy) among Your righteous servants.” (27:19)

Though these examples from the Holy Qur’an may be sufficient, I cannot help but share with you another remarkable example, this time between Prophet Suleyman and the hoopoe bird, whose job was to find water for the formidable army, but who instead went somewhere else without permission.

(On another occasion,) he inspected the birds and said: “How is it that I cannot see the hoopoe? Or is he among the absentees? I will certainly inflict a severe punishment on him, or maybe even kill him, unless he comes to me with a convincing reason (for his absence).” (27:20-21)

In verses that follow, we learn about the hoopoe bird’s return, whose reasonable excuse the Prophet Suleyman accepts.

Speaking gorilla

Given this, I would like to make mention of the movie “Congo” (1995). It wasn’t a particularly good movie, but I found the high-tech gorilla in the main role quite interesting. Amy, the name of the cute female gorilla, was trained to communicate using 620 words of sign language. These signs were translated into human speech by a translator attached to her arm. If I can recall correctly, Amy was expected to talk to other gorillas to search for King Solomon’s treasure in the jungles of Africa. Even though “Congo,” directed by Frank Marshall and written by John Patrick Shanley, has been criticized by countless movie reviewers, it receives my full credit for its inspirational and well thought out translation between different species: human and ape.

Universal translator

In the original “Star Trek” TV series, Captain Kirk never spoke a foreign language but was able to communicate with different life forms in the galaxy. He used a universal translator, a device that translates various languages by using his spaceship’s complex linguistic databases. The translator then instantly converted the language of all life forms in the universe into standard English. I wonder how much closer we are today to a universal translator than we were in the 1970s—a time when cell phones, iPhones, netbooks, laptops, the Internet, etc., were only part of our dreams. Similar to Captain Kirk and his crew, which bravely welcomed unknown space aliens in English, I expect that with the present ever-growing computing technology, we will sooner or later understand and perhaps talk to other life forms on this planet, including birds and dogs.

Linguistic expectations

Even though I support and appreciate research informing us about animal communication, such as the dancing of bees and the chemical language of ants, I find them unsatisfactory and encourage scientists to continue in their quest to crack the linguistic code of various life forms in this world. When we think of an entire bee colony, perhaps we should expect more from their communication and that it is not restricted to simply finding food, signaling directions, etc. Imagine what a universal translator, once invented, could tell us by converting all these animal signals into human speech. Its impact on human life will be unquestionably groundbreaking. For example, the ability to talk to animals could enable us to shed light on unsolved crimes, find lost people and children, and locate herbal medicine, among many other promising benefits. The more one contemplates, the more thrilling the idea of a universal translator becomes. What do you think?

How Octopuses Are Able to Taste by Touching

Giesen et al.Molecular Basis of Chemotactile Sensation in Octopus. Cell, October 2020.

Octopuses have often captured human interest with the ability to use their eight suction-cup covered tentacles for touch and taste. Scientists have wondered for decades how their appendages work but very few have studied what happens on a molecular level. In a new report, researchers got a glimpse into how the nervous system in an octopus’ tentacles manage these functions. They identified a novel family of sensors in the first layer of cells inside the suction cups that have adapted to react and detect molecules that do not dissolve well in water. The chemotactile receptors on these sensory cells use those molecules to help the animal figure out what it is touching and whether or not that object is prey. This allows an octopus to distinguish between a rock versus a tasty crab. The underlying mechanism is that there are two types of sensory cells in the suckers that line their tentacles: mechanosensory cells for touch and chemosensory cells for taste.  Both taste- and touch-oriented cells are critical for helping octopuses to decide when to hunt and when to retreat. It is well known that particles on land easily travel through the air before they might be sniffed by a bear or a wolf’s nostrils. However, the process of smelling or tasting is much less clear in cephalopods that live in the ocean. Some chemicals can travel far from their underwater source and thus make it possible for some creatures to catch a smell of their prey from afar. But for chemicals that don’t move through the ocean easily, a touch-taste strategy can be useful for marine animals, including octopuses. While people tend to perceive five basic tastes – sweet, bitter, sour, salty and umami (meaty) – octopuses experience the world of taste differently. Instead, scientists found the most success by stimulating octopuses to respond to what are called terpenoid molecules, a secretion that is often released by marine invertebrates that functions as a defense or warning signal. They smell these molecules and can, in a way, smell fear in their prey.

Natural Forest Regrowth May Be the Best Method to Combat Climate Change

Cook-Patton et al. Mapping carbon accumulation potential from global natural forest regrowth. Nature, September 2020.

Reforestation has been considered the leading strategy in the fight to mitigate the effects of climate change with previous studies highlighting the role it can play in capturing and storing atmospheric carbon. There are many ways to incorporate trees into our landscapes, however one of the cheapest and easiest options is to allow forests to regrow on their own if conditions can permit them to. Now, a new study has mapped the potential carbon accumulation in naturally regrown forests over the next 30 years. Researchers from 18 countries brought together more than 13,000 georeferenced measurements of carbon accumulation to generate a wall-to-wall, one-kilometer-resolution map spanning 43 countries that highlights areas with the greatest carbon returns if trees were allowed to reforest naturally. The team demonstrated that natural forest regrowth can capture up to 23 percent of global carbon dioxide (CO²) emissions from the atmosphere every year. This is on top of the carbon sequestration already provided by existing forests, which absorb around 30 percent of annual CO² emissions. The biggest advantage of natural restoration of forests is that it often requires nothing more than human inaction. Nature is constantly at work doing its duty to restore forests often unseen on the edges of fields, on abandoned pastures, and wherever forests lie degraded or former forest land is abandoned. Moreover, natural forest regrowth may promote the re-establishment of local tree species that are best equipped to survive in a given location and support the many organisms that eat them or dwell amongst their branches and roots.

However, natural regrowth may not always be the answer. For example, at sites that are highly degraded, or seed sources are far away, actively planting trees can help to start or speed recovery while helping to establish the right species mix for current and future conditions. While planting trees can sometimes be necessary it should usually be the last option since it is one of the most expensive and often least successful methods of combating climate change. It is estimated that humanity should collectively plant about a trillion trees over the next three decades to effectively fight climate change, which averages out to about a thousand new trees planted in the ground every second and assumes that every tree survives and grows in a healthy manner. Once the cost of nurseries, soil preparation, seeding, and thinning are accounted for, it would easily cost hundreds of billions of dollars. If natural forest growth is cheaper and better then why not work to protect the existing trees and let forests to grow on their own?

Li et al. Innate connectivity patterns drive the development of the visual word form area. Scientific Reports, October 2020

A new study suggests that humans are born with a part of the brain that is prewired to be receptive to seeing words and letters. Researchers analyzed brain fMRI scans of 40 newborns and found that the “visual word form area” (VWFA) was already connected to the language network of the brain, which is akin to the scans of 40 adults. These findings are quite surprising considering some researchers had hypothesized that the pre-reading VWFA starts out like any other part of the visual cortex that are sensitive to seeing faces, scenes, or other objects and only becomes selective to words and letters as children learn to read or at least as they learn language. However, a new study shows that even at birth, the VWFA is more functionally connected to the language network of the brain than it is to other areas. It is likely that experience with spoken and written language will strengthen connections with specific aspects of the language circuit and further differentiate this region’s function from its neighbors as a person gains literacy. The main goal of this study is to learn how the brain becomes a “reading brain” and to help understand the differences in reading behavior, which could become useful in the study of dyslexia and other developmental disorders.

As far as the origin of language is concerned, Abrahamic traditions agree on the fact that language is a gift of God to humanity. To exemplify, the Holy Bible in Genesis 2:20 (King James’ Version) states that: “[20] And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field; but for Adam there was not found an help meet for him.” Identically, the Holy Qur’an in Surah Al-Baqara (The Cow) voices the following verse: “And He taught Adam the names of all things; then He placed them before the angels, and said: ‘Tell me the names of these if ye are right’?” Both of these divine expressions indicate clearly that mankind was created from the beginning with an innate capacity to use language. Therefore, a theist from any level of society does not have any doubts about the origin of human language; for him the explanation is both simple and persuasive.

However, for those who do not subscribe to such a faith tradition, it is rather nerve-racking to come up with a unanimous answer as to the emergence of language since there are so many competing and contradictory theories and hypotheses. Efforts to explain the origins of language usually sound dubious and are collected under two main hypotheses in linguistics that are based upon human invention and necessity. According to the “pooh-pooh hypothesis,” the first words originated from involuntary exclamations expressing a human’s pleasure, dislike, pain, hunger and so on, which later on led to the expression of more complicated feelings and ideas. Given this, the first human words would have been involuntary “Aa!”  “ouch,” “ha-ha-ha,” etc., which were used to name the actions that resulted in these sounds. Yet, the problem with this thesis is that emotional exclamations not only constitute only a small part of any human language but also that they are highly language specific. Apart from sneezes, tears, and laughter, exclamations show variations among languages. For instance, English people say “ouch,” Russians “ol,” and native Indians “eee” to indicate sudden ache or discomfort. That is, their forms mostly hinge on a specific language that already exists rather than preceding language.

The second is Charles Darwin’s own “ta-ta hypothesis” (which he himself finds rather erroneous) about the origin of language. For him, human speech might have come from a kind of mouth pantomime according to which speech organs were used to imitate different forms of hand signs. That is to say, human language originated from body movements which were soon imitated by speech organs; therefore the first-ever words used to be lip icons of hand movements. However, here again we notice inconsistency because the meaning of human gestures vary from culture to culture, such as the “thumbs-up/thumbs-down” once used by Romans to decide upon the life of a defeated gladiator. While for Western people the “thumps-up” gesture implies a positive remark expressing mainly a task well done, it surprisingly has negative implications in Greece, Russia, Italy, Latin America and West Africa where it instead stands for the middle finger.

These are only two amid various other inconsistent hypotheses (which include the “ding-dong”, “bow-wow”, warning, “yo-he-ho”, and lying hypothesis) offered as an explanation for the origin of language. What is interesting is that in the late 19th century, the Linguistic Society in London and Paris forbade any commentary and debate on the emergence of human language for valuable time was wasted to find a sane thesis.

This reminds me of letters from the Islamic scholar Said Nursi in which he states that just showing the evidence is sufficient to prove the presence of anything; otherwise you have to inquire of the entire world so as to show its non-presence. In Islamic law, two witnesses are enough to resolve any skeptical case; this may be a lawsuit, a dispute, doubt or disagreement between people. For example, if two people testify that they have seen the crescent, which is the harbinger of the holy month Ramadan in Islam, there is no need to ask other people for verification of the same sight. Even if thousands of people oppose the sighting, it is worthless and does not change the truth. Perhaps, what Abrahamic traditions are teaching us on language is the only source to verify its origin.

NASA Mission Sheds New Light On the Sun

Bale SD et al. “Highly structured slow solar wind emerging from an equatorial coronal hole.”

Howard RA et al. “Near-Sun observations of an F-corona decrease and K-corona fine structure.”

Kasper JC et al. “Alfvénic velocity spikes and rotational flows in the near-Sun solar wind.”

McComas DJ et al. “Probing the energetic particle environment near the Sun.”

Nature, December 2019.

Although the sun sits at the center of our solar system, its most basic behaviors still remain a big mystery. NASA’s Parker Solar Probe, launched in 2018, aimed to address some of the fundamental questions about the sun: Why is the sun’s outer atmosphere, the corona, so hot? Where does solar wind come from, and what causes it to be shot out of the corona? What makes the sun flare up sometimes, shooting even more excited particles out into space? These are some of the questions that scientists hope Parker can answer before its mission ends in 2025. Meanwhile, Parker got very close to the Sun for several days last November and in April 2019. Parker Solar Probe during its two encounters traveled within 15 million miles of the Sun’s surface, far surpassing the 25-million-mile record first set by NASA’s Helios 2 mission in 1976. Parker has also claimed the title of the fastest human-made object in history from Helios 2, as it surfed near the Sun at over 153,000 miles per hour. Its first batch of released results came from measurements of the corona, which is, remarkably, hotter than the surface itself. The corona extends millions of miles from the surface into space. The region is only visible to the naked eye during a solar eclipse as a golden ring hanging in a darkened sky. The corona emits powerful streams of high-energy particles, known as solar wind, which can be felt all across the solar system. Parker’s data shows that solar winds are far more turbulent near the sun than in our own vicinity. The wind drags the sun’s magnetic field out into space, and even bends the field enough for magnetic forces to completely flip around for a few minutes at a time, pointing back at the sun itself instead of into space. The strength of this effect was completely surprising and puzzling. Scientists also found that shifts in the sun’s magnetic field speed up the particles flowing away from the sun much faster than any of their models had previously predicted.

This really highlights the idea that proximity is everything for studying the sun. Parker continues to edge closer to the sun. As its orbit shrinks, it will eventually reach a perihelion distance of just 6.16 million km in 2025, where it will experience temperatures of nearly 1400°C. Thanks to the protection provided by its specially-designed, carbon-composite heat shield, the probe won’t melt and the spacecraft and its instruments will be kept at a temperature of about 29°C.

Science Stands Behind Bilingual Children

Nicoladis et al. “How to use a wide variety of words in telling a story with a small vocabulary: cognitive predictors of lexical selection for simultaneous bilingual children.” Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, October 2019.

A new study shows that bilingual children use just as many words while telling a story in either language as do children who only speak one language. Past research showed that bilingual children score lower than monolingual children on traditional vocabulary tests. However, these new findings may change the understanding of multiple languages and cognition in children. Learning a word is directly related to how much time is spent in each language. For bilingual children, time is split between languages. As expected, they tend to have lower vocabularies in each of their languages. However, this new research shows that as a function of storytelling, bilingual children are equally strong as monolingual children. Researchers examined a group of French-English bilingual children who had been taught two languages since birth, rather than learning a second language later in life. They used a new, highly sensitive measure for examining cognitive flexibility, a participant’s ability to switch between games with different rules, while maintaining accuracy and reaction time. Their study builds on previous research examining vocabulary in bilingual children who have learned English as a second language. Overall, the bilingual children used just as many words to tell a story in English as monolingual children. The children also used just as many words in French as they did in English when telling a story. Their analysis suggests that the number of words that bilingual children use in their stories is strongly correlated with their high levels of cognitive flexibility—the ability to switch between thinking about different concepts. Researchers emphasize that parents of bilingual children do not need to be concerned about long-term school achievement. Vocabulary is a strong predictor of success in education, and so is storytelling. In a storytelling context, bilingual kids are able to use this flexibility to convey stories in creative ways.

New Tomatoes Engineered for Urban Gardens and Outer Space

Kwon CT et al. “Rapid customization of Solanaceae fruit crops for urban agriculture.” Nature Biotechnology, December 2019.

Humanity have a massive problem: feeding our future selves. As a result of rising population, continued destruction due to climate change, and the fact that sustainable land use is becoming ever-more challenging, learning how to grow enough food for everyone is a burning question to address in the agriculture field. In an effort to grow more crops in smaller and less-than-ideal locations, scientists developed new genetically-modified “urban” tomatoes that ripen in compact bunches similar to grapes. These tomatoes resemble a bouquet whose roses have been replaced by ripe cherry tomatoes. They also mature quickly, producing ripe fruit that’s ready for harvest in less than 40 days. Scientist utilized the CRISPR gene-editing technology and produced the new tomatoes by fine-tuning three genes that control the switch to reproductive growth and plant size: 1) the SELF-PRUNING (SP), 2) SP5G, and 3) SIER genes. While the first two genes have the duty prevent growth, flowering and fruiting of the plant sooner, the SIER gene is in charge of controlling the length of the plant’s stems. Altering the first two genes resulted in tomato plants that didn’t produce a lot of fruit and tasted poorly. It was not until the scientists identified the third gene that they were able to produce the desired plant. This study demonstrates that we can produce crops in new ways, without having to tear up our land as much or add excessive fertilizer that runs off into rivers and streams. This could also be a complementary approach to help feed people locally and with a reduced carbon footprint. Climate change is expected to change growing conditions on Earth, worsening conditions for many crops.

Farmers could soon be growing tomatoes bunched like grapes in a storage unit, in a shipping container, on the roof of a skyscraper, and – as humanity stretches out past low Earth orbit toward the moon – eventually, in Mars.

Is it why we cannot attain maximum mental performance?

If you are one of those people who are unsatisfied with their foreign language competence after many years of hard work, practice, and exposure, then this article may be for you. Even though research in foreign language learning enumerates several factors for foreign language failure – social, psychological, cognitive and affective – whose roles cannot be overlooked, my own view is somewhat different: I firmly believe that one of the main reasons why so many people cannot attain maximum performance, not only in foreign languages but also in other subjects, is largely because of “mental pollution.” This is why, I think, children are superior to adults at learning foreign languages, for they are devoid of severe mental pollution.

Let me first clarify what I mean by “mental pollution.” Certain images of different sizes, qualities, and shapes displayed on billboards, shop windows, posters, brochures, magazines, ads, TV, movies, videos, websites – these are mental pollution. Depending on their form and characteristic, they may greatly abuse a person’s mental energy and lead to chaotic and disturbing emotions. The more irrelevant, enticing, or lustful images are, the more detrimental they are to our social and academic life. For example, a small logo of a computer game – perhaps the size of a 5 cent coin – such as the dragon from Mortal Kombat, contains at minimum three kilobytes (3072 characters), which is equal to about 400 English words. Despite the premise that we only use 8-10 percent of our mental capacity, the amount of visual data the human brain is permanently exposed to cannot be underestimated when so many people, especially children, watch TV, play computer games, and surf the internet. Obscene pictures, in particular, are a common form of mental pollution nowadays, and they are some of the most deleterious to the human mind; they drastically increase blood pressure and heart rate and thus weaken the memory. As an example, a study by Brad J. Bushman has apparently revealed that watching violent television programs has adverse effects on one’s ability to remember.

Fethullah Gülen, a renowned modern Islamic intellectual, reminds us of the seriousness of the topic, while more people than ever before complain about forgetfulness and memory weakness. According to Gülen, the process of learning now takes longer than in the past, and forgetfulness, like an infection, has become prevalent among all levels of society due to polluted minds teeming with irrelevant information. He also points out that long ago people complained when they were not able to memorize and recite by heart a page after only one reading. In this day and age, people complain about weak memory and confess that they have great difficulty memorizing a short text that they have read more than 20 times. For a keen memory, his message to the present generation is to stay away from useless routines, frivolous conversations, irrelevant knowledge, and sources of obscenity.

Similar to a computer, the untrained human mind whose protection filter is set to a low level is under constant visual attack. Given this, mental pollution acts like a computer virus, a code that replicates by copying itself to another program, document, or e-mail, thereby seriously slowing down memory operations. Also, it can erase data or damage the computer’s hard disk, which is analogous to long-term memory in the human brain. Interestingly enough, lab experiments on rats have revealed that these animals simply choose to starve to death when they are tempted by brain reward-stimulus circuits in quests for neuro-orgasms. These rats rarely attain balanced brain chemistry, while the orgasm they experience results in a hangover that lasts for weeks. The same condition is also true for the human mind: the unnecessary over-discharge of hormones triggered by electrifying visual stimuli can lead to long-lasting forgetfulness, fatigue, and serious concentration problems. In such a case, a person cannot make sense of whatever he is studying until the side effects of mental pollution are over.

Foreign language learning also substantially suffers from the harmful effects of copious amounts of mental pollution. The modern methodology and technology to facilitate foreign language learning can be hampered by overwhelming exposure to mental pollution. Although they did not have the contemporary language learning resources and facilities, many early scholars and polyglots managed to learn numerous foreign languages. For instance, Guiseppe Caspar Mezzofanti, an Italian cardinal and famed linguist, is believed to have spoken 38 languages and 50 dialects fluently. Similarly, Sir John Bowring (100), Emil Krebs (68), Ziad Youssef Fazah (56), Ali Ufki (16), Muhammad Hamidullah (22), Pamulaparthi Venkata Narasimha Rao (13), Jose Rizal (22), and Sir Richard Francis Burton (29) were able to speak and read in many languages and dialects, as shown in parentheses, and their success is considerably astonishing when we compare them to present academics who have problems at mastering only one foreign language despite the available modern resources. I believe that these past scholars and polyglots, besides their talent and enthusiasm, did not suffer from widespread mental pollution as we do today. For example, the polyglot Mezzofanti was a prodigy in languages mostly because he spent his life in a monastery and therefore was not subject to any form of mental pollution that could preoccupy his mind and weaken his memory.

I am greatly convinced that an oft-overlooked but very serious barrier – mental pollution – which is very common among people, is a crucial reason for many people’s failure to learn a foreign language, among other subjects. In any discipline (academic or non-academic) where memory involvement is important, it is necessary to be aware of mental pollution. As long as we are unable to control our contact with mental pollution, learning new material will be very difficult and time-consuming, no matter how hard we try, and forgetfulness will continue to be unavoidable.

“How can it be that mathematics, being after all a product of human thought which is independent of experience, is so admirably appropriate to the objects of reality?”
Albert Einstein

I have always been pretty sure that mathematics and science are the best languages to explain the natural phenomena. While for many mathematics is too abstract, for me, it is the beautiful language of the universe.

There is no upper limit to the numerical abilities of humans. First, we discovered fire, to get warm. Then, we needed light, so we invented electricity. When we needed to talk to someone 10,000 miles away, we invented the internet. Behind all these inventions, was mathematics.

Of course, the universe cannot speak or think. However, we, the people, can read the universe. There are many scientifically and mathematically inclined people who can read the universe and find answers and then describe them. We, the normal people, can also use our imagination as an apparatus to read the universe and nature. If we can read, hence, something is written. In order to write, a language is always needed. So, the universe should have a language. The letters are circles, triangles, hexagons, etc.

Everything in life has mathematical patterns. Think of the wild animals with stripes or patterns for the purposes of camouflage. But why does a leopard or cheetah or tiger have a particular design?

The Enigma codebreaker, Alan Turing, had a mathematical theory about leopard’s spots. Turing suggested in his paper “The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis” (published in 1952) “a mathematical schema for the formation of the patterns found in animals and plants.” This was 60 years ago [1].

Stars have patterns. Astrologists have been looking at the outer space searching for patterns to better understand life. Whatever it may be that they find, it is always about mathematics.

Seasons have patterns. They come and go. And they influence nature: the climate changes, animals migrate north or south, rain comes, snow melts, the earth changes color, etc.… Of course, seasons cannot make these miracles. They can only have mathematical patterns.

Einstein had pondered for years on how mathematics works so perfectly. He knew that mathematics is the bridge or the language that connects humans with the universe. And being a connection between us and the universe makes mathematics the greatest achievement of mankind.

If you take a closer look at the patterns of our world, you will witness the language of mathematics. Let me give you some specific examples.

Fibonacci, the golden ratio, spiral, cabbage…

Our universe is filled with spiral designs. Spirals can be found in the shapes of the DNA double helix, flowers, elephant tusks, sunflowers, hurricanes, draining water, animal horns, a nautilus shell, a snail shell, a pinecone, a cabbage, a fingerprint, algae, galaxies… the list goes on and on. Tons of lifeless and living things have spiral designs. And they are not random spirals. They have something in common: the golden ratio! And surprisingly, “there is a strong case that this so-called ‘Golden Ratio’ (1.61803…) can be related not only to aspects of mathematics but also to physics, chemistry, biology and the topology of space-time” [2].

All these spirals in nature tell us there are numbers all around us. Let’s observe the numbers of petals on some flowers. When you count the number of petals of the flowers in your garden, you will get the numbers 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, or 55. These numbers are not random numbers. These are very unique numbers; they are part of a sequence developed by Fibonacci, a 13th century mathematician, by adding up the last two numbers starting from 1:

1+1= 2, 1+2= 3, 2+3= 5, 3+5=8 …

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, …

F_n= F_n-1+F_n-2, F₁=1, F₂=1

But, why are those Fibonacci numbers so important? The key is, the relationship between the progression of growth and the proportion. There is a harmonic proportion hidden in the Fibonacci sequence.

A fact: If you divide one number in the sequence by the previous number, the answers result in or come closer to phi:

For example: 5/3 = 1.6666;

13/8 = 1.6250; 377/233 = 1.61802575; 317811/196418 = 1.618033399

Definition: In mathematics, two quantities are in the golden ratio if their ratio is the same as the ratio of their sum to the larger of the two quantities [3].

These numbers can be demonstrated with the spiral of the florets in a sunflower. The florets in a sunflower head also form two spirals. If you count the clockwise and counterclockwise spirals that reach the outer edge, you’ll usually find a pair of numbers from the sequence: 34 and 55. If it is a very large sunflower, you will get 89 and 144 [4].

These spirals are not only in sunflowers. You can see them if you look at a pine cone or a daisy. If you mark the spirals and count them, you will always get a number from the Fibonacci sequence. And if you count in the other direction, this time you will find an adjacent Fibonacci number.

The nautilus shell, the golden mean

What makes the nautilus shell so special for mathematicians? Having the Golden Mean. But how do we know that the nautilus shell has the Golden Mean?

First of all, we will start with drawing a small, one unit square. Then we will draw another square which is larger than the previous one. We need to add in a counterclockwise direction. The length of each square has a value from the Fibonacci sequence: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 … Then we can draw spirals, starting with the smallest one, outward through the largest one. Then the Golden Mean will appear.

Flowers, plants, or objects have no idea about mathematics, yet they manifest the best of mathematical patterns. This marvelous mathematical art has been placed in their nature for us not to be fascinated only but also to explore the mysteries behind it.

Note

1. https://www.bbcearth.com/blog/?article=the-maths-behind-a-leopards-spots
2. https://www.sajs.co.za/article/view/4033
3. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GoldenRatio.html
4. http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/05/sunflowers-show-complex-fibonacci-sequences

Indeed, attaching a purpose to everything non-systematically is subjective and seems not to be compatible with the current scientific methodology. For this reason, some people tend to deny religious sources of knowledge, whereas other people tend to accept a dualist viewpoint where they separate the domains of religion and science. Such dualism pushes religion out of people’s lives and restrains it only to particular instances and environments, reframing religion with surrealist subjects.

The path to reviving religious spirituality in daily life, on the same objective domain with science, requires many approaches. One of them is to answer the following question: is it possible to find a systematic way of understanding the purpose of the phenomena that has been observed and discovered by scientific methodology?

Although scientific methodology has evolved throughout history, the common motive that fits all stages is exploring the causal relationship among phenomena and expressing causality with some set of laws and principles. If we traced back to the origins of the scientific approach, we would encounter Aristotle’s definitions. He stated in his book “Metaphysics” that there are four types of causes (Fine, G., 1987):

1. Material cause – i.e. the materials that something is composed of. For example, water, sunshine, soil etc. are necessary to plant a tree. Therefore, these are material causes for the tree that was planted.
2. Formal cause – in his original words, “the form or pattern; that is, the essential formula and the classes which contain it.” For instance, a drug can only be useful if its constituent chemicals are mixed in a certain ratio. Hence the specific ratio is the formal cause of the drug.
3. Efficient (or motive) cause – the prior conditions that lead to the resulting situation. This is what is usually considered as “the cause” in science, especially in physics. An example is the source of new cells, which was unknown until the 19^th century. It was François Raspail (1794–1878) who first stated Omnis cellula e cellula, meaning that every cell is derived from another cell which tells the efficient cause of cell (re)production. (http://www.ohio.edu/chastain/rz/raspail.htm)
4. Final cause – i.e. the purpose or the goal of something. This is also known as telos. In our daily language, we often mean the final cause or telos, when we talk about “whys.” For example, the telos for a seed to germinate is to become a tree.

Considering these different types of causes, which all together become a complete explanation, we can see that the current understanding of science is diverged from this point. These four categories of cause survived in science until the 17^th century. But then, by constraining science on the matter and its motion, as Francis Bacon stated in his Advancement of Learning (1605), only the material and efficient causes are taken into account as the major two subjects of science (Bacon 1605). During those days, Spinoza and Descartes deliberately rejected the final (teleological) cause and claimed that the efficient causes are necessary and sufficient to explain the universe. Thence, Newtonian physics was developed on the basis of the efficient cause. For example, the cause of acceleration is thought of as the force, in a sense that when a force F is applied to a mass m, the acceleration becomes a = F/m.

Causality in science is therefore reduced to the “efficient cause” and effect relationship. However, as we discussed, religions emphasize the purpose of events and accept God as the cause of causes. Therefore, religions use a different language, especially by underlining the telos, in terms of explaining phenomena. For instance, one of the amazing properties of water is that its least absorbing spectrum corresponds to the optical regime (Gedik, N. 2005). To explain this phenomenon, science asserts the efficient cause and searches for the relationship between the absorption spectrum and the natural oscillation frequency of the water molecule. However, disregarding the temporal order, this purpose-based approach says that because it is crucial and vital for living beings to receive sufficient light, and since the atmosphere largely consists of H₂O molecules, then water had to be transparent to the optical frequencies of light to allow creatures that have eyes and photosynthesis systems to get enough light.[1]

We should admit that the latter explanation does not sound strong enough to be generalized and be formulated. Therefore, we usually avoid using the adjective “scientific” for such explanations. But when our subjects or phenomena are chosen in the bio-world, we observe that the “standard” efficient causality does not give a satisfactory explanation, and the teleological causality is necessary. For example, the adaptation concept is teleological, which makes the usage of “final cause” indispensable in biology. Furthermore, in the early 19^th century, in his book The Origin of the Species, Charles Darwin deliberately employed the term “final cause,” as it was noticed by James Lennox (Lennox 1993). Although some people claim the opposite, by carefully investigating Darwin’s works, Asa Gray and James Lennox appreciate Darwin by stating that he is the first scientist who reconciled morphology and teleology. Simply put, every species are equipped with specialized organs so that they can maximally benefit from, or maximally defend against, their environment. The same idea is also valid from the religious point of view and does not necessarily deny natural selection.

We can find more examples of teleological causality in systems biology, which studies biological concepts in a holistic way and therefore utilizes a teleological language. For instance, during mitotic cell division, chromosomes are replicated only once and then separated into two new cells. But note that something, indeed a checkpoint, prevents the cell from replicating its DNA more than once. This situation appeals for attention and can be explained in two ways. First is the teleological, or what biologists sometimes call the “biological explanation.” DNA is replicated once because otherwise it is severely defective or even lethal for the cells. Such a teleological explanation is perfectly compatible with the mechanistic explanation (efficient cause) based on the chemical interactions of some related proteins, which can be modeled by thermodynamic equations. As the system is complex, it is often hard to fully fit into a model using thermodynamic formulations. However, system biology offers another way that mixes the language of teleological and efficient causes by considering the system as a signaling network, on which the signal (or information, as in the information theory) is carried out via specific protein phosphorylations or reactions. If we were to analyze the spectrum of the words used in systems biology, such as commitment, robustness, checkpoint, decision etc., we would see that its language is more similar to our purpose-based daily language. For such irreducibly complex systems, the employment of teleological concepts does not arise as metaphorical; rather, it is indispensable as the whole cannot be purely explained by its parts.

Other sciences also provide teleological examples. Beginning in the early 20^th century, quantum physics emerged, bringing along some very unintuitive experiments. For example, Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen offered a paradox called EPR. This states that measurements on two spatially separate but entangled particles can demonstrate correlations that cannot be simply explained by efficient causes. Later on, this phenomenon, called quantum entanglement, was empirically validated and can be explained by the final causes, introducing a retrocausal relationship.

Theoretical physicist Ken Wharton argues that the process known as frustrated spontaneous emission is naturally explained by such teleological causality. A light-emitting atom stops emitting light when the surrounding atoms are no longer able to absorb light. The decision of the atom whether to decay or not depends on the other atoms’ absorption, which has not happened yet. The idea that “the atom is probing the future” is not only counter intuitive, but also difficult to accept on the basis of the efficient causality, as Wharton states. (G. Musser, 2014).

Although teleological explanations are not always indispensable and can always be accompanied by efficient causality, the urge for the simplest explanation usually brings teleological language to science. Because science has been facing complex systems in various fields, teleological (purpose based) causality has become necessary since the beginning of the 20^th century. As a purpose-orientated understanding of existence is fundamental for almost all religions, it would not be strange to observe the engagement of science and religion in the near future.

Returning back to the initial question, of whether the purpose-oriented view can be reconciled with scientific research, we see that this is already widely evident in the scientific community. But there are still some people who think religions oppose science, owing to their purpose-oriented view. The judgment is left to the reader.

Yusuf Malik holds a PhD in physics. He is a freelance writer based in Boston, USA.

Reference

1. Fine, G.. 1987. “Forms as Causes: Plato and Aristotle,” in A. Graeser (ed.), Mathematics and Metaphysics in Aristotle, Bern: Haupt, pp. 69–112.
2. http://www.ohio.edu/chastain/rz/raspail.htm
3. Bacon, Francis. 1605. “Of the Proficience and Advancement of Learning, Divine and Human.” en.wikisource.org.
4. Gedik, N. 2005. “The Miracles of Water,” The Fountain, Issue 49.
5. Lennox, James G. 1993. “Darwin Was a Teleologist.” Biology and Philosophy 8 (4).
6. George Musser. 2015. “The Quantum Mechanics of Fate,” Nautilus, February.

[1] The difference between this explanation and the anthropic principle may seem subtle here, but there is an enormous conceptual gap which extends beyond the scope of this article.