Meeting with the Monk Bahira

The Prophet’s first meeting with a Christian occurred when he, as a young boy aged between nine or twelve, joined his uncle’s merchant caravan for a trip to Syria.¹ The Christian whom the Prophet Muhammad encountered was the monk, Bahira,² who was living in Bostra, a Roman colonial city.³ Monk Bahira was known for his belief that a prophet was soon to appear among the Arabs. Bahira had studied old manuscripts, where he had learned of the coming of a final prophet, and he was convinced that this prophet would appear in his own lifetime. He was particularly interested in the Arab merchants who visited Syria, to see if his conviction would come true.

Bahira’s attention was struck in particular by a caravan from Makka, which to his amazement, was shaded by a cloud that hovered closely above them. The cloud moved as the caravan moved, and did not go any further when they stopped; it was as if it were providing shade for a person or people in the group. When he also noticed that a tree lowered its branches over the caravan to provide further shade, he immediately realized that this caravan must contain an extraordinary person or persons. He invited all of the individuals in the caravan to a meal at his place, but none of their faces revealed the capacity of the expected Prophet. He inquired if there was anyone who had not joined the meal; the answer he received was that Muhammad had been left behind to watch the caravan. He was keen to see Muhammad; and when he actually saw him he realized that he carried all the signs that the awaited Prophet was to have, as describ-ed in his books.⁴ He told Muhammad’s uncle to take him back to Makka as soon as possible in order to guard him against potential enemies.⁵

This incident is used by some Western scholars as a basis to claim that Muhammad learned about the Judeo-Christian tradition from this monk, and that he later converted this knowl-edge into a new religion, i.e. Islam.⁶ However, it would not be logical or reasonable to adopt such an idea; Prophet Muhammad was far too young to acquire such an immense knowledge and the conversation between the monk and Muhammad was not a protracted one.

Waraqa ibn Nawfal

Prophet Muhammad also had some encounters with one of the known Arab Christians in Makka, Waraqa ibn Nawfal. Waraqa was a respected man of his time and a well-known Christian scholar. When the Prophet received his first Qur’anic revelation on Mount Hira, it had a great impact on him. Following this unusual experience, he went home, feeling ill. His wife Khadija took the Prophet to Waraqa and told him about the revelation.⁷ After listening to Prophet Muhammad, Waraqa said that it was Gabriel, the Angel of Revelation, who had come to him, just as he had come to Moses, and he added, “I wish I were young..⁸

Waraqa was an open-minded man; he converted from paganism to Christianity and also understood the features of the revelation that had been given to Muhammad. He sincerely supported Muhammad as a Christian believer when he understood that he was the awaited prophet, after Moses and Jesus, peace be upon them. Waraqa encouraged Muhammad to continue his call, without any doubt that God would protect him. This is a fine example of cooperation between a well known Christian scholar and the would-be Prophet.

The Abyssinian King (Negus) and The First Immigrants

When the Messenger of God began to declare his message openly, the Makkan pagans started to severely oppose him and the new Muslims, making many problems for them. Several Muslims died, with even more being humiliated and alienated. The Prophet realized that Makka was becoming a difficult place for Muslims to live in. He had his uncle as his protector; but there were many Muslims who had no protection from the aggressions of the Makkan pagans. He decided to send some of them to Abyssinia, especially those who had no effective protection; Abyssinia at the time was ruled by a Christian ruler. The Prophet told the group that King (Negus) of Abyssinia was a Christian, so they would be safe there.⁹ It is likely that Prophet Muhammad had some knowledge that the King was a peaceful and lenient ruler.

At the outset, eleven Muslims immigrated to Abyssinia. Later, they were joined by about 83 adult Muslims, women and men.¹⁰ Abyssinia was the Prophet’s choice; he felt that Christians were closer to Muslims than the Makkan pagans. When the first Muslim guests arrived there, they met with the King. Ja’far, as leader of the immigrants, gave the Prophet’s letter to the King, which read: “I have sent my cousin Ja’far to you, accompanied by a small number of Muslims; if he comes to you, receive them in hospitality . . .” The King welcomed them and promised to protect them from their enemies. In the royal presence a question was put to them: “What do you say concerning Jesus?” The spokesman for the group replied, “concerning Jesus we can only say what our Prophet has taught us: Jesus is the servant and messenger of God, the spirit and word of God, whom God entrusted to the Virgin Mary.” When the King Negus heard this testimony, he picked up a twig from the ground and said, “I swear, the difference between what we believe about Jesus, the Son of Mary, and what you have said is not greater than the width of this twig.”¹¹

When the Makkans heard that the Muslims had begun to live within the Christian community peacefully, they sent a delegation of learn-ed people to the King to persuade him to deport the Muslims from Abyssinia. There was a debate in front of the King between the Muslims and the Makkan delegation about what and how the Muslims believed. After the end of the debate, the King rejected the requests of the Makkans along with their gifts.¹² This was the first helping hand for the young but frail Muslim community from a Christian ruler.

The Delegation of Najran Christians

No doubt the most important interaction between the Christians and the Prophet was the visit of the Najran delegation to Madina. Makka and Madina had a very small Christian population (Waraqa ibn Nawfal was one of them). The majority of Christian residents lived in Najran. The Prophet’s first important encounter with Christian clergies was in the 9th year of Hijra (AD 631), one or two years before his death.

Prophet Muhammad had been sending official letters to different countries and their rulers, inviting them to Islam. Among these were two different invitations that had been sent to Najran with Khaled ibn al-Walid and Ali ibn Abi Talib.¹³ At that time the Najran Christians had a highly organized religious life. Before Islam, foreign teachers had even visited the town, such as the Italian priest Gregentius, which had deepen-ed their religious knowledge.¹⁴ Few of the Najran Christians converted to Islam; the majority of them did not change their religion after these invitations. Prophet Muhammad sent a representative to them, Mughira ibn Shu’ba, who was sent to explain the invitations and the religion of Islam. After discussions with Mughira, the Christians of Najran decided to send a group of people to visit the Prophet. The delegation was made up of about 60 well-educated Christians: A bishop, his 45 scholars, and 15 men. Their intention was to learn the nature of the revelations Prophet Muhammad was receiving.¹⁵

When the Najran delegation reached Madina, they debated with the Prophet in an investigatory dialogue for two or three days in the mosque (Masjid) of Madina. Prophet Muhammad allow-ed them to pray in the mosque (Masjid al-Nabawi) where the Muslims prayed. The whole incident was the first occurrence of peaceful dialogue between Christians and Muslims; it was the first time that Christians prayed in a mosque.¹⁶

Prophet Muhammad warmly welcomed the Najran delegation and provided them with a place to stay in Madina, in a secure place close to his mosque. He even ordered that their tent be pitched for them by the Muslims. However, the Najran delegation and Prophet Muhammad were not able to reach a solution in theological terms. At the end of these exchanges, the Najran Christians told the Prophet: “O, Abu al-Qasim, we decided to leave you as you are and you leave us as we are. But send with us a man who can adjudicate things on our properties, because we accept you.” The delegation was granted their request and a written assurance was provided by the Prophet that their lives, property, and religion would be protected. He made witnesses sign this undertaking.¹⁷ The Najran Christians were the first Christian community with whom the Prophet had a jizyah 18 agreement. At the beginning of the meeting, they had disagreements with the Prophet about the concept of the Trinity, but later on they were able to make a social pact.¹⁹ This contract was an initial step that would lead to further developments.

Conclusion

As Muhammad Hamidullah states “of all the religions, the Prophet found Christianity the most sympathetic, although with certain serious reservations.”20 Accepting differences to be “as they are” was the first step in establishing peaceful relations between the Christians and Prophet Muhammad some fourteen hundred years ago.

It is apparent that Christians and Muslims believe in and pray to the same God, the Creator of the universe. Both Muslims and Christians ask for help and forgiveness from the same God. Both of them declare the importance of “peace”; so, it is only natural to expect that the followers of the two traditions would be able to establish peace together all around the world.

Local problems do not stay local any longer. Today’s local issue will be tomorrow’s global problem. Struggles, wars, clashes, hunger, ecological crises, the threat of nuclear holocaust, and the colonization of humanity are not just a particular religion’s problem; they are worldwide problems that affect all believers. “There is no local situation that is not impinged upon by the wider cultural-political situation.”21 Understanding each other well, respecting others, and accepting others as they are would be a great step toward solving the global problems of the different religious communities. The more believers share and understand the global crisis the more suitable a habitat for human kind this world will become.

Footnotes 

1. Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources, Allen & Unwin, U.K., 1983, p. 29.
2. In some sources the name of the monk is mentioned “Sergius.” See: Mustafa Fayda, “Bahira” TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi, Istanbul 1991, IV, 486.
3. Under Alexander Severus (222-235) Bostra became a Roman colony. See: S. Vailhé, “Bostra,” The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume II, Online Edition, 1999 by Kevin Knight.
4. For details P.S: Ibn Hisham, Abd al-Malik, al-Sirat al Nabaviyyah, Egypt 1955, I, 180-183.
5. M. Lings, Muhammad, p. 29-30.
6. Mustafa Fayda, “Bahira” TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi, Istanbul 1991; Daniel, Islam and the West, p.101,105,109.
7. Ibn Hisham, I, 236-238.
8. Al-Bukhari, Muhammad ibn Isma’il, Sahih al-Bukhari, Dar al-Fikr, (Arabic-English Edition), I, 2-3
9. Ibn Hisham, I, 217-221.
10. Ibn Hisham, I, 221-230
11. R. Marston Speight, God Is One: The Way of Islam (New York: Friendship Press, 1989), pp. 1-2.
12. Ibn Hisham, I, 233-238
13. Name of a valley in North Yemen, where there was a Christian population inhabiting the highest range in the Arabian Peninsula at that time.
14. Hamidullah, Muhammad Rasulullah, p. 103.
15. Ibn Hisham, I, 575.
16. Ibn Hisham, I, 575-577.
17. http://www.dehai.org/archives/dehai_news_archive/ oct02/0640.html, (12/11/2004)
18. Jizyah: A tax paid by non-Muslims living in a Muslim state. Since the non-Muslims are exempt from military service and taxes imposed on Muslims, they must pay this tax in compensation. It guarantees them security and protection. If the state cannot protect those who paid jizyah, then the amount they paid is returned to them.
19. Ahmet Bostanci, Hz Peygamber’in Gayri Muslimlerle Iliskileri, Ragbet Yayinlari, Istanbul 2001, p. 60, 167
20. Hamidullah, Muhammad Rasulullah, p. 76.
21. David Tracy, “Practical Theology in the Situation of Global Pluralism,” in (ed.) L. Mudge -J. Poling, The Promise of Practical Theology, Fortress Press 1983, p. 140.

Of course you have been watching movies for years. Maybe you have subscribed to various cable or satellite channels so that you can watch even more movies. So, how many of them had the qualities mentioned above? How many of them, produced with enormous budgets and large casts and over-promoted, can you watch without finally becoming bored ? How many of them can fill you with indescribable emotions and make you resolve to follow in the footsteps of those characters?

One such movie is the masterpiece The Message. How many times have you seen it? I am sure that some of you have watched it ten, fifteen, or even more times. This would not surprise me at all, for we do not get weary of reading the Qur’an, which God revealed to humanity as the source of guidance and peace. Likewise, the lives and struggles of those who tried to live according to the Quranic teachings do not tire us. On the contrary, The Message refreshes your spirit each time you watch it.

There are two versions of this movie. The Message, directed by Moustapha Akhad and produced in the U.S., attracted attention due to the participation of some famous actors and actresses, among them Anthony Quinn, who “lives” the role he plays, Hamza, the Prophet’s uncle. Irene Papas, who played Abu Sufyan’s wife Hind, made this woman a prominent character, although historically Hind did not have an important part in the story.

The other film, the Arab made al-Risala, which has almost the same scenario, was watched mostly in Arab countries. Its most distinguishing feature is that the Qur’anic verses are recited in their original form (instead of in translation). This movie did not attract as much attention, because there were no movie stars in the leading roles. Nevertheless, the characters are portrayed quite successfully.

In both movies, Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) is not shown. Rather, he is symbolized through the staff he carries, the camel he rides, or the people who talk with him. Both scenarios begin by depicting the “Era of Ignorance” period in Arabia. Makka’s social structure and its culture are shown in some detail: the prevailing tyranny and injustice, the hundreds of deities being worshipped and the sacrifices offered to them, the annual fairs, and other activities are presented. This was the milieu into which the Prophet was born. His world was one in which poetry and rhetoric was favored, women and slaves were not regarded as human, where might was right, and where thousands of people died in blood feuds. In short, there was no one to stand up as a living monument of faith or courage or to speak up for the truth.

We read about the Prophet’s life or learn about it from the people around us. But how many times have we contemplated his struggles and difficulties in order to understand him better? These works fulfill an important duty in terms of informing those who do not have the time for such contemplation about the lives of these ascetic people, by taking them to the Makka of that time.

The revelation’s beginning is portrayed by reciting the first verses in the darkness of the Hira cave. First, the Prophet invites those who are close to him to Islam. Everything is done in great secrecy. The setting is the house of Ibn Arqam (where the early Muslims gathered) and the new converts devote themselves to this cause there. When there are 40 of them, the period of public preaching begins. Then we see another touching scene: the Muslim community is walking toward the Ka’ba with the Messenger in the middle. They are met with stones, spittle, clubs, and insults. One of the most spectacular scenes is close at hand: Hamza, whom the Messenger later nicknamed “the lion of God,” rescues these people, who could have been killed on the spot due to the provocations of Abu Jahl. He rides through the crowd and, to everyone’s surprise, dismounts and hits Abu Jahl with his bow. As a result of beginning to preach in public, the poor and weak Muslims are subjected to violence at the hands of the Makkan polytheists. The audience sees Bilal and Ammar ibn Yasar being tormented and tortured.

One of the most emotive scenes is the discussion held before King Negus between the first Muslims and the Makkan polytheists who followed them there. The Prophet, describing Negus as a just ruler, told the persecuted Muslims to take refuge in his land. So, Amr ibn al- ‘As, at that time a polytheist, was sent to bring them back and was given many gifts to bestow upon Negus. The king listens to their conversation for a long time, and for a moment thinks about handing them over, but decides to protect them after Ja‘far ibn Abu Talib recites the Quranic verses about Mary. These scenes are significant in that they show how the Christians of that time and area viewed Islam.

After a while, the Prophet and many Muslims emigrate to Madina. Another well-known scene is when the Messenger and Abu Bakr enter Madina. When the people, who have been waiting for days on the rooftops and in the trees, begin singing the hymn Talaal Badru to welcome him enthusiastically, a scene is created to touch the heart of all that witness it. And Madina’s Muslims, who beg the Makkan immigrants to stay with them, as well as the heartfelt embraces that are the product of the affiliation felt between the two groups, fill our hearts with emotion and our eyes with longed-for sights.

The following scenes depict the wars between the Muslims and the polytheists. Both movies give a detailed depiction of the battles of Badr and Uhud. The war tactics practiced around the wells of Badr and Mount Uhud are presented as comprehensively as possible. The peace of Hudaybiyah is pictured, but not focused on much. After the polytheists break the treaty, the Muslims, now more powerful than before, led by the Messenger and his followers, march upon Makka. Campfires are lit around Makka to intimidate the polytheists, Abu Sufyan tries to make peace and then coverts to Islam, we see the Prophet’s entrance to the city and witness him heading toward the Ka’ba…

Here come the scenes that fill you with emotion and move you so much. The Makkan exiles are once again walking along the streets of their hometown. Some embrace their relatives, kiss the ground, or similar actions. But the Prophet, who missed God’s House more than anything else, enters the Ka’ba … and we go inside with him. He uses his staff to topple the idols that have darkened the soul of humanity one by one, for they are nothing but stones and wood. We become so absorbed that, for a moment, we forget that we are watching a movie and wish that the camera would move a little so that we could see his blessed hand holding the staff, as well as his holy face. Bilal stands upon the Kab‘a’s roof and calls the faithful to prayer, just as the Prophet has told him to do. This call rings out in Makka … bliss fills the hearts, tears fill the eyes.

Then comes the final scene: the Farewell Sermon. One hundred thousand people fill the Uranah valley of Mount Arafat, and all eyes and ears turn upon him. At the end of this sermon, after he hears his community bear witness that he has fulfilled his duty, he says: “O God, Bear witness!” three times.

We see three blessed riders in the desert, representing the thousands of companions who went out into the world to invite people to Islam. After a certain point they separate, saying farewell to each other. Perhaps never to return, they are setting off for lands that are completely unknown to them in order to obey the Messenger’s command to tell others about Islam. Then the calls to prayer begin, one after another, recited in different tones, from mosques of different architectural styles, located in different lands.

This is how the movie ends , but you just keep sitting in front of the screen for a while. Though your eyes are still on the screen, fixed absently, your mind is there, far away in the deserts of Madina, thinking about the exalted guide who reminded people of their humanity, about the world which had been oblivious of humanity. Your soul is striving to follow on his path, and you leave your seat in a completely different mood.

Thus the Qur’an started the greatest ecumenical movement history had ever seen. All the Qur’an required of them was that they confirm the Last Prophet, for their own books told them that such a person was going to come.

The Qur’an, gradually deepening its intimacy with Christians, declared they were the nearest to Muslims in love, because their priests and monks are not proud, and because they listen to and recoagnize the truth of what the Messenger has brought (5:82- 83). It also warns them against certain heresies, such as following those who earlier had gone astray (5:77), believing in the Trinity (4:171), or remaining in their rebellion and unbelief (5:68).

Many Qur’anic verses state that Jesus called people to believe in God’s oneness, and that he called himself “a servant of God.” The Qur’an stresses that his mother Mary (Maryam) was sinless, dedicated to the temple, and raised under Prophet Zakariya’s guidance. It also relates the miracles God gave her, Jesus’ miraculous birth without a father, miracles given to Jesus, his Prophethood, and his being raised to the sky by God (3:33-64). In Maryam:19, their behavior and postures are described and praised. Of all religions, Islam is the only one to attest that Mary was a virgin and gave birth to Jesus miraculously. Islam is even more sensitive about this subject than Christians. In fact, the Bible says in Luke (chapters 2, 4, 5) that Mary was engaged to a carpenter named Joseph, whereas the Qur’an mentions no such person.

The Qur’an rejects Christianity’s fundamental beliefs that Jesus is divine and the Son of God. It asserts that his being distinguished among people or being given many miracles do not make him a deity. People who attribute a son to God are rejected, without clearly pointing out that the subjects are Christians (2:116). Thus the Qur’an wants Christians to understand the implication and correct themselves.

In the early days of Islam, Christians and Muslims were on very good terms. For example, when the Makkan’s persecution became unbearable, the Prophet permitted those who wanted to leave to go to Ethiopia (615 CE / 5 AH). He said that the land was safe, for its ruler was just. A group of 15 Muslims including ‘Uthman and the Prophet’s cousin Ja’far, emigrated there. The Prophet sent Najashi a letter asking him to give refuge to these Muslims, which he did.1 After a while, the Quraysh sent a delegation with many precious gifts to ask Najashi to return the Muslims. Najashi summoned them, and Ja’far explained the situation. Najashi wanted to learn what they thought of Jesus and Mary. Ja’far recited the beginning of Surah Maryam, which deals with the births of Prophet Yahya (John the Baptist) and Jesus. The emperor drew a line on the ground and said: “If there is a difference between our religions, it is as great as this line.” Najashi refused the Qurayshi request.2

At that time, an internal war broke and threatened Najashi’s throne. All Muslims who could fight supported the emperor. Most remained in Ethiopia until 7 AH, when the Prophet summoned them to Madina. Najashi sent his son to the Prophet with a letter stating he had embraced Islam. The Prophet treated Najashi’s men with great hospitality. Najashi died that same year, and the Prophet led his funeral prayer in Madinah.3

Relations between the Muslims and the Byzantine Empire started out as peaceful and in an atmosphere of good will. In the initial years of the Prophet’s mission, war broke out between Christian Byzantium and Sassanid Persia. The Muslims in Makkah sided with the Byzantines, as they were People of the Book. Even though the Byzantines were severely defeated, Surat al-Rum, revealed just after the defeat, announced that the Byzantines would be victorious in a few years. This came true 9 years later, when the Byzantines crushed the Sassanid Empire. At roughly the same time, the small Muslim community in Madinah defeated the Quraysh at Badr.

In 6 AH, the Prophet sent letters to neighboring rulers. One was sent to Emperor Heraclius of Rome. The Prophet wrote: “In the name of God, the All-Merciful, the All-Compassionate. From Muhammad, the servant and messenger of God, to the Roman’s great King Heraclius. May peace be upon those who obey the right path. I call you to Islam in the way of a true Muslim. Become a Muslim and you will find salvation. Become a Muslim and God will give you twice as much as you actually deserve. If you turn away, you will be held responsible for your subjects. And you; 0 People of the Book! Come to o word common between you and us, that we shall worship none but Allah that we shall assign no partner to Him and that none of us shall toke others for lords beside Allah. If they turn away, then say: ‘Bear witness that we are submitters to Allah (as Muslims)’”(3:64). The Empire diplomatically stated that Heraclius rejected the invitation. However, historical sources insist that the emperor inwardly welcomed the invitation and remarked: “These places we are in now will be his in the near future.”

Later, the Prophet sent an envoy to the Ghassanids, who were Arab allies of the Byzantine Empire. His murder led to the Battle of Mutah. The 3,000 Muslims had to fight the 100,000-man Byzantine army. The Byzantines nailed the governor of Maan (or Amman], Ferve the Leper, to a cross because he accepted Islam.4 This murder caused great damage to Muslim-Christian relations, and marks the beginning of 14 centuries of deteriorating relations.5

Seeing that the majority of Christians in that period insisted on believing that Jesus was a deity, God revealed: 0 People of the Book, do not exceed the limits in your religion, nor say of God aught but the truth (4:171). Thus they were called to admit that Jesus was God’s Messenger. Only when they refused to do so did the Qur’an clearly state that this Christian belief represented impiety and denial.

In 9 AH, a delegation of about 70 Christians from Najran, many of them religious and non-religious leaders, came to Madina to discuss Islam’s arguments against Christianity. The Prophet greeted them warmly and let them perform their rituals in the local mosque. The Christians argued about the true nature of Jesus, insisting that he was a deity. Upon this, the following verse was revealed: Then whoever disputes with you concerning him (Jesus) after (all this) knowledge that has come to you, say:

“Come let us coil our sons and your sons, our women and your women, ourselves and yourselves-then we pray and invoke (sincerely) the curse of God upon those who lie” (3:61).

As these Christians rejected logical reasoning, this verse presented them with religious reasoning. This made them uneasy, and they asked for permission to think and talk among themselves. Although they believed that the Prophet was who he said he was, or that there was a high possibility that he was, they decided not to risk being dammed by such a person and so rejected his proposal. However, they agreed to pay the jizya, a tax on non-Muslim citizens of the Muslim community. They decided to return to their country, and asked for a solemn and reliable person to act as a judge in their secular matters. The Prophet assigned Abu ‘Ubaydah, “the one people rely on,” and had a civil contract written out and given to them. It promised that under God’s and his Prophet’s guarantee, as long as the Christians did not disturb the peace they would not be attacked until the Day of Judgment.6

Although the Prophet approached Christians positively, by the time of his death this attempted interfaith dialog had ended. However the Prophet’s invitation, as given in 3:64 above, is still open.

The Prophet’s Policy

Like all political and social systems, Islam differentiates between those who accept it and those who reject it. Salvation is only for believers. But in this world, the rights of Muslims and non-Muslims are almost equal. The Qur’an establishes religious tolerance: There is no compulsion in religion (2:256). In addition, it says that unbelievers who seek refuge should be accepted and sent back to their homelands in safety (9:6).

When the Prophet arrived in Madinah, he found the city in anarchy. To end this situation, he concluded a peace treaty between the Muslims, Jews, unbelievers, and the few Christians, making sure that each community was included. In addition, he sometimes entrusted unbelievers with specific tasks. For example, in 2 AH when the Quraysh wanted Najashi to return the Muslims, the Prophet sent an envoy to ask him to allow the Muslims to continue to live there in peace. His envoy was Ibn Umayya al-Damiri, who at that time was an unbeliever.

Non-Muslims paid an annual tax of 20 dirhams to compensate for their being excused from military duties. At the Prophet’s time, this was equivalent to what a middle-class family would spend in 10 days.

Just before he died, the Prophet reminded people to respect non-Muslims’ rights: “Whoever wrongs one of my non-Muslim subjects shall find me defending their rights on the Day of Judgment.”

The welcoming attitude led many non-Muslims to enter Islam. William Muir, no friend of Islam, says: “Delegations that came to the Prophet from many different tribes were stunned by the grand acceptance they received and the clever policies the Prophet practiced in settling any differences between them; and thus returned to their tribes as Muslim missionaries.”7

Many Western writers state that the Prophet allowed the People of the Book complete religious freedom. Not only did they enjoy Islamic tolerance, but they also enjoyed Muslim hospitality, generosity, and open-mindedness.8 Many willingly accepted Muslim rule and helped the Muslims fight-even against their co-religionists. In addition, they did not participate in the confusion and revolts after the Prophet’s death. This was a way of showing respect and loyalty to the Prophet and Muslims.9 The large Bani Taghlib tribe remained Christian until the third hijri century. This could only be possible if there were no pressure to convert.

Orthodox Church in Iatanbul, Turkey.

The Rightly Guided Caliphs

Surat al-Ma’idah:42-48 contains the civil and penal laws for non-Muslims, and mentions special rights given to non-Muslims. Proof of this has been found in a Nestorian priest’s letter, written to a friend during these years: —The Muslims are not trying to do away with our religion. On the contrary they are protecting it. They pay respect to our priests, and make donations to our churches and monasteries.—10 After Jerusalem was conquered, Caliph ‘Umar promised its people that their rights to life, property, religion, and the right to perform prayer and keep their churches were guaranteed.11 When he learned that a mosque had been built on a Jew’s property, he immediately called for it to be demolished. In 1933, Professor Cardah, a Lebanese Christian, said: —This Jewish man’s house is still there, and is known by everybody.—12 ‘Umar even asked the Governor of Syria for a Roman treasury specialist to supervise Madinah’s treasury.13 He discussed military, official, and economic issues with non-Muslims, leading such jurists as al-Mawardi and Abu Ya’la to conclude that non-Muslims could serve on the executive official’s board. In ‘Umar’s time, Syria’s Superior Governor was Abu Ubaydah. When he learned that the Byzantine Empire was planning to attack, he told his governors to return the jizya collected from non-Muslims, saying: —We promised to protect you in return for this tax. But because now we cannot do so, we are returning it.— The Christians replied: —We hope God will let you reign over us again. If the Romans had been in your place, they would have taken all we had, let alone giving any of it back.— The Muslims won and the people of every city greeted the returning governor by re-presenting their jizya.14 When Khalid ibn Walid conquered Hira, people who could not work or were sick, rich people who had lost everything, and those who needed help were exempt from taxes. Their families received a stipend from the state treasury for as long as they lived within the borders of the Islamic state.15 Mu’awiya and later caliphates had many Christian officers working for them. For example, the famous royal poet Ahtal was a Christian.

The Umayyads and ‘Abbasids

In ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz’s time, a church’s property was taken illegally in order to widen a mosque. He ordered the mosque to be demolished. But as the Christians were satisfied with a financial substitute, it was spared.16 Khalid el-Kasri, governor of Iraq (724-38), had a church built in his mother’s name.17 The father of Yuhanna al-Dimashqi (Jean Damascene, a major religious figure of the Eastern Christian world), was a minister under the Umayyads and enjoyed great power and fame. He wrote A Dialogue with o Muslim to prepare his fellow Christians to stand against the Muslims. He was so bigoted and hostile toward Islam that many Orientalists blame him for the Christian world’s long-standing negative attitude toward Islam. However, he was free to pursue these activities under Islamic rule. Under Caliph Mahdi (775-85), a church was built in Baghdad so that Christian slaves from Byzantium could practice their religion.18 Caliph Harun al-Rashid’s personal doctor was Jibra’il, a very rich Christian. Under Caliph Mu’tasim (883-42) there were two very famous Christian brothers: Salmiye was the equivalent of a Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Ibrahim, the older brother, was responsible for the treasury. When he died, Mut’asim had his body brought to the palace and organized a Christian funeral for him there.19 Christians were autonomous. The state did not interfere with their internal issues, and any legal issues between themselves were settled by their religious leaders. Churches and monasteries were run independently. In time, the Christian population decreased and the churches were deserted. As there was a need for more mosques, some of the churches were converted. The Christians were not disturbed by this, nor did they oppose it.20 The Muslims gave non-Muslims such vast rights that they could even engage in practices forbidden to Muslims. For example, they were free to produce alcoholic drinks and sell them to each other or export them. There was also a special rule for marriage. While marriage with other non-Muslim women is not allowed, Muslims are permitted to marry Jewish and Christian women.

Islamic States and the Ottomans

Historically, tolerance toward non-Muslims were practiced by almost all Islamic states. —Christians have been allowed to live as they believe and have been allowed to be tried by their own churches and judges. No one has interfered with such issues.—21 Phillip Hitti writes that the Muslim rulers of Spain granted the local people more human rights than the Visigoths did.22 He quotes from Dozy, an Islamic historian: —Spain has even benefited from Islamic law.—23 Mihail, the Jacobean Patriarch of Antakya, wrote during the second half of the twelfth century, that after 5 centuries of Islamic rule, the experience of the Eastern churches made them conclude that Providence was with the Arabs. He states: —The Gracious Lord Who alters the fate of empires and gives their power to others, He who raises the lower and is a witness to the evil doings of the Romans who raid our churches and violate any country they rule. He, in revenge, brought the sons of Ishmael from the south to save us from the Romans.—24 When the Ottomans were about to conquer Istanbul, the Byzantine Empire was in a poor state. The Europeans said they would help only if the Byzantines converted to Catholism. But the Byzantine Empire was the head of Orthodoxy, and so could not obey the Pope. Immense hostility existed between the two branches of Christianity for various historical reasons. Even so, on 12 December 1452, a ceremony was directed by Cardinal Isidore, sent by the Pope. The Byzantine leader, the Great Duke Notaras, interpreted his people’s feelings with this famous saying: —I would rather see the Turk’s turbans in Byzantium than the Latin’s hats.—25 The largest religious minority in the Ottoman State was the Orthodox Christians. The Patriarch, leader of Orthodox Christianity, was stationed in Istanbul. The Byzantine emperors accepted the Patriarch as the leading figure, and saw themselves as protectors of the Orthodox Church. Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror officially recognized both statuses. Even better standards were established for Orthodox subjects than in the time of the Byzantines. The only difference from Muslim Turks was that they could not take an active part in ruling the country. Subjects who converted could become vezirs or even sadrazams (a position equivalent to vice president). They worked as interpreters, doctors, and other official staff members.26 The Ottoman rulers did not limit non-Muslim people’s praying or ceremonies, and preserved their religious or sectarian organizations or churches. The Ottomans were a worldwide model of this idea. Gibbons writes: —It can not be argued that the Ottomans were the first nation in the new age to use the principle of religious freedom as a fundamental idea in establishing their state.—27 Jean Bodin (1520-96), founder of European state laws, recommended to the King of France that he take the ruling of the Ottoman State as an example.28 He said that the Padishah (Ottoman ruler) treated the Orthodox, the Catholics, and the Jews as equal to the Muslims and protected them all. Chenier of Geneva said in 1717: —The Turks have a very wide perspective of religion and show great tolerance.—29 No one was punished for their religious beliefs, except for those who deliberately insulted Islam. The few priests punished were not charged with religious offenses, but with treason. Marshall Von Moltke30 found the source of this tolerance and stated: —The Turks show such vast tolerance towards us Christians that the reason for this could only be their solid and strong belief in Islam.—31 The violence and aggression between rival Christian sects in those years is recorded in their own books.32 After Vienna’s defeat, the Venetians invaded Sakiz for a short time and Mora for quite a long time. They caused so much violence that when the Ottomans resumed control, the Greeks greeted them with songs and celebration.33 The Ottomans also collected the jizya from the People of the Book in return for their exemption from military service and for protecting them. Christian soldiers did not have to pay this tax. Soldiers from southern Romania, presented for service to the Ottomans in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, became a very important part of the army.34 Many non-Muslims lived in the Empire, especially in port cities. The state protected them and gave them complete freedom to conduct business, visit religious places. or just tour the country.35 V. Morrin of Rokebey wrote that he went to Istanbul in 1794, when he was 22 years old, and had roamed freely among the Turks and found them very helpful.36 The Ottomans respected the art of ancient civilizations. The mosaics in Ayasofia (Hagi Sophia), the number most famous mosque, were not touched from 1453 until 1922. Out of respect for Christian feelings, the mosaics were painted over.37 Orientalists, basing themselves on twentieth-century values, have problems with the dhimmi status of non-Muslim Ottoman subjects. However, they are gravely mistaken. We have mentioned the vast rights given to them in theory and practice… The Pope made a positive effort during the Second Vatican Council, requesting dialogue in 1965. We hope good will and wishes will be put into practice. Muslims are always ready for dialogue. (*) Translated from Turkish by Turkan Aksoylu

Footnotes

1 Najashi was the emperor’s title, not his personal name. 2 Ibn Kathir, Al-Sirat al-Nabawiyah (Beirut), 1:251-53. 3 lbid., 1:262. 4 Ibn Kathir, Al-Bidayah (Cairo: 1413 AH /1992 CE), 5:84. 5 Muhammed Hamidullah, Islam Peygamberi, 1:225. 8 Muhammed Hamidullah, Mecmuatu’l Vesaik, no:94. 7 William Muir, Life of Mahomet (London: 1856-61), 4:107-8. T. Arnold, 62 8 F. Rosenthal, Political Thought in Medieval Islam (Great Britain: 1958), 2. 9 Cactani, Annali Deli Islam, 2:814; Arnold, 62. 10 Muhammed Hamidullah, Introduction to Islam, 497. Taken from Assemani, Bibl. Orient, III.2, p. XCVI. 11 Al-Tabari; Arnold, 70. 12 Hamidullah, Introduction, 433. 13 lbid., 232. 14 Arnold, 226. 15 Abu Yusuf, Kitab al Kharaj. Trans. A. Ozek (Istanbul: 1973), 232. 16 Hamidullah, Introduction, 434. 17 Ibn Khallikan, Vefeyat, (Beirut: 1969), 2:228. 18 Yakut al-Hamawi, Mu’jam al-Buldan, 2:662; Arnold, 80. 19 lbn Abi Usaybia, ‘Uyun al-Anba’fi Tabaqat al-Atibba’ (Beirut: Maktabat Hayat), 2:234-35. 20 Arnold, 78. 21 Philip K. Hitti, Siyasi ve Kulturel Islam Tarihi, trans. Prof. Dr. Salih Tug, vol. 2 (Istanbul: 1980). 22 Ibid., 2:803-4. 23 Dozy, Histoire des musulmans d’Espagne (Leiden: 1932), 1, 278; Hitti, 2:804. 24 Michel le Syrien, Chronique, 11:412-13; Arnold, 68. 25 Dukas, 27:161; Yilmaz Oztuna, The History of the Ottoman State (Istanbul: 1986), 2:98. 26 Oztuna, History, 2:143. 27 Gibbons, 63. Oztuna, History, 2:143. 28 Discours, 5:655. 29 Hammer, 15:350; Oztuna, History, 2:144. 30 (1837), 90-1. 31 Oztuna, History, 2:144-45. 32—Ibid., 2:145-46. 33 Fernand Grenerd, Grandeur de l’Asie, 126-28; Oztuna, History, 2:145-46. 34 A de lu Sargoere Histoire Ottoman (Paris: 1881),14; Arnold, 75. 35 d’Ohsson, 5:3. 36 Said Nursi, The Letters (London: 1914), 67, 70. 37 Oztuna, History, 2:146.