Obesity: a disease of the brain?

Kullmann et al. A short-term, high-caloric diet has prolonged effects on brain insulin action in men. Nature Metabolism, February 2025.

Obesity is a growing disease associated with serious illnesses like diabetes, heart disease, and cancer. The World Health Organization has labeled obesity an epidemic, affecting over a billion people worldwide. Obesity is defined by a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or higher, often attributed to poor diet and lack of exercise. However, the underlying biological mechanisms are more complex, particularly regarding the brain’s sensitivity to insulin. A recent study found that even short-term consumption of highly processed foods, such as chocolate bars and potato chips, can significantly alter brain function in healthy individuals, potentially triggering obesity and type 2 diabetes. Normally, insulin suppresses appetite, but in obese individuals, it fails to regulate eating behavior, leading to insulin resistance. The study also revealed that after just five days of high-calorie intake, the brain’s insulin sensitivity in healthy individuals decreased similarly to that observed in obese people. This effect persisted even after returning to a balanced diet for a week. The study involved 29 healthy-weight male participants divided into two groups. One group consumed an additional 1,500 kcal per day from processed snacks for five days, while the control group maintained its regular diet. MRI scans showed increased liver fat in the high-calorie group and a significant reduction in brain insulin sensitivity, which remained even after returning to normal eating habits. Scientists emphasize that the brain’s insulin response adapts to short-term dietary changes before weight gain occurs, highlighting the need for further research into obesity’s neurological factors.

Inheritance of Trauma Through Genes

Mulligan et al. Epigenetic signatures of intergenerational exposure to violence in three generations of Syrian refugees, Scientific Reports, February 2025.

In 1982, the Syrian government carried out a brutal siege in Hama, killing tens of thousands. Beyond the historical and political repercussions, the violence left a hidden impact—one embedded in the genes of Syrian families. A groundbreaking study has now shown that the trauma experienced by pregnant women during the siege has left genetic marks on their grandchildren, supporting the idea that stress and violence can have long-term biological effects. This study explored how trauma is passed across generations through epigenetics, a process in which chemical markers alter gene expression in response to stress. While animal studies have demonstrated the inheritance of stress-induced epigenetic changes, proving it in humans has been challenging. To investigate, researchers studied three generations of Syrian refugees, comparing families who survived the Hama massacre, those affected by the recent civil war, and a control group who immigrated to Jordan before 1980. They collected DNA samples from 138 individuals across 48 families, focusing on mothers and grandmothers who were pregnant during violent events and their children. They discovered 14 specific areas in the genome of the grandchildren of Hama survivors that bore stress-induced modifications. Additionally, 21 epigenetic sites were altered in those who directly experienced violence. Another finding showed that individuals exposed to violence in the womb exhibited signs of accelerated biological aging, potentially increasing their vulnerability to age-related diseases. While the long-term effects of these modifications remain uncertain, past research suggests links between stress-induced epigenetic changes and health conditions like diabetes and obesity. A well-known study on Dutch famine survivors found similar genetic imprints affecting their offspring’s metabolism. Beyond scientific discovery, the study highlights the resilience of affected families. Despite enduring immense hardship, they continue to build meaningful lives. These findings are likely relevant beyond war zones, shedding light on how various forms of violence—domestic abuse and gun violence—can have lasting biological consequences.

The New Hypothesis for Mars’ Red Color Suggests a Once-Habitable Past

Valantinas et al. Detection of ferrihydrite in Martian red dust records ancient cold and wet conditions on Mars. Nature Communications, February 2025.

Mars’ iconic red color has long fascinated scientists, and a new study suggests that the water-rich iron mineral ferrihydrite may be responsible for the planet’s reddish hue. A recent work challenges the prevailing theory that hematite, a dry, rust-like mineral, is the primary cause. Ferrihydrite forms in water-rich environments, unlike hematite, which typically develops in drier conditions. This discovery supports the idea that Mars once had liquid water and a more habitable environment. The findings suggest that Mars transitioned from a wetter past to its current cold and arid state billions of years ago. To reach their conclusion, researchers analyzed data from multiple Mars missions, including NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and rovers like Curiosity and Opportunity. They combined spectral observations from orbiters with ground-level measurements and conducted lab simulations, recreating Martian dust to study how light interacts with ferrihydrite. By grinding minerals to submicron sizes—1/100th the width of a human hair—the team replicated the fine Martian dust, confirming that its light reflection closely matches observations from Mars. This discovery opens new possibilities for understanding Mars’ ancient climate and habitability. Since ferrihydrite forms in the presence of water and oxygen, its widespread presence suggests Mars had conditions far different from its current dry and cold landscape. The findings may also help answer fundamental questions about whether Mars once supported life. However, final confirmation awaits the return of Martian samples, currently being collected by the Perseverance rover. These samples could definitively determine whether ferrihydrite is the key to Mars’ red dust, unlocking more secrets about the planet’s history.

When we look around us at the world of the living, “protection” appears to be an essential component of survival. Animals are equipped with various mechanisms to protect themselves from the harms of the environment or other predators. Cats have claws and fur to avoid cold, chameleons use camouflage, a skunk gives off an odor for defense, and a turtle has a hard shell to protect its vital organs. The peel of an orange keeps its inside fresh until consumed. While other animals are born with defense mechanisms and quickly learn to use them, humans are the weakest in self-defense for a long time after birth. However, using our intellect, we can make clothing and build shelters to protect ourselves from the cold or heat. Defense mechanisms seem to prevail and vary throughout the universe. Did you know that our planet Earth also has a defense mechanism like a jacket or a windbreaker that keeps us safe from a damaging storm?

It is now well-established that space is not entirely empty or inactive. In fact, there are strong winds of particles, mainly composed of electrons and protons, that fly out from the Sun and travel throughout space. This phenomenon is called “solar wind” and it reaches our planet Earth. This wind of high-energy charged particles travels at very high speeds, such as 500,000 km per second, and can be highly harmful [1]. In fact, when astronauts go to space, a significant factor they need to take into consideration is the “space weather” which is largely dictated by the solar wind. If these particles reach the Earth, they can cause static electricity to build up everywhere, disrupt communications, and interfere with electric power distribution. Over time, these winds are estimated to cause serious health effects on humans, such as cancer or death. Since we have not actually been subjected to this wind directly, we don’t exactly know the level of the harm; but even in the most optimistic scenario, life on Earth would cease to exist in a relatively short amount of time.

So, how come we are never impacted by this high-speed storm and never even feel its existence? Our planet has a defensive tool provided by the Earth’s magnetic field. A magnetic field can be considered like invisible lines of forces surrounding an object, acting like a magnet. For instance, consider the everyday magnets that we hang on the sides of our refrigerators at home. These magnets attract or repel certain metals through a force we call magnetic force. This magnetic force is active even without physical contact between the magnet and the metal.

Physicists explain this force in terms of the concept of a “field”– a field can be thought of as invisible lines surrounding an object. Consider the magnetic field of a regular magnet. If a magnetic material, such as a metal, enters this region of the field, the interaction between the field and the metal produces a force based on the laws of electromagnetism. This force results in the attraction or repulsion of the metal by the magnet, depending on their orientation.

In essence, our Earth is a giant magnet, with a magnetic field running around it from the South pole to the North pole. This is how compasses work: the tiny needle in a compass is pushed by the Earth’s magnetic field until it aligns with the field direction. Since the Earth’s magnetic field always points toward the North pole, so does a compass needle. That is why a compass needle always point towards the geographic direction of North.

A key feature of a magnetic field is that it acts on particles with electrical charge, such as electrons or ions. For example, when an ion gets close to a magnet and enters its magnetic field, the ion is subjected to a force that changes its direction of motion, causing it to follow a different path. This effectively diverts the ion from its original trajectory. This is exactly what happens when the solar wind approaches us, the Earth. The ions that make up the solar wind travel at extremely high speeds and would otherwise have a significant impact. However, when they enter the magnetic field of the Earth, they are pushed away from their original path, preventing the solar wind from reaching the surface of the Earth. Essentially, the magnetic field of the Earth acts like a protective jacket or windbreaker that repels the solar wind and safeguards life on Earth.

Lorentz force equation

Interestingly, as the charged particles are diverted from their initial path by the magnetic field, they mainly enter the atmosphere near the poles. This is an obvious result of what is called the “Lorentz force equation” which forms the foundation of electromagnetism. As part of the solar wind enters through the poles, they ionize the air and free up electrons which in turn recombine with other atoms. This process releases energy in the form of light at different wavelengths (colors) which forms the spectacular aurora borealis sometimes called “northern lights.” The sky is filled with beautiful colors forming an image pleasing to the eye. Basically, the Earth’s magnetic field not only impedes the storm but also transforms it into a colorful image as if it is trying to transform even harmful phenomena to the benefit of humans.

To see how crucial a magnetic field can be, consider our neighboring planet Mars which is believed to have retained a magnetic field similar to that of ours. It is now accepted that Mars lost its magnetic field about 4 billion years ago. Although the exact mechanism leading to the disappearing of Mars’ magnetic field is not evident, there are theories asserting that the loss was mainly due to the changes in the chemical structure of the planet’s core. This loss made Mars vulnerable against solar winds which consequently stripped the planet’s atmosphere and evaporated the oceans and all the water that would be crucial for life. [2,3] This alone proves us how vital the Earth’s magnetic field is as it is one of the many factors that make life possible on our blue planet.

The fact that our Earth has been assigned with such a shield by a “Protector” is a good enough reason to be thankful.

Lord of the heavens and the earth, and everything between them; and Lord of the Easts. We have adorned the lower heaven with the beauty of the planets. And guarded it against every defiant devil. (As-Saffat 37:5-7).

References

• https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/nmp/st5/SCIENCE/solarwind.html
• Nature Communications, Volume 13, Article number: 644 (2022)
• Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 117, No. 50 (December 15, 2020), pp. 31558-31560

Religion and Science: The Institute on Religion in an Age of Science, Inc., will convene on July 29-August 4, 2001. The topic, Human Meaning in a Technological Culture, will explore and evaluate how these powerful [information and biotechnoloy] technologies redefine, for better and for worse, human identity and meaning, as well as ideas about reality and God. www.iras.org.

Call for Papers: The European Society for the Study of Science and Theology (ESSSAT) has issued a call for papers. Details about its conference, to be held during March 19-24, 2002, are now available. www.esssat.org.

The Future of Religion? The World Network of Religious Futurists will meet in Minneapolis, MN, July 29-31, 2001. Attendees are scholars and activists from around the world who study the future of their religious tradition in view of world civilization. www.wfs.org.

Interesting Books: Mariano Artigas, The Mind of the Universe: Understanding Science and Religion; Robert Herrmann (ed.), Expanding Humanity’s Vision of God: New Thoughts on Science and Religion; Arnold Benz, The Future of the Universe: Chance, Chaos, God?; Ted Peters (ed.), Science and Theology: The New

Consonance; Ian Barbour, When Science Meets Religion; Reuven Firestone, Children of Abraham: An Introduction to Judaism for Muslims; Khalid Duran, Children of Abraham: An Introduction to Islam for Jews; Michael Shermer, How We Believe: The Search for God in an Age of Science. www.amazon.com.

African History in for a Rewrite: Professor John Hunwick and Northwestern University have received a $1 million Ford Foundation grant to study sub-Saharan Africa’s written traditions. In 1999, Hunwick discovered 3,000 Arabic manuscripts held by a Timbuktu family since 1592. He hopes to prove sub-Saharan Africans were not illiterate, and therefore uncivilized, before European colonialism. www.chicago-tribune.com.

In Society

Patent Fight Ended: Last year, 2.5 million Africans died from AIDS because they could not afford medicine. Large pharmaceutical companies, citing intellectual property rights, went to court to block South Africa’s efforts to get a WTO wavier to import far cheaper generic drugs on the grounds of national emergency. The companies withdrew their case on April 19, 2001, claiming that harsh international criticism was not a factor. http://dailynews.netscape.com.

Human Trafficking: The recent deaths of 58 out of 60 illegal Chinese immigrants in Europe highlights the problem of human trafficking. The UN estimates that those involved make $8 billion to $12.3 billion annually in profits. www.cnn.com.

Patenting Gene Data: Biotechnology firms are seeking exclusive ownership of the pure scientific formulas that represent genes. Critics claim this would make any recording and storing of formulas illegal without the patent holder’s permission, effectively ending some genetic research. At least 16 such patents are now pending at the Canadian Patent Office, and similar ones in America and elsewhere. Legal scholars and intellectual property experts fear that the free flow of genetic knowledge and innovation is at stake. www.nationalpost.com.

New Data Transmission Record: French and Japanese engineers have squeezed more than 10 trillion bits per second through single optical fibers. This record capacity equals about 150 million simultaneous phone conversations. www.techreview.com.

In Science

Return to Mars: NASA launched its Mars Odyssey orbiter on April 7, 2001. When it lands on Mars during October 2001, it will map the surface’s chemical and mineral makeup, determine Mar’s radiation level and how it might affect future astronauts, locate near-surface water, and map mineral deposits from past water activity. www.nasa/gov.

A Biological First: Biologists have mapped the entire genetic code of Arabidopsis thaliana, a plant belonging to the mustard family. Scientists expect applications in agriculture (the genetic manipulation of rice, wheat, and other crops) and medicine (many medicines come from plants). www.popsi.com.

RNA Chips: RNA switches clustered on a gold-coated silicon surface can identify different strains of E.coli found in bacterial cultures. Scientists hope to develop RNA chips that can reveal the molecular composition of complex mixtures better than current DNA biochips. Future uses are seen in detecting drugs, toxins, metabolites, proteins, and nucleic acids. www.techreview.com.

New Cancer Treatment: Molecularly targeted therapy drugs recognize and attack specific molecules unique to specific cancers. The model drug leading the way is Glivec (STI571), which fights CML, a cancer characterized by excessive white blood cell overproduction. Such drugs are designed by working backward from a known abnormal molecule specific to a certain type of cancer, and thus have a limited use. Glivec is getting a priority FDA review. http://abcnews.go.com.

Virtual Reality Update: Computer scientists affiliated with the National Tele-Immersion Initiative have produced a prototype virtual office. Digital cameras that monitor movements from various angles, head-mounted tracking gear, polarized glasses, and screens mounted at right angles to your desk allow you to see your colleague’s office. All images are life-size and 3D. www.popsci.com.

Viking I was launched from earth orbit in August 1975. It traced seven hundred million kilometres in an interplanetary spiral to reach Martian orbit the following June. In July 1976 a car size tripod lander, dropped from the space craft, alighted on the rocky surface of Mars some 1200 miles from the Martian Mariner canyon system. This was the location of man’s first on-site search for life on another planet.

The successful Viking missions to Mars supplied us with most valuable scientific information. Although Mars is a rock-strewn desert, its rocks are enriched with minerals that may support life forms with water, air, and raw materials. This was the verdict of the Viking 1 and 2 missions to Mars. Mars may once have had rivers and lakes, but now the temperatures and the atmospheric pressures are so low that water can only exist in the form of vapour or ice. Scientists also suspect that the planet’s giant volcano, Olympus Mons, overlies a hot spot. Although this volcano may still erupt every 10,000 years, the red planet has essentially been frozen to death. However, there is still hope, because the experiments conducted with Martian soil produced significant results. During the experiments, Martian soil was fed with nutrients and water. The results were most surprising. Unlike the lunar dust, Martian soil consumed the nutrients. Not only did apparent consumption of the nutrients give ‘rise to a steady rate of carbon dioxide production but the introduction of water vapour resulted in a most unexpected surge in oxygen levels.

Eighteen years have passed since these experiments and mankind has not taken a step on Mars yet. Will it ever be possible for man to achieve a settlement on Mars in the future? Firstly, such settlements on the planet need to be as self-sufficient as possible. The first Mars invaders will need to begin a search for crucial supplies such as water and oxygen. Since Mars has little nitrogen in its soil to sustain plants, scientists would need to inject the soil with earthly micro-organisms to free up the crucial element. A base independent from earth is impossible without these necessities of life, particularly water and power sources and raw materials for building an ecosystem. Although the atmosphere is only 0.03 % water, the air is saturated with water most of the time, due to the low temperature. However, rain is impossible because the atmosphere is too thin and it is generally cloudless.

A Martian day is 24 hours and 37 minutes, which is very close to earth’s. The fact that gravity is one third of earth’s, is also an advantage. However, what is important is to produce resources like ammonia (a plant nutrient), hydrazine (for rocket fuel), formic acid (for storing electricity), nitric acid (for oxygen storage) and methane (natural gas). We do not know what will actually be found on Mars when it is completely explored, but the important fact about Mars is that, unlike the moon, it contains all the raw materials that are crucial for a Martian base.

At present the planet is an Arctic wasteland, but scientists say this has not always been the case. Much can be learned from a small core sample of the planet’s polar ice. Scientists need to know what happened to its climate, if it resembled the earth’s in the distant past. The topographical features and the river channels suggest that a few million years ago Mars was a warm planet and probably had a thick atmosphere. The Viking findings and the analysis of some of the data suggest that Mars contains more water than once thought. We must also keep in mind that the Viking probes did not completely rule out the possibility of life on the planet. It might still be possible that Mars supports some kind of microbes. It may be that we have not yet looked in the right place. There are many questions about Mars that remain to be answered. For example: we do not know anything about the interior of the planet, whether its core is liquid or frozen or maybe an earth-like core or if the largest volcanoes in the solar system are still alive. A manned mission to Mars and building bases on its surface is quite possible but we are not sure when it will actually take place.

When we think about the planets in our solar system and their conditions, it is impossible to overlook the fact that the earth was designed purposely for life forms to exist. One has to be out of one’s mind to assume that all this order and harmony is completely coincidental. One important thing we have to understand is that we (living organisms) need the earth and its conditions to survive. It is the only planet in the solar system that could support us. For all we know, it might even be the only one in the galaxy. It is obvious that the earth was specifically designed for human beings, because all other life forms on earth serve mankind. By this token we can even claim that the whole universe was created for the benefit of man. The only reason for this claim is that everything would be completely meaningless without an intelligent thinking being.

Our neighbour, the red planet, might be a hope for the future. Whether we will indeed be able to build bases, grow plants, produce valuable gases and materials, begin settlements and colonies or maybe even achieve the birth of the first human being on Mars, remains to be seen, but until then we have to take care of this blue planet of ours and its inhabitants, since we are its trustees.