Before talking about the universality of Prophet Muhammad’s message, it is essential to focus our attention on the era when Muhammad’s message first emerged: fifteen hundred years ago, in pre-Islamic Arabia. Although there were some positive characteristics of Arabs before Islam, such as generosity, courage, and dignity, the feudal system used by society was extremely harsh: marginalized groups did not have any rights; slavery was rampant; women were sold like property; and female infants were often buried alive as a part of the tradition of tribal honor. Wars between tribes occurred without cessation. People worshipped idols and made their own gods according to their own desires.

In the midst of such chaos, Muhammad was born in 571 CE on the 12th day of the third month of the Arabic calendar, Rabi Al-Awwal. Today, according to the Arabic calendar, the 12th of Rabi Al-Awwal is the Prophet’s birthday. As he came into adulthood, he was not satisfied with the tribal traditions of his society. He would often go into seclusion and meditate for a long time, particularly for the whole month of Ramadan.

In the year 610 CE, he experienced the first revelation. This would forever change him and it transformed the world. The revelations continued for twenty three years, and these make up the Holy Scripture of Islam; its name, the Qur’an, literally means recitation. While spreading this message, over a very short period of time and despite hostile reactions, the Prophet’s kindness and tenderness impacted the hearts of many in the city of Mecca. He did not consider himself a deity or a part of God, but rather the messenger of God sent to convey God’s message to his people.

The Qur’an speaks of many Prophets. There are also particular verses about Muhammad, peace be upon him. In one verse, the Qur’an speaks of him as Rahmatan li al-Alamin, the “mercy for all spheres.” In order to understand the meaning of being merciful to creation, it is important to think of the oppression that was occurring in the world into which he was born and the transformation that his message made possible.

Arabs, due to geographic proximity, were the first group addressed by the Prophet’s message; but the message was not supposed to be limited to just Arabs. In fact, it is not limited to any nation or group. Many Qur’anic verses transcend locality, region, ethnicity, and nationality, by starting with the call, “O human beings,” or, “O people.”

The Prophet’s message brings the idea that everything in creation is a living, chanting, obedient worshipper of God, regardless of whether they are human, animal, or another organism. The Qur’anic verse which says, “Everything in the heavens and earth praises God,” invites the reader to enter the world in which the Qur’an was revealed and see the darkness that dominated it. In Arabia, before the Prophet, the meaning of creatures was not recognized. The Qur’anic revelation breathed life into the world of nature and taught humans that creatures around us are not static and meaningless. Instead, all of them praise God with great joy through their own languages.

Going back in time in our imagination to see the situation in Arabia before and after Muhammad, peace be upon him, would be quite revealing to witness the remarkable transformation he was able to accomplish. One should keep in mind that to change a little vice, such as a bad habit, is difficult enough; changing the minds and the hearts of an entire society, as the Prophet did, is exponentially more difficult. He successfully transformed a wild society into a civilized community and shaped leaders for a new civilization.

If one would like to see the power of transformation that the Prophet made, one needs only to look at the second caliph, Umar, before Islam and after Islam. Umar himself said that he remembered two things from his pre-Islamic life: one, he would cry; and two, he would laugh. He cried that he buried his own daughter alive and he could still hear the voice of her calling to him. He laughed that he made gods of flour, and people ate them when they were hungry.

The new Umar became a symbol of justice for the world. Umar after Islam, during his caliphate, is known for his following statement: “If a wolf attacks a lamb at the shore of the Euphrates, I am afraid that God would ask me why I did not protect the lamb against the wolf.” Out of compassion, he would walk among houses at night and he would anonymously provide food for needy people. It was the universal message of the Prophet that transformed Umar into a person of such immense compassion and humanity.

Mercy and compassion constitute the foundation of the Prophet’s message. The first verse of the first chapter of the Qur’an indicates that God is “All-Merciful and the All-Compassionate.” Another Qur’anic verse says, “Muhammad, We have sent you as a mercy for all creation” (21:10). Being merciful towards all creation, the Prophet’s personal life has become a reflection of this Qur’anic verse. In his relationship with people, he always smiled and no one ever heard a bad word from his mouth. His companion, Anas ibn Malik, who faithfully served the Prophet for thirteen years, witnessed his mercy, saying that he was never reprimanded for his service, despite his mistakes.

The Prophet was also very sensitive towards human suffering. When he heard of a slave being tortured, he commanded one of his companions to buy that slave’s freedom. His famous hadith about the treatment of slaves is a great example of his universal teaching. He said, “They are your brothers; give them to eat what you eat, and give them to wear what you wear.” On one occasion, he asked Zaid bin Haritha, a slave freed by the Prophet, if he would like to go back to his family. Zaid chose not to return with his father, but instead preferred to stay with the Prophet.

The Prophet’s farewell sermon on the plain of Arafat also has remarkable aspects of the universality of his message. In this sermon, he spoke about the rights of women, the relationship between races, and slaves. About slaves, he said, “Fear Allah with regard to your slaves.” In fact, because of his message, just thirty years after his death, it became difficult to find a slave in Arabia. The Qur’anic verse clearly says, “O people, We have created you from male and female and made you into nations and tribes to know one another. The best of you is the best in conduct” (49:13). He said that all humankind is from Adam and Eve: an Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab, and a non-Arab has no superiority over an Arab. Also, a white person has no superiority over a black person, and a black person has no superiority over a white person.

Furthermore, of women he said, “It is true that you have certain rights in regard to your women, but they also have rights over you.” He successfully established a sense of responsibility and conscience in the minds and hearts of his people.

The Prophet’s universal message of mercy did not include only human beings, but also animals. Among the miracles narrated in the hadith, there was the story of a camel that had gone wild and would attack whoever attempted to come near it. When the Prophet appeared, it came to him, prostrated itself as a sign of respect, and knelt beside him, so that he could put a bridle on it. Then the camel complained to the Prophet, “They have employed me in the heaviest work, and now they want to slaughter me.”

Muhammad asked the camel’s owner: “Is it true?”

“Yes,” he said.

The Prophet said to his companions, “These animals are communities, just like you. Be compassionate towards them.” Regarding someone who used his donkey for more than he needed, the Prophet said, “Don’t make the backs of your animals chairs.” On another occasion, the Prophet saw a donkey on the road with a brand on its face, and said, “God’s curse is on him who branded it.”

The Prophet’s mercy even extended to his enemies; he never took revenge. It is reported in the hadith collection that at the battle of Ghatfan and Anmar, the courageous head of a tribe named the Ghuras slyly approached the Prophet. Holding his sword over the Prophet’s head, he asked, “Who will save you from me?”

Muhammad replied, “God!” And he prayed, “O God, suffice me against him.”

In the same breath, Ghuras was knocked down by a mysterious blow between his shoulders, and his sword slipped out of his hand. The Prophet took the sword and asked him, “Now who will save you from me?”

But the Prophet forgave him and allowed him to return to his tribe. His people were all surprised that such a courageous man could not do anything against the Prophet. They asked, “What happened to you? Why couldn’t you do anything?” He told them what had happened, and added, “I am now coming from the presence of the best of men.”

In a fashion similar to this event, at the battle of Badr, a hypocrite from among his own men likewise approached him. He had just lifted his sword when the Prophet turned and glanced at him, causing him to tremble and drop the sword. Once again, the Prophet did not take revenge.

As we can see, the Prophet exemplified the virtues of his message at all times and in all situations. I’d like to finish with a quotation that I think captures the essence of the Prophet and his message. It’s from British Historian Edward Gibbon:

“Mohammed was distinguished by the beauty of his person, an outward gift which is seldom despised, except by those to whom it has been refused… They applauded his commanding presence, his majestic aspect, his piercing eye, his gracious smile, his flowing beard, his countenance which painted every sensation of his soul, and the gestures that enforced each expression of the tongue. In the familiar offices of life, he [meticulously] adhered to the grave and ceremonious politeness of his country; his memory was capacious and retentive, his wit easy and social, his imagination sublime, his judgment clear, rapid and decisive. He possessed the courage both of thought and action; … [and] bears the stamp of an original and superior genius.”

Zeki Saritoprak is a Professor of Islamic Studies at John Carroll University in Cleveland, OH.

In a world of relativities, however, 100 is not immune to varying perceptions. For the young, it is as far as the horizon; for the old, it is as if just around the corner. Maybe it’s not the most pleasing age to aspire to. Some years feel like a century by themselves, especially when so many events are compressed into them. 100, for an institution, is a signpost that proves a level of maturity, establishment, and depth of foundation. But 100 is also a promise for the future.

Here comes the 100th issue of The Fountain (hence you now know why so many words on the number 100!). For a daily newspaper or a weekly magazine, the 100th issue is not the biggest target to strive for. But for a periodical like The Fountain – which publishes serious content on various disciplines while trying to maintain a perspective and level of discourse about issues that pertain to all fellow human citizens, the brothers and sisters of a global home – 100 is not an insignificant number to reach. For over two decades, The Fountain has always chosen to stay above the fray of day-to-day events, temporary politics, or issues that are irrelevant to others. We have been selective in what we publish and tried to ensure content of universal appeal yet with an awareness of differences and respect for local diversities in color, language, culture, and faith.

In this 100th issue, we invite our dedicated readers to write on their takes on The Fountain. Write in 100 words on what The Fountain stands for in your life. What do you understand of its message? How do you think it is different than another publication? Write your life philosophy based on where you stand vis-à-vis The Fountain’s message. Do your best to reach or limit your writing to 100 words, but your reflection does not have to be the exact number. There will be surprise gifts and recognition for participants. Follow our website and social media announcements regarding the deadline and how to submit your work.

In this issue, we continue with Dr. Beecher’s second part on nation and the construction of self identity, the first part of which received positive feedback in the previous issue. His work is complemented by Dr. Kavi’s research on identity and its relationship with religion and culture. Dr. Aydin’s article on memetics is an additional contribution to this issue laying down some perspective on questions such as “How does the mind work? How do humans learn and develop? How does culture form and transfer to future generations?” The lead article sweeps over these issues with a more profoundly human twist on human life, which we are obliged to travel” for the sake of finding ourselves and realizing our true essence. As The Fountain hits 100, it’s a good time to reflect on where we all are in that journey.

Whatever the conditions may be, a believer should not go out of the frame of good manners, civility, and decency, for others ascribe all of their actions to faith. Thus, even in the face of the most grave situations or unyielding cases, believers should not swerve from their direction. Examining the life of the Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, we see that he never changed his manners, even at times when he was challenged by Abu Jahl, the man who did all possible evil to oppose the Prophet.

There is occasionally a bitter tone in some of the Qur’anic passages as far as unbelief and unbelievers are concerned. However, we should clarify here that this harsh style is for devious thoughts and ideas, not for individuals. The Qur’anic message does not position any individual as an opponent just because of who they are. It is profane thoughts and views of denial – which are not unique to certain individuals but which have always existed and will continue to exist – that the Qur’an deals with rather harshly. This is a lesson believers should learn from the Qur’an in their engagement with others.

This is an attitude to be adopted not among people only, but among states, too. Let us reify the concept by an example from the Qur’an. God’s message to Moses, peace be upon him, concerning his encounter with the Pharaoh was, “but speak to him with gentle words, so that he might reflect and be mindful or feel some awe (of me, and behave with humility)” (Ta Ha 20:44). Speaking with gentle words and softly, even if it is the Pharaoh you are going to deal with – the Pharaoh who afflicted you and your nation with all possible oppression and violence. Another remarkable point here is that the Qur’an binds reflection and God-consciousness to “gentle words.” By a reverse conceptualization, we could induce the meaning that “in case you advance towards him in virulence, he shall neither reflect nor stand in awe.” So, benignity and tolerance are indispensable articles to communicate a message, whoever the addressee is.

That is, a believer always has to stand in the climate of a gentle attitude, gentle state, gentle heart, gentle conscience, and gentle words, so that they can serve others with true guidance. Otherwise, all the states and attitudes of those who have not been softened, melted, and molded in this Prophetic spirit will be artificial and theatrical. Such insincere people may smile for a while, but they will expose their teeth and present their genuine nature when their tails are stepped upon. Indeed, for how long could a firefly deceive astronomers that it is a star?

In the light of these criteria, it is also possible to read the descent of the Messiah on earth in the latter times with a message of being “without a hand to those who beat you, without a speech to those who curse you, and no hearts for those who break hearts,” even if some may consider this out of balance.

The example of Bediuzzaman, the sufferer of the age, is unique. Even towards those who had been his most merciless, inhumane torturers he managed to communicate the truths of faith and was never offended. Indeed, have believers not exerted every single effort to shine the inspirations of their souls to those who dug ditches and pushed them in?¹

Communicating with someone, or spreading a message, is impossible by raving or clamoring, violence or anger. Maybe violence was once a method or tool; but time has invalidated it. Today, the principle of persuasion is, and will be, dominant ever after. Today’s devotees of love should reach the level framed above, and should make abundant practices about that.

As as pointed out above, in the latter times, the Messiah will surely descend on earth in order to fulfill that significant mission, even, say, if he is in the remotest corner of the Hereafter. But this descent is dependent upon the meaning and spirit within your representative, collective body. Yes, he will descend to be the mold for that meaning. If that spirit is missing, I think, his corporeal descent will not mean anything. To conclude, we should know that a resurrection in the latter times will be realized by the reviving breaths of the heroes of love who represent gentle states, gentle attitudes, gentle hearts, and gentle words.

1- See 85:4 in the Qur’an for the short passage on tyrants who dug ditches of fire and killed believers.

An average English reader is often familiar with the Shakespearean character Hamlet and his inaction—or rather, delay in action—being at variance with his strong aspiration to restore order to the world around him. Despite his beautiful country rotting around him, the young nobleman Hamlet vacillates between listening to the inner voice of “the man of contemplation” and the inner voice of “the man of action.” The desolate quietness and inactivity of many intellectuals and thinkers of our modern age looks very much like the inability of Hamlet’s taking action. And when they finally decide to carry out their ideas, they mostly end up taking the wrong action, as in the Shakespearean tragedy of Hamlet. One may certainly be a man of original thoughts and lofty ideals, but thoughts go in vain unless they are implemented in practical, daily life. Dr. Suat Yildirim rightly puts forward in his foreword to the honorable scholar and author M. Fethullah Gülen’s Reflections on the Qur’an that, “Integrating theoretical knowledge and thought with action is very rare, and indeed according to many is even impossible. Undoubtedly this assessment is true to an extent, but there are always exceptions, like the works of Fethullah Gülen. A renowned scholar and man of action and thought, Gülen adds this new work to his existing collection of more than fifty [now seventy] books.”

Our intellectually productive and spiritually proactive author epitomized long ago the very field of exerting effort and struggle in the two words “action and thought” in his book titled, Statue of Our Souls. Describing “thought” as the contemplative activity or “action in one’s inner world,” this man of action and mission states that deep contemplation and reflection can deepen us in our faith, but contemplation will be of little avail if it is not transformed into action in our practical lives. Having led a life marked by activism and a passion for the service of all humanity, Gülen conceptualized his idea of activism with the term “positive action” which can evidently be seen in the worldwide civil society initiatives he has inspired. His activism based on this positive action lies in his “deep spirituality,” which is best reflected in his recent book, Reflections on the Qur’an: Commentaries on Selected Verses, recently published by the Tughra Books in New Jersey.

What is strikingly noticeable in this work are the proofs showing that the Qur’an is the greatest Divine gift to be understood and conveyed from the Mercy of God to the human mind for a thorough reflection. Indeed, everyone has the right to reflect upon the Qur’an to understand the messages in its verses; more than that, it is a duty upon those equipped with necessary, accurate knowledge. In this work, paying careful attention to the disciplines of tafsir methodology and having frequent references to both the classical and contemporary sources, including Bediüzzaman Said Nursi’s Risale-i Nur Collection, the author approaches many issues from a different, wider perspective and presents new insights and fresh interpretations to the understanding of the modern age.

Activism as the Philosophy of Life

In this work, the author presents readers with an important “philosophy of life” in his exposition of the verse, “Therefore, when you are free (from one task), resume (another task)” (Al-Inshirah 94:7). He expounds on how believers should live their lives without wasting any minute and without leaving any gaps, “hasting from one activity to the other, fulfilling their duties that fall upon them within the framework of services rendered for God’s sake and for the happiness of humanity.” He advises believers to remain active all the time “by changing activities” and further recommends them to “rest by working and work while resting”:

Indeed, a believer should always be active; both their working and resting should be an activity. In other words, believers should arrange their working hours in such a way that there should be no gaps in their lives. In fact, as a requirement of being a human, people should rest as well, yet this kind of resting should be an “active resting.” For instance, when people whose minds are busy with reading and writing become tired, they can rest by lying and sleeping, but they can also rest by changing the work or activity they do. They may read the Qur’an, perform the Prayer, do physical exercise, or engage in a friendly conversation. After a while, they can return to their normal activity.

In the book, one can clearly see a holistic approach from thorough contemplation and reflection to belief, from belief to its practice, and from practice to deeper devotion and consciousness of God. One can encounter an example of this all-inclusive approach in the exposition of the verse, “Whoever keeps from disobedience to God in reverence for Him and in piety, He enables a way out for him (of every difficulty)” (At-Talaq 65:2). Here, the author interprets the key concept of “taqwa,” or reverent piety and righteousness, used in the verse in an extraordinarily exquisite way. He states that taqwa means observing the Divine ordinances in every walk of life, which requires, therefore, obeying both the religious commandments and the laws of God’s creation and maintenance of the universe. The author calls the former (i.e., obeying the religious rules and commands) “internal piety and righteousness” and the latter “external piety and righteousness.” He states, however, that it is not easy to attain taqwa, or reverent piety and righteousness in both dimensions. He further elucidates that the verse under discussion makes use of the word taqwa in verbal form to mean “keeping from disobedience to God and doing His commands in reverence for Him and in piety. The mood of the verb chosen expresses submission, admission, and adopting the action ordered with the verb used as an indispensable dimension or depth of one’s nature or character. That is, it denotes thinking, acting, and living a life in obedience to God, fulfilling His commands, refraining from His prohibitions, and following His laws of the creation and maintenance of the universe and the laws He has established for life.”

In the verse under discussion, the author also draws readers’ attention to the necessity of observing Sunnatu’llah, or God’s Practice, as much as the obligation of observing religious commandments. He says, “if we abstain from the unlawful, fulfill the obligatory commands in perfect sensitivity, avoid the dubious as much as possible, and even become cautious with respect to the allowable, and if we observe God’s Practice or way of dealing with His creation—which we also call God’s laws of life and creation and maintenance of the universe—God will then save us from the different degrees of difficulties into which we have fallen.” He further states that a really pious person is one who believes and practices what he believes by fulfilling both his “personal responsibilities in devotion to God” and “social responsibilities within society.” He also emphasizes that social responsibilities extend further beyond one’s personal relationship with God.

Preserving this holistic approach throughout the book, the author focuses his efforts not on pure contemplation or abstract trains of thought, but rather on actively helping people to accomplish their duty of reflecting thoroughly upon the created books of the universe and man, along with the revealed book of the Qur’an—which is the written counterpart of the universe and the human.

Contemplation on the Outer and the Human Inner World for Renewal

On reflecting upon the “created” books of the universe and the human inner world, the author asserts, “Our lacking of such a comprehensive contemplation or reflection is our greatest problem and shortcoming. Truly, we are devoid of reflective thoughts that renew our faith and keep us alive at all times.” While expounding on another verse that says, “We will show them Our manifest signs (proofs) in the horizons of the universe and within their own selves, until it will become manifest to them that it (the Qur’an) is indeed the truth” (Fussilat 41:53), the author first states that, “the signs and proofs of truth are dealt with in two categories,” and then refers to those proofs that are provided by the universe as “external proofs” while he refers to the ones that are available within man himself as “internal proofs.” As for the expression, “We will show,” used in the verse under discussion, he says that it means “humanity will continue to see and discover more and more truths and admit that the Qur’an and the universe describe each other, that the Qur’an translates the universe, and the universe “reads” the Qur’an.” He further elaborates on the issue as follows:

The proofs provided by sciences are not restricted to those that have already been discovered. There are still so many matters to be studied by sciences such as anatomy, physiology, psychology, biology, physics, and astrophysics that will be clarified in the future and provide numerous new proofs for the truth of all Islamic beliefs, including especially God’s existence and Unity, the Qur’an as the Word of God, and our master Muhammad as the Messenger of God.

Should people successfully read the signs and proofs of these three “books”, such people of perception could then advance safely towards walking along the broad, Straight Path, which is illuminated by the Qur’an and best applied in the life of the noble Prophet Muhammad, upon whom be peace and blessings.

Qur’an as the Greatest Miracle

In a hadith, the noble Prophet said, “Every Prophet before me was bestowed miracles because of which people believed, and the (greatest) miracle I have been given is the (matchless, miraculous) Qur’an which God has revealed to me (as guidance for the entire humanity and jinn). Therefore, I hope my followers will outnumber the followers of all the other Prophets on the Day of Resurrection.” In order to help realize this glad tiding of the Prophet, the believers ought to reflect upon and truly understand the Qur’an, put it into practice in their daily lives, and thus benefit from its Messages greatly.

In compliance with the miraculous nature of the Qur’an’s eloquence, the author explains matters in this extensive commentary on selected verses of the Qur’an with consummate succinctness without tiring the reader. In doing so, he analyzes a matter from different perspectives, and if need be, he clarifies the matter in detail without causing any objections or further questions. He presents matters in such a systematic and persuasive manner that the addressee becomes fully satisfied and enlightened.

The author thoroughly explains, for instance, how believers will attain prosperity in both this world and the next through their adherence to the holy Prophet’s greatest miracle and how their honor and happiness will widely be circulated throughout the world by means of the Qur’an in his exposition of the verse, “Now We send down to you a Book which contains what you must heed in life for your honor and happiness. Will you not, then, reason and understand?” (Al-Anbiya’ 21:10). Here, the author expounds first on the fact that the addressee of the Divine Message, “We send down to you a Book,” is “all humanity,” beginning with the Companions of the Prophet and including all of humanity and all times to come until the end of the world. He puts forward that the Almighty God “promised the first addressees of the Qur’an, explicitly, and all those to come later, implicitly, that they would gain reputation and glory through the Book—the Qur’an—sent down to them.” He elucidates that the word “dhikr,” which is used in the verse and given the meaning of honor and happiness as well as reputation and glory, also suggests advice and preaching, “The hadith, ‘Religion is advice,’ which is short in wording but comprehensive in meaning, highlights this reality.” The author presents more insights into what the verse further suggests: “While the states and communities around you complete their lifespan and withdraw from the stage of history one after the other, you will be able to exist eternally owing to this blessed ‘dhikr’—the Qur’an.” He further says that the Qur’an is the “reference source for everyone” who wants to learn more of the true religion of Islam and embrace it.

Speaking for the Sake of the Reform of the Addressee

The author frequently draws attention to the Qur’anic style of speaking sincerely and for the sake of the reform of the addressees while giving advice to them or warning them because of their wrong. In his exposition of the verses, “Go, both of you, to the Pharaoh, for he has exceedingly rebelled. But speak to him with gentle words, so that he might reflect and be mindful or feel some awe (of Me, and behave with humility)” (Ta-Ha 20:43-44), the author emphasizes that “speaking with gentle words” (even to such people as the relentless enemy of God and despotic tyrant Pharaoh) should be an indispensable attribute of the spiritual guide or conveyor of the Message. He further elaborates on “gentleness” not only in speech but also in behavior and manners as part of the nature of such people. If not, he says, the addressees will move away. If one acts in this way, however, there might appear some who “might reflect and be mindful” of God.

Reminding us of the principles of loving for God’s sake and hating for God’s sake, the author further states that “a person is loved for his virtues and perfections and is disliked because of his vices and evils. So our hate is directed toward attributes and deeds, rather than the persons themselves. The Qur’an describes those who sin and do wrong as those who wrong themselves. Therefore, we pity those who wrong themselves and desire their reformation. In any event, we should be gentle and kindhearted and act gently in conveying Islam to others. Even if our addressees do not accept Islam, we have done our duty.”

Inaccurate Interpretations

While providing further insights on this Qur’anic manner of addressing people for their guidance and reform in his exposition of another verse in Suratu’l-A’la (87:9) which says, “So remind and instruct (them in the truth) in case reminder and instruction may be of use,” the author corrects certain misinterpretations by saying:

If we do not consider the reason why this and similar other verses were revealed, some inaccurate interpretations may arise, such as “Why do I continue reminding and instructing since they are of no use!” or “I have gone to them many times, but they do not pay heed,” or “Those people are not qualified to believe; therefore, it is useless to continue preaching them.” The verse says quite the opposite… Indeed, conveying God’s Message to people and calling them to believe in it is God’s command which must be fulfilled incessantly. While doing this, we should not consider whether people will accept it or not.

He further states that the conditional clause in the verse under discussion, “In case reminder and instruction may be of use,” has the meaning of emphasizing our responsibility of conveying the message rather than limiting it.

An eloquent, powerful speech, the Qur’an, which was revealed for the guidance and benefit of people, absolutely has the potential and capacity to give benefit. Some may not benefit from it while there are many who do benefit from it and are guided! Therefore, we should understand the verse in discussion as, “Remind and instruct, because it is definitely of use.”

Our author refers to the following two mistakes that have usually been made while interpreting another verse that says, “Certainly, she (minister’s wife) was burning with desire for him (Prophet Joseph); and he would have desired her had it not been that he had already seen the argument and proof of his Lord” (Yusuf 12:24). He states that, “Joseph, a sinless, sincere Prophet, is approached like an ordinary man overwhelmed with his emotions and desires,” and, therefore, the verse is interpreted from this wrong perspective: “She desired, and was moved toward him; and he desired, and was moved toward her, but just at that point he saw the evidence of his Lord and stopped.” As for the second misinterpretation of the verse, he says, “There are others who approach the issue contrary to human realities and claim that Prophet Joseph, upon whom be peace, had no sexual desires. This would imply a defect of a Prophet of God and is utterly unrealistic.”

Intrinsic Relations among the Verses

The author effectively raises awareness in the reader that the verses of the Qur’an interpret each other and make references to one another. One can, therefore, see clearly in this work how the individual verses of the Qur’an are intrinsically related with some other verses and with the totality of the Qur’an. For instance, the author shows this intrinsic relation among verses when he elaborates more on the aforementioned subject of the believers’ honor, reputation, and dignity in his exposition of verse 28 of Suratu’l-Kahf as follows:

Islam has always existed and will continue to exist with its own dynamics. It gets its unbeatable power from God. For this reason, whoever holds fast to Islam truly and sincerely is destined to be honorable and dignified, while whoever breaks with it is condemned to be despicable. The history of Islam offers plenty of examples of this.

The author presents further insights on the same subject in his exposition of another verse in Suratu’l-Maedah about the attributes of the chosen people who have taken the responsibility to represent the Religion and convey its message to others. These are the people who are “most humble towards the believers, dignified and commanding in the face of the unbelievers, striving (continuously and in solidarity) in God’s cause, and fearing not the censure of any who censure…” (Al-Maedah 5:54). In his analysis of the verse, the author states that a believer’s honor and dignity lies not in their social status, wealth or profession but in being a believer. He says:

Indeed, all might, dignity, and glory belong to God, to His Messenger, and to the believers as pointed out clearly in Suratu’l-Munafiqun (63:8). Therefore, we should continue serving Islam everywhere-at home and in schools, in the streets and at the markets-feeling in ourselves the honor and glory of Islam without fearing the censure of anyone who will censure and without feeling any inferiority complex in the face of unbelievers. While stating the attributes of the dignified community which God will raise up to exalt Islam, the Qur’an also miraculously points to certain characteristics of our time.

In relation to these believers who are “dignified and commanding in the face of the unbelievers” and who would come in the distant future after the Companions, the author further states that these chosen people “are not stern as the Companions were against the uncivilized disbelievers of the desert. Since at the present the victory over hostile ideas is through persuasion rather than force, it will be enough for us to stand firm and dignified with the honor of Islam in the face of the unbelievers.” Of course, this part of the respectable author’s analysis alludes to another verse in Suratu’l-Fath where he makes this comparison of the chosen people with the Companions, who were “firm and unyielding against the unbelievers, and compassionate among themselves” (48:29). While the first praiseworthy quality of the Companions is given in the verse as their being “firm and unyielding against the unbelievers,” their second quality is given as being “compassionate among themselves.” In the verse under discussion, however, the author asserts that those chosen people that would come centuries after the Companions are described first as “most humble towards the believers” and then as “dignified and commanding in the face of the unbelievers,” thus giving precedence to humility and the persuasion of the civilized people of modern times. In this way, it is made aware that Qur’anic verses, just like the one under discussion, extend ropes of relations to all times after their revelations no matter when and in what circumstances they were revealed.

Reasons of Revelation and Universal Messages

Indeed, this issue is one of the striking characteristics that is immediately noticeable in the book! Drawing the reader’s attention to the universality of the Qur’an, the author says, “Since the Qur’an is a universal Book, its messages are also universal.” Therefore, interpreting a verse “only according to the reason it was revealed would limit the scope of the verse,” he says in his exposition of the verse, “Who is more in the wrong than he bars God’s places of worship, so that His Name be not mentioned and invoked in them” (Al-Baqarah 2:114).

Even if this was revealed to denounce the Assyrian and Babylon kings and Romans who banned the Jews or Christians from worshipping in Baytu’l-Maqdis in Jerusalem and the Makkan polytheists who prevented the Muslims in Makkah from worshipping in the Masjidu’l-Haram, further interpretation is appropriate…This verse relates to anybody who bars God’s places of worship, so that His Name cannot be mentioned and invoked in them. The use of the “places of worship” in the plural also corroborates this interpretation of the verse. Therefore, those who wanted and attempted to crucify Jesus are greater in wrongdoing than others no matter when they live. Similarly, those who have banned people from worshipping in Baytu’l-Maqdis are greater in wrongdoing than others; those who prevented God’s Messenger and his Companions, from entering the Ka’bah and worshipping in the Masjidu’l-Haram as well as those who follow them in barring people from mosques in all ages are greater in wrongdoing than others. Likewise, the ones who leave the mosques and masjids abandoned and those who prevent believers from their religious practices do the greatest wrong.

Our author here includes all those who bar people from places of worship and who are thus denounced by the verse, starting from such ancient tyrants as Nebuchadnezzar, Shapur, Titus, and Adrianus to all the wicked people who attack the places of worship in any period of history, including the brutal forces that will demolish the Ka’bah and the Masjidu’n-Nabawi at the End of Time.

Psychological Exegesis in the Stories of Prophets

Oftentimes, the author turns the reader’s attention to the need for the psychological exegesis of the Qur’an, saying that the exegetes have as yet devoted very little attention to the psychological aspects of the Qur’an. He does this especially when he expounds on the stories of the Prophets and the bygone nations mentioned in the Qur’an. The respected author asserts that the stories of the Prophets and their peoples are neither figurative nor symbolic; all the Qur’anic characters are the real flesh-and-blood figures that present us with the never-fading embodiments of certain truths. Through the eye of the modern man, he reads like a book all the words, actions, manners, and mindset of, for instance, the tyrant Pharaoh, relentless Capitalist Korah, and such hypocrites as the wives of Prophets Noah and Lot who betrayed them, siding with unbelievers against the Prophets. While he clearly portrays their psychology and character traits and presents us with clear hints to be able to recognize such hypocrite people, Pharaoh-like despots or Korah-like ultra materialists and thus see their projections in our own times, he extends ropes of relations to the modern age and raises in us the awareness for the need to take necessary precautions against such evil people.

On the other hand, through the narratives of the lives of the Prophets, he raises in the reader the awareness towards achieving the aim of becoming the living embodiments of the Qur’an. Often, the author strongly recommends the readers of the Qur’an to “try to make the connection between the time, place, conditions, and the figures mentioned in the verses and their own time and place and the very conditions surrounding them” in order to truly benefit from them and see their similar projections in their own times. He further says, “If we view the narratives in the Qur’an as certain stories about certain bygone peoples, our benefit from it will be little.” He asserts, however, that the door to its blessings and benefits will be opened if we approach it with the conviction that the Qur’an addresses us directly.

In conclusion, the core message this essential work gives to its audience is the necessity of understanding and reflecting upon the messages of the Qur’an, committing to them, and then acting upon them in their own practical lives. Throughout the book, readers can certainly see the fasla’l-khitab-clear, effective and decisive communication of ideas towards achieving this end. Being quite exceptional in his decisive and persuasive communication of messages in the book, the author achieves addressing both the scholarly and the general audience of the contemporary age. His minimal use of technical terms of the field of Qur’anic exegesis enables his message to reach a wide and diverse readership. Without lowering the quality, he has penned the book in a grand but simple manner comprehendible to the average English reader. As a final point, following the good example of our respected author who completes his exposition of most of the verses with a heartfelt prayer that is in compliant with the general message of the relevant verse, we pray to our Lord to grant him continued success in his services and to make this book be a means of tremendous reward for the author and beneficial for the wider audience—both Muslims and all interested seekers striving to explore the depths of meanings and purposes of the Divine Speech.

Book review by Huseyin Bingul

Cryptography mainly aims to save information and to transfer messages to recipients safely. Cryptography can change a message into a complicated form by applying several different methods. Encoded information can be resolved only when the receiver applies specific methods to it. Not only does computer cryptography render communication secure but it also gives users secure access to servers.

Nowadays, cryptography is becoming more and more significant, especially now people transfer their personal, commercial, military or political information to each other on internet. It is easy for someone to get personal information through online shopping sites which are very common today. Therefore, credit card information entered into the website is converted into unintelligible characters through an encryption method so that the credit card number can be transmitted to the server securely. Then, the server can easily retrieve the original form of the credit card number using decryption.

The encryption algorithm includes essential elements known as the “key.” Protection of the key is always vital for information security.

History of Cryptography

To find the first examples of cryptography one needs to go back more than 4,000 years in history. For instance, in 2000 BCE the ancient Egyptians used hieroglyphs on the gravestones of their kings to describe their achievements when they were alive. Eventually, the system of hieroglyphs grew too complex to understand. Then people began to use it for encoding. Similarly, Chinese people used ideography, which conveys ideas through symbols, to hide the meaning of words.

There are also encoding examples from ancient Mesopotamia that have similar aspects to those used in Egypt. The Roman emperor Julius Caesar used a type of encryption technique called the “Caesar cipher” in which each letter in the plain text is replaced by a letter some fixed number of positions down the alphabet. In the Middle Ages cryptography received a lot of attention from many nations, especially in Europe. In recent years, many different methods have been developed in this field. Therefore, the classical methods are not as useful as they were in the past, especially since the 1970s. Today, more complex mathematical methods have replaced the classical methods of cryptography.

The Arabs were the first to make successful studies of how to decode encrypted messages. Ahmad al-Qalqashandi of Egypt (1355–1418) developed an encryption method which is still used today. This technique is based on a theory of language stability which explores the distribution and frequency of the words in a text. With this method, the frequency of the characters within the encrypted text is compared to the frequency standards in the language; in this way, it is determined what an encoded letter really stands for.

This method is used successfully in decoding messages encrypted by the mono-alphabetic method, which is based on sliding or replacement of a letter by another one.

In 1931, the French obtained documents from a German spy which showed the functions of a code named “Enigma” that was going to be used in World War II by the Germans. British mathematicians were then able to decipher the code during the war. Thus, the commands of Hitler could be learned immediately by the Allied Powers. The Allied countries won the war because of their access to the decryption technique. Likewise, the American army gained victory over the Japanese in the Pacific War in the 1940s because American decryption experts, along with their British and Dutch colleagues, were able to decode the system called JN-25 which was being used by the Japanese army.

Technological developments in computer science have enabled us to decode even previously unbreakable ciphers. For instance, an encrypted message which was created in 1977 and which, it was thought could be decoded only 40 quadrillion years later with the help of an algorithm that analyses the known large numbers into their factors, was actually decoded seventeen years later in 1994.

Classical and modern cryptography

Cryptographic methods are divided into two categories: classical and modern. In the classical method, encoding can be done by consistent replacement of a letter by another letter in the same alphabet. For example, if we replace each letter in the word FOUNTAIN by the third following letter it changes into IRXQWDLQ. It can also be done by replacement of a word with another one or replacement of a character by another character. Of course, the recipient of the message must be the only person who knows the decryption method. In that way, for example, the unintelligible word above can easily be changed back to its original form by replacing each word by the letter three places before it in the alphabet. Such encrypted messages can only be decoded by linguistic analyses or after numerous trials. The classical method was invented hundred of years ago, and it has been used since then. Although this method is so simple that it can even be used manually, computers are the only devices which can have maximum security as well as very long keys and complex algorithms for the modern technique.

The “Spartan cylinder” is another device used in the classical method. A message is written on a piece of paper rolled around a cylinder with a known diameter. The encrypted message is then detached from the cylinder and sent. The only way to decipher the message is to have a cylinder of the same diameter. If the unrolled paper is re-rolled around a decoding cylinder properly, then the original message is obtained. This method is known to have been used by the Spartans around 600 BCE.

One modern method is called Public-Key Cryptography. In this form of cryptography, the key used to encrypt a message differs from the key used to decrypt it. The public key may be widely distributed while the private key is kept secret. Thus, incoming messages are encrypted with the recipient’s public key; yet, they cannot be decrypted except with the recipient’s private key. Hence, the possessor of the private key is the only one who can decrypt the message and read it.

Conversely, in secret-key cryptography, a single secret key is used for both encryption and decryption. One disadvantage of secret-key cryptography is the distribution of the private key since it is always at risk of being acquired by third parties.

If we look at the universe, we can observe similar cryptographic methods in every creation process. For instance, living cells produce protein by deciphering nucleic acids (DNA, RNA), which include encoded genetic information in ribosomes.

The structure of encoded DNA and encryption in protein synthesis

There is divine wisdom in the encoding of DNA and the transference of these codes to ribosomes in the protein-making process. If we compare DNA molecules, which contain the genetic instructions inside living organisms, to a book, the letters in this book can be symbolized by A, T, and G and C. These symbols represent four molecules which are used in the encoding of the genetic program that shapes the basic form of all living organisms. Each human genome is identified with different sums of those letters. For instance, while the sum of genomic letters is approximately 3 billion in mice and human organisms; it is about 4–5 million in a bacteria. Furthermore, when the genome sequences of two humans are compared, the combination difference between the two appears to be only one percent; nevertheless, no human being is exactly like another in appearance.

There are some interesting distinctions between humans and animals in terms of their genome numbers. The various encoding techniques used in DNA are a basic biological mechanism which can also be considered the mystery behind the genetic diversity in the creation of living organisms. If we compare the genome to a program booklet, we can consider the booklet to be a tiny model of the “Manifest Record” (Imam al-Mubin) mentioned in the Qur’an, in which the future lives of all things and beings, including all the principles governing those lives, and all their deeds and the reasons or causes are kept pre-recorded in this world. The instructions and mechanism used in this encoding program are identical in most living beings. This uniformity shows that they are all created by one Almighty being.

Scientists also observe another kind of encoding which helps transmission of the right message to ribosomes during the protein-making process. The main idea is that unlike the base-pairing of DNA, in messenger RNA (mRNA) the complementary base to adenine is not thymine, as it is in DNA, but rather Uracil, and also that every three nucleotides (a codon) carry information of one amino acid. For example, while codons in DNA appear as “AAT, GCC, GAT, GTA,” they appear as “UUA, CGG, CUA, CAU” in mRNA. Here the main goal is not to keep the information safe against the third parties as in normal encryption, but rather to transmit the message properly and preserve the diversity of living beings.

Developments in the area of cryptography do not only provide confidentiality of information, but they also shed light on our understanding of God’s wonderful creation in the world of living creatures. All these extensive and essential practices, including the encoding of the information by the four letters of DNA, proper transmission of this encoded information to the cells, and the necessary synthesis in the cell, prove that the All-Knowing and Omnipotent God has great wisdom in all His actions in the Universe.

References

• Protein Synthesis, http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookPROTSYn.html.
• Selim Aydın, “Gen Haritası Neler Söylüyor?”, Sızıntı, June 2001, no. 269.
• Quantum Cryptography: Privacy Through Uncertainty, October 2002 http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/crypt/overview.php 1.5.2006.
• Larry Petterson, Bruce S. Davie, Computer Networks: A System Approach, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 2000, 568–615.

Use of redundancy in human communication

We make use of redundancy that is present in human language to correct errors. This happens in both oral and written communication. For example, if you read the sentence “There is a miscake in this sentence,” you can tell that something is wrong. So we can detect an error. Moreover, we can even correct it. We are achieving two things here: error detection and error correction. What are the principles that we are using to achieve these goals? First, because the string “miscake” is not a valid word in English, we know that there is an error. Here, the redundancy manifests itself in the form of the fact that not every possible string is a valid word in the language. In a sense, some strings are wasted: potentially they could have been used as words of a language but they are not. The benefit of this “wastefulness” is that it lets us detect or correct errors in communication. Secondly, the word “miscake” is closest to the valid word “mistake” in the language, so we conclude that it is the most likely word intended. Of course, we can also use the context and meaning to detect and correct errors but that is an additional feature, not available to computers. If you enter the string “mistaky” to Merriam-Webster online dictionary, ¹ it cannot find an entry for it; however, it comes up with a list of suggested words, first of which is “mistake.” So the computer is telling us that “mistake” is the most likely word intended because it is closest to the given string. This is called the maximum likelihood principle. As I type this article on my computer I witness many instances of this principle used by my word processor. For instance, when I mistakenly typed “fisrt” it automatically corrected it to “first.”

There are also other ways redundancy is used in natural languages. As already pointed out above, redundancy in context often enables us to detect and correct errors, vagueness and ambiguities. When humans communicate, redundancy, either explicitly introduced by the speaker or author or built into the language, comes into play to help the audience understand the message better and to overcome such obstacles as noise, accent, hearing difficulties, and so on. Shetter [4] gives a number of examples in which redundancy is manifest and useful in languages. We include a few interesting examples from his article here.

1. If we strike out all the vowels in a sentence, “xt slxws yxx dxwn bxt thx sxntxncx xs stxll lxgxblx, xsn’t xt”? (Can you read the part in quotes?) Since the consonants seem to be giving us most of the information we need, there must be a lot of redundancy here too.

2. The sentence “These three dogs are retrievers” shows grammatical redundancy in forms: plurality is expressed multiple times. Examples in other languages are just as easy to find, for instance, obligatory gender agreement in a language such as Spanish: La unica otra senora venezolana “The only other Venezuelan lady.”

3. A language’s stock of words (called the lexicon) shows a lot of redundant overlapping. To be convinced of this, all you have to do is to grab a thesaurus and look up a few words (big, little, fat, to die) that have lots of near-synonyms with only small stylistic differences.

4. Even the way languages are written is highly redundant. Try another experiment: take a piece of paper and cover up the LOWER HALF of all the letters in any sentence you have not read yet. If it is not significantly harder to read, that means that a lot in the shapes of the letters is redundant (could you still manage to read with 2/3 covered?).

Mathematical use of redundancy in digital communication

As we see, redundancy is present and useful in human languages in a number of different ways. Engineers have considered the question of whether computers can use some of the same principles to achieve error detection and correction in digital communication. Since computers have very limited capabilities compared to humans, for example they cannot make sense of words, it is the method of explicitly adding redundancy to original messages (as opposed to using the context) that can be used to achieve this goal in computers using the precise language of mathematics.

To illustrate the use of redundancy in a mathematical way in digital communication systems, consider the following example. Suppose we want to communicate with another party in a simple manner: sending messages that represent Yes or No, Let us agree that a 1 represents Yes and a 0 (zero) represents No. Unfortunately, there is often noise in the communication channel which may distort messages by flipping the binary bit (a 0, or a 1). If we just send the messages as they are, do we have any way of knowing if an error occurred during the transmission? Note that the reason we can do nothing against errors is that all possible strings (that all have length 1 in this simple example) are valid codewords. Codewords in digital communication correspond to valid words in a language. Compare this to the earlier example about correcting the typo in the word “miscake.”

Data of any kind is stored and processed as binary strings, that is strings of 0s and 1s, in computers. Every letter has an ASCII code. For example, the ASCII code of the letter “A” is 01000001. Typically, data consists of billions of bits. A bit is a 0 or a 1. To employ redundancy, data is broken into blocks of a fixed length. We now consider and compare several encoding schemes where the block size is 4.

Scheme 1: Perhaps most intuitive way of adding redundancy is simply to repeat the original message. Instead of sending 1011, we send 10111011. Here 1011 is the original message and 10111011 is the codeword. The string obtained after adding redundancy is called a codeword. What does this scheme buy us? Do we get any error detection or correction capability? If you think about this for a moment, you can see that if there is a single error, then it can be detected. We simply break the received word in half, and compare the two halves. If there is exactly one error, the two halves will not be the same. We also note, however, that we cannot correct any errors. Also, if the number of errors is 2 (or even) we may not be able to detect that, depending on the location of the error.

To quantify what we gain by employing an encoding scheme, let us assume that the probability of a bit error for a channel is 0.001, and there are about 3000 bits on a page. If we do not employ any encoding scheme, we expect to have an average of 3 words in error per page. If we employ this scheme though, there must be at least 2 errors per word in order for an error to go unnoticed. This improves the expected number of incorrect words to 1 in about 50 pages. Can we do better?

Scheme 2: This scheme repeats everything 3 times. So the original message 1011 is encoded as 101110111011. What are the pros and cons of this scheme? It is not hard to see that not only can we detect single or double errors; we can also correct single errors by using the “majority opinion.” This improvement comes with a cost though: only 1 out of 3 bits sent are information bits (so 2 out of 3 are redundancy bits). We say that the rate of this code is 1/3. The rate of the previous code was 1/2. With this improved error correction capacity, the expected number of incorrect words is 1 in about 6250 pages.

Scheme 3: This is a well-known and commonly used encoding scheme that adds a single parity check bit at the end so that the number of 1’s in the resulting codeword is even. Therefore, the original information 1011 is encoded as the codeword 10111. Another way of describing this method is that the modulo 2 sum of all bits (including the redundancy bit) is 0. In modulo 2 arithmetic 1+1=0. It is easy to see that this scheme detects any single errors, but cannot correct any.

Scheme 4: This is also a well-known example of an error correcting code that was one of the earliest codes designed. It was discovered by R. Hamming [1]. In this scheme 3 bits of redundancy are added to the information bits. The first redundancy bit, or the fifth bit of the codeword, is the sum of the first, second, and fourth bits. The next redundancy bits are the sum of the first, third, and fourth bits. The last bit is the sum of the second, third and fourth bits. All sums are modulo 2. According to this scheme, the information bit 1011 is encoded as 1011010. Although it is not obvious, this code can correct any single error. Therefore, compared to the second scheme above, the Hamming code achieves the same error correction ability in a more efficient way: The information rates are 1/3 vs. 4/7.

Although codes used in practice are longer and more sophisticated, the basic principles are the same. These examples show that there are different ways of employing redundancy, some more efficient than others. The question is, therefore, not whether or not redundancy can be useful but how best to use it. Error correcting codes are used in a wide range of communication systems from deep space communication, to quality of sound in compact disks and wireless phones. Researchers are still looking for more efficient codes to make use of redundancy in more clever and useful ways. It is remarkable and surprising that a lot of theoretical mathematics can be used in the design of good codes. Some seemingly useless and abstract parts of mathematics are being used in very practical applications.

Other examples of “redundancy”

We have looked at the use of redundancy mainly in communication systems. But there are apparent redundancies in other places as well. For instance, the so called “vestigial organs” in humans and other living beings are an interesting topic of controversy. Initially, these organs were thought to be useless and non-functional. However, some functions of these organs have since been discovered. The German Anatomist R. Wiedersheim made a list of vestigial organs in 1895 which included approximately 100 organs, including the appendix and coccyx. As science progressed, it was discovered that all of the organs in Wiedersheim’s list in fact had very important functions. For instance, it was discovered that the appendix, which was supposed to be a “vestigial organ,” was in fact a lymphoid organ that fought infections in the body. This fact was made clear in 1997: ²

Other bodily organs and tissues-the thymus, liver, spleen, appendix, bone marrow, and small collections of lymphatic tissue such as the tonsils in the throat and Peyer’s patch in the small intestine-are also part of the lymphatic system. They too help the body fight infection. ³

It was also discovered that the tonsils, which were included in the same list of vestigial organs, had a significant role in protecting the throat against infections, particularly until adolescence. It was found that the coccyx at the lower end of the vertebral column supports the bones around the pelvis and is the convergence point of some small muscles and for this reason, it would not be possible to sit comfortably without a coccyx. ⁴

Another important example we would like to consider is repetitions in the Qur’an, the Muslim holy book. There are several historical events or divine decrees and commands that are repeated in many places in the Qur’an. Some have criticized this as redundant. However, this is a superficial view. The Qur’an is the word of the All-Wise Creator, who has wisdom in everything He does. So, there must be some wisdom behind these repetitions. Seventh-century Arabs were very skilled in literature and poetry. The literary masters of Arabic admitted and appreciated the miraculous eloquence and literary power of the Qur’an. The Qur’an challenged them to make something similar to it:

And if you are in doubt about what We have revealed to our servant, then produce a sura (chapter) like it. (Baqara 2:23)

They have since been unable to meet the challenge. They used to hold literary competitions where the best poems were chosen and exhibited on the walls of the Ka‘ba, and called the Seven Hanging Poems. The Qur’an demonstrated such eloquence that it caused Labid’s daughter to remove the poems from the walls of the Ka‘ba. She declared while doing so, “Besides the verses of the Qur’an these no longer have any value” [3]. When a Beduoin poet heard verses from the Qur’an, he bowed down in prostration before its eloquence despite the fact that he did not convert to Islam. All of this should make us search for the reasons and wisdom behind the repetitions in the miraculous divine book. Nursi gives a number of such reasons in The Words [3]. He says that since the Qur’an is a book of invocation, prayer and summons, the repetition is desirable, even necessary. Also, it speaks of such mighty matters of extraordinary importance that their repetitions are most appropriate. Two examples of verses that are repeated many times in the Qur’an are Which of the favors of your Lord will you deny? (55:13, repeated thirty times in Sura al-Rahman) and Woe on that day to the deniers (77:15, repeated ten times in Sura al-Mursalat). These verses proclaim before Earth, the heavens, the ages, and in the face of humanity and jinn, their ingratitude, unbelief, and wrongdoing. They also proclaim their violation of the rights of all creatures, which brings the heavens and Earth to rage, spoil the results of the universe’s creation, and indicate contempt and denial of Divine Sovereignty’s majesty. If these two verses were repeated thousands of times, in a universal teaching related to thousands of issues, a need for them still would remain. It would be conciseness in majesty and miraculousness of eloquence in grace and beauty [3]. For a more detailed account of the reasons behind repetitions in the Qur’an, we refer the reader to Nursi’s The Words [3].

Conclusion

We have seen many examples where redundancy is very useful. We have seen redundancy is inherently built into the natural languages we speak, and it serves a purpose. Inspired by this fact, we introduce redundancy explicitly into digital communication systems when we want to be able to correct errors caused by noise. We have seen other examples where what appears to be redundant or unnecessary at a first glance really serves a purpose, and hence is not really redundant. We have seen that there are repetitions in the Qur’an but they too serve a purpose. The Qur’an and the universe reflect each other. We see apparent redundancies in both, but in the end we understand that there is a purpose behind everything that may initially appear to be redundant; hence, we cannot really find anything in the universe that is truly redundant. Therefore, we should keep in mind that apparently redundant or useless things in the universe may have hidden treasures behind them. Given that the creator is All-Wise and has wisdom in everything He does, it is our duty to go beyond the surface and seek that wisdom.

Nuh Aydin is an associate professor of Mathematics at Kenyon College, in Ohio, USA.

Notes

1. http://www.m-w.com
2. http://www.darwinismrefuted.com/embryology_02.html#313.
3. The Merck Manual of Medical Information, Home edition, Merck & Co., Inc. The Merck Publishing Group, Rahway, New Jersey, 1997.
4. http://www.darwinismrefuted.com/embryology_02.html#313.

References

Richard W. Hamming, 1950. “Error-detecting and error-correcting codes”. Bell System Technical Journal. 29: 147-160

R. Pinch, “Coding theory: the first 50 years” http://pass.maths.org/issue3/codes/

Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, The Words, Sozler, 1992.

William Z. Shetter, “This essay is redundant”

http://mypage.iu.edu/~shetter/miniatures/redund.htm

Muslim friends told me about his hard work, his impeccable character, and his innumerable virtues. Ironically, the more they spoke of his perfection, the more I resisted. It reminded me too much of the fervor of Christians regarding Jesus, peace be upon him. Risk comes with excessive praise

inadvertently a wonderful prophet can be raised to a status higher than a mortal man. Like many current and former Christians, I would not believe that Jesus was God, and I was scared of language which elevated any prophet too highly.

So every time I read about the Prophet, I prayed for protection from my own misconceptions, my own cultural prejudices. Then one day, I came upon a lovely story about the infant Prophet being nursed by a Bedouin. While he lived with the tribe, they enjoyed bountiful harvests and animals full of milk. The Bedouins soon became convinced this particular baby was very special. I had seen God looking out for the children in my life and providing for them inexplicably at particularly difficult times. So, by the grace of God, the Bedouin’s story opened a door for me.

Slowly, with more reading, the walls around my heart began to disintegrate. Polygamy was acceptable among Muslims, Jews, Christians, and polytheists at the time. But the Prophet had many wives, and non-Muslims eagerly cited this as evidence of perversion. What was the rational truth? First, he was loyal to one wife for 20 years, until her death, though she was his elder by 15 years. After her death, he married two women within a few years-one the elderly, destitute widow of an old friend, and the other the beloved daughter of his best friend and staunchest supporter. The latter, the lovely Aisha (may God be pleased with her) was a bright, beautiful, young woman he had known since her birth. She was one of the first converts to Islam and remained one of his most loyal confidantes throughout his life, as well as being a gifted historian. Having the option to marry only her, why wouldn’t he have done so? She was surely everything he could desire, physically, emotionally, intellectually, and spiritually, and he chose her company on his deathbed. Yet he married others later, relative strangers, women from different cultures, age groups, physical attributes, and social positions-most bringing several children to add to his responsibilities, and most destined to a life of destitution as widows without the mercy of his offer. His marriages formed alliances between previously disparate peoples-Egyptian Copts, Jews, warring Arab tribes, and Africans-and shattered the roots of racism and social repression. Simultaneously, his home became the first school of Islam, as his wives and their children became ambassadors among their own peoples, thereby increasing both the acceptance and the reach of Islam. It is simply illogical to think that a man in his 50s and 60s, with a perfect young wife already, would seek to complicate his life by adding more people to his household, including many offspring of other men, just to satisfy his sexual needs. Clearly, his complex home life was part of his calling and in no way reflected deviance on his part.

The image of the Prophet as a warrior was another point of contention which I found myself debating with my own Christian relatives. For after extensive reading, my conclusion was that he was simply a man with an opinion far different from the prevalent viewpoint, and this is never easy in any place at any time. He fought to defend himself and his community, and to protect the right of himself and others to profess their faith. He did it superbly, but excellence is hardly something to hold against someone. A simple and factual look at his choices tells it best. He could have been at home quietly with a few children and grandchildren, in comfort and peace. Instead, he was on the battlefield with rocks strapped to his stomach to fade the feeling of hunger, washing his body with sand. He did not become rich, nor did he retire to a leisurely life. Instead, he remained poor, tired, harassed, and threatened. He did not become the object of worship for anyone-proof is in the fact that Muslims celebrate his birth, death, and calling simply as days of reflection and prayer. The Muslim high holidays relate strictly to the message of Islam-the submission to one God-and not to the man. If he were really a megalomaniac, as those strongly opposed to Islam argue, why didn’t he “invent” verses of the Qur’an to compel Muslims to recognize him as better than all the prophets and make himself the object of all prayers? Instead, he is respectfully referred to in the Qur’an as a beautiful example of humanity, an illiterate among his own people, and a simple messenger. The message is always clear-all praise is due to God, not the Prophet.

Yet in a further assault on his character, non-Muslims then and now insist that the Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, was fed all his information by other people and simply “rehearsed tales of the ancients.” Yet this is illogical. First of all, the Prophet spent most of his time prior to his calling with salesmen, not scholars. These caravan merchants knew “a little about a lot,” having traveled extensively, but they could hardly be expected to know worldly subjects deeply. Most of them were illiterate themselves, with an education suited strictly to trade. Yet the Qur’an contains extensive details about past communities and religious doctrines, and about geological and human history. The depth of the knowledge conveyed is too great to be simply hearsay gleaned at a fireside chat among tradesmen. This knowledge requires full-time scholarship to acquire even today, never mind 1,400 years ago when there were few texts and scientific instruments, and even fewer translations. When do his opponents suppose he would have acquired so much knowledge anyhow? This would have required daily conversations with sages in the middle of numerous battles, an incredibly busy family life, countless daily prayers, and his own mission to deliver the message to others. Yet he was never seen with any mortal teacher, and even his enemies have never suggested that he had one.

In fact, some fervent opponents insist that the Prophet Muhammad was delusional-receiving inspiration from his own insanity. But if this were true, how could he simultaneously administer a massive, complex household with many wives and children, an intricate administration composed of alliances between peoples of different religious, socio-cultural, political, and economic backgrounds, and also strategize the stability of the Islamic empire for both the present and the future? The Prophet’s military and political savvy are enshrined in the historical record, in volumes upon volumes published by Muslims and non-Muslims alike. And the basic reality is that he cannot have been insane and infinitely pragmatic at the same time. Besides, if his only goal had been to manipulate people, why didn’t he have more commonly accepted tactics? Magic, for example, is easy to learn. Yet the Prophet’s record, even as quoted by non-believers, is devoid of cheap illusions.

And what of the “new knowledge” contained in the Qur’an-the scientific revelations about the rotation of the earth, speed of light, layers of the atmosphere, creation of stars, separation of the oceans, types of rocks, origin of the rain, gender of plants, composition of human tissue, formation of the embryo, origin of iron, and so on? Of all the sacred books around the world, only the Qur’an contains verifiable scientific data. What mortal source could have imparted such things to the Prophet? None. And to what end? Since these facts could not be verified until very recently, what benefit were they in convincing anyone in his time? None. If the Prophet intended to persuade people with some sort of self-contrived document, why put in a lot of material that wouldn’t make sense to anyone for another 1,000 years or more?

Truthfully, if he simply hoped for personal gain, for an easier life for himself, he would have been better off to just keep quiet and forget about the Qur’an completely. I see how my own life would have been much smoother with my relatives if I hadn’t converted to Islam. The Prophet Muhammad had already lost his father, mother, and guardian grandfather. Why wouldn’t he want to please and protect the only family he had left, his beloved uncle, and adhere to polytheism? Why wouldn’t he have wanted to simply retire comfortably in Meccan society as a prosperous husband, good father, and prominent member of the community?

The fact is that the Prophet Muhammad was a hard-working, brilliant, courageous, and spiritually profound man who gave everything he had in this life to argue the faith of Islam amid tremendous opposition, sacrificing his wealth, his family, his health, and his personal comfort. His only purpose was to convince anyone who would listen to worship one God, not himself. In less time than most people spend getting a basic education, he engineered the first welfare system in the world, installed a national health policy of cleanliness, good diet, and preventative care that is still valid today; he abolished slavery, eliminated female infanticide, and gender discrimination in family life and inheritance, overthrew racism, inclined millions upon millions of potent, passionate people towards sexual conservatism, and he convinced entire nations and generations after them to abstain from alcohol. What is more, he is personally responsible for the fact that over a billion people around the world pray daily in constant remembrance of one God. With painstaking precision, he related a divine message, some of which-the scientific truths-meant no sense to anyone at the time. The Prophet was competent in all fields of existence and achieved more than anyone who has ever lived. What is more, his accomplishments are historical facts easily substantiated by any person with the inclination to read, in any library around the world. Thus we can understand why Muslims embrace the Prophet Muhammad so completely-because his life has been and will always be the light which makes the path to what is right more visible and more achievable.

Kathleen St.Onge is the author of Bridge to Light: Spiritual Wayfaring Towards Islam.

Insaf is half of religion

The term insaf, which sometimes denotes righteousness, fairness, justice or never deviating from truth, is the term for not violating others’ rights while claiming your own, even wishing what you wish for yourself for others as well and giving priority to them if need be, and being balanced at doing the right thing by refraining from extreme behavior.

God’s Messenger counted insaf among the three basic components of good character. He stated that three things are originated by one’s faith: “Not giving up insaf despite the urges of the carnal self, promoting greeting, and spending in God’s way even during financial straits.” Another beautiful phrase-even though it is not a hadith-reflecting his views about right and justice is “insaf is half of religion.”

When we evaluate a matter in a certain fashion according to our own logic and reasoning, we might take our personal considerations as a basis and view the issue from the perspective of our carnal selves and corporeality. When doing that, we may be mostly mistaken, make wrong judgments and think ourselves to be definitely right. In such a case-even though our personal feelings, thoughts, inclinations and wishes are different-siding with the right as soon as we recognize the truth and taking a stance in spite of our ego is an expression of insaf. Being respectful toward the requirements of faith all the time, blending our morality with righteousness, always being in pursuit of truth, and, in spite of the pressure of carnal inclinations, listening to the voice of the conscience and championing the right is a requirement of having insaf.

A human being without insaf is cruel and ruthless; such people use every opportunity to have an ill opinion of others, ignore their tens of good deeds for a single evil one and always fail to cherish a good opinion. Even though the Islamic moral code counsels having insaf and holding a good opinion, a person without insaf takes unfairness and ill opinion as a basis. Therefore, they become trapped by one bad apple and conclude that the entire orchard is barren and putrid. As a matter of fact a damaged banknote in the state treasury does not lessen the reserves, but in the sight of one who lacks insaf-a bad trait which we can compare to the damaged note-the riches of being human can turn into an object of no value.

A single mistake should not nullify many good deeds

Actually, given that a good deed is counted tenfold and a misdeed only once in the sight of God, one mistake should not be allowed to evoke ill feelings toward a person in spite of his or her many good deeds. Believers who have insaf should always try to think positively and recognize someone’s good side; they should not totally condemn a person because of one mistake. They should even consider one of a person’s good deeds to compensate for all of his or her misdeeds. For instance, when a person devoted to a righteous cause considers one of his fellow friends, he should say, “Such and such person committed this misdeed, but I cannot overlook his loyalty to serving in the way of God,” and thereby be very faithful toward his companion and always do the decent thing and hold the truth dear. Nevertheless, an event narrated in the books of hadith underlines a very important point about this issue: A Companion of the Prophet who was not very conscious about drinks and could not break his addiction would sometimes get intoxicated and be rebuked by God’s Messenger each time. The same Companion was one day brought to the presence of God’s Messenger for the same offense. One of those present said, “O God, curse this man! He is being punished for the same offense for so many times but still does not behave himself.” On hearing this, God’s Messenger said, “Do not curse him. I swear by God that he loves God and His Messenger from the heart!” Then he told them to pray for him saying, “O God, grant mercy to him and forgive his faults.”

Given that this Companion’s sincerity is appreciated so much, we can better picture what it brings to a person to serve in the way of God and to strive for His name to be engraved in hearts. Thus, we can make a well-placed evaluation of the attitude we are to take in the face of that person’s faults and mistakes.

Commitment to the right and wishing to hold the truth dear

The worst example of lack of insaf in our time is seen in criticism which is based upon grudge, guile, and pride. In fact, true criticism, which means analyzing the good or bad sides of somebody or something, making a comparison between what is and what should be, is a means of walking toward the ideal.

Making constructive criticisms and being open to criticism is a scholarly principle. However, this should be done within a certain manner and form. After all, the person who criticizes should have insaf, he or she should speak not out of personal considerations but in the name of God’s good pleasure and have no intention other than goodness. The drive for criticism should arise from striving toward the right and a wish to clarify the truth. A critic with insaf should only hold the aim of unearthing the truth. Otherwise, criticism without insaf-which serves pride and beguilement-destroys the truth and leads to unfairness and wrong.

As you know, we can define a debate as the act of having an exchange of views in order to clarify a truth, brainstorming within certain rules and principles, cooperative thinking, mutual discussion, and presenting decently expressed personal considerations to collective reasoning. Unfortunately, in almost all the gatherings held under the name of debate in our time, we witness lack of insaf in the form of criticism. Today, almost everyone who joins the quarrels at the platforms of dispute, sophistry, and demagogy-what we can call verbal duels-has certain presumptions and the debaters usually strive to make the opposite side accept their own views rather than clarifying a truth. To the degree that they spend utmost effort in this matter-sometimes they engage in a play on words or play of logic, or resort to unbecoming acts like provoking their opponents or silencing and embarrassing them-they always remain closed to the truth. Rather than revealing truths, they turn their words into dialectics by opposing the expressions of thought and philosophy of the other side, and the debaters act with the intentions of defeating, humiliating, and silencing one another. In fact, such an argument can never be called a true debate; it seems to me like a quarrel between mentally disabled ones. Unfortunately, nowadays assemblies of debate have become grounds of dialectics.

The only remedy for this disease is not to give up insaf, always to do the decent thing, to hold the truth dear and never sacrifice it for the sake of anything else. Every party to a discussion should reproach their own ego and not favor themselves but the person or people they address. Let alone humiliating the other party, when a person who proves right makes the other self-conscious, he or she should be regarded as being disrespectful to human values.

As Said Nursi suggests, the attitudes at a decent scholarly debate based on the principle of insaf are to be evaluated as follows: if a person asserts a certain opinion, proves right, and becomes happy about it, that person lacks insaf because what matters is not proving right but discovering the right. A person who is happy about both proving right and the opposite site being wrong loses. That is, the person who proves right does not learn anything new or benefit from the debate. Moreover he or she may be taken by pride and suffer further loss. However, if the opposite side proves to be right-without any possibility of loss-the person benefits by learning something new and is freed from pride as well. So a righteous person with insaf rejects his or her own ego for the sake of the truth; even if he or she sees the truth in the hands of the opponent, he or she accepts it anyway with good consent and supports the other.

Do we really have insaf?

On the other hand, concerning the followers of other faiths or philosophies one sometimes cannot help but say, “I wish these people had some insaf, and they would look at the Qur’an and the Prophet’s message accordingly! Insaf might open their eyes as well and be a means for them to draw different conclusions. I wish they could be freed from their biases for a moment and could consider Islam with insaf.” With such reflections in mind, we invite people to hold insaf. But are we taking into account what falls to our part while expecting insaf from them? I wonder to what degree we have been able to present the right and truth to them. Have we been able to be credible and inspire trust? Have we been able to represent the truth properly so as to invoke insaf in them?

Muslims have moved to many different countries of the world and their population has reached a considerable level in certain places but their influence has not been proportionate to their number, because they have worked for others mostly with worldly concerns. As masters do not care for their slaves, they did not listen to Muslims’ words; they usually used Muslims like slaves and sought ways of disposing of them when they had profited from them. In this respect, even though Muslims have gone to many different lands, we cannot consider the message of Islam to have reached the people of those lands. Particularly at a time when materialism and naturalism prevail, people who are accustomed to looking at things and events with a materialist perspective cannot be said to have met the logic of Islam and the Qur’an. Therefore-with the exception of the body of tyrants who dye the world in blood and oppress the weak-the people from whom we expect insaf can in many respects be regarded as equivalent to the people of the Interregnum Period.² Then isn’t it we who should have insaf in the first place? For not having been able to go to all corners of the world and present a credible type of behavior, stance, and example, for not being able to represent the truths of the Qur’an-which are truly beautiful by objective criteria-shouldn’t we first question ourselves? If people are saying, ”What we are being told is so good, but we haven’t seen any community with these truths ingrained in their life. We haven’t witnessed any people who have been adorned with those laudable virtues. We have found no paragons of virtue who live with meticulous sensitivity. Where are the people who are completely closed to sins and are determined to remain so? Where are the living examples of true believers? We cannot believe without seeing them!”, if they are saying this and they voice this on Judgment Day, how can we give an answer before God? In this respect, when we talk about insaf and call others to be fair, we should not forget that we need a vision to trigger the feeling of insaf within ourselves.

An example from the Prophet to evoke the feeling of insaf

Did not those who saw the Pride of Humanity say, “We haven’t witnessed any lies from you so far”? Did they not admit the truth in saying, “We never doubted your being a truthful and trustworthy person”?… Truly, the noble and virtuous stance of God’s Messenger in a way became a reference for his addressees to pay attention to the Qur’an, listen to the message of Islam, and listen to the truthful Prophet. The unique example of the perfect guide evoked the feeling of insaf in consciences.

Today as well, what has an influence on hearts and brings people to insaf is “representation.” Few people say, “I found the truth after I heard such and such words.” But there are many people who say, “I embraced faith after seeing this sincere example of such and such true believer.” Likewise, the words which become a means for others’ faith are always fruits of what the heart voices and what our actions reflect. For conveying the message finds its true value through genuine representation.

The case of an American professor is one of hundreds of examples proving the power of proper representation: This person, who was an expert on the history of religion, visited Urfa, southeastern Turkey. He was attending a charity meeting of a group of chivalrous souls. As they were all seated around a table, he briefly spoke with the person beside him. In the conversation, the professor mentioned that he had just returned from Southeast Asia. On hearing this, his poor neighbor whispered humbly, “I support a school in Cambodia.” The professor described that devoted man with the following words: “He looked poor. He was modest; however-surprisingly-he was giving nearly all his surplus income for a school he will probably never see in this life. Cambodian children were being educated thanks to the sacrifices including his own and he was happy beyond expression.” The professor said that he did not need any further proof about the sincerity of those devoted ones.

That professor and others like him are not unaware of the Qur’an; however, what makes an impact on them is representation. Again, there is someone I know who read books on Islam for almost ten years with no significant change in his life. One day, he visited one of our friends and heard that sincere person saying God’s name with his every act; he was such a devout believer that even though he spoke very little, his acts, his looks, and the way he prostrates himself in prayer reflect the Almighty. The condition of that devoted person affected his guest very much, who then saw that the principles he had read about in books were built on a sound basis and that things fit in their place; he was then able to say, “These acts derive from such and such essential disciplines.”

In this respect as we invite representatives of different understandings to insaf, the necessity of a degree of exemplary representation to evoke insaf in them should not be ignored. Showing the truth through exemplary representation to the people whom we expect to be righteous is a requirement of holding insaf. We can even say that the sole duty of the volunteers who have dispersed to every corner of the world today is an exemplary representation to evoke the feeling of insaf by the language of love.

Notes

1. In Islam, people have a responsibility to their Creator, and to all people including themselves, and the entire creation.
2. After Jesus, people failed to keep up his original message from God and deified him instead. From then on until the Prophet Muhammad came-the Interregnum Period-there was no undistorted religion for people to follow. Therefore, God will not hold them responsible in the day of Judgment.

El Fadl’s The Place of Tolerance in Islam consists of three parts: the author’s essay on tolerance in Islam, rebuttals to the essay, and El Fadl’s reply. While emphasizing that Islam is a tolerant religion, El Fadl also acknowledges the existence of intolerant Muslims. For him, certain interpretations of Islam, particularly those of terrorists, imply a deviation from the true message of Islam. He stresses that the existence of problematic interpretations is not exclusively a characteristic of Islam. All religious texts provide rich “possibilities for meaning…[T]he text will morally enrich the reader, but only if the reader will morally enrich the text” (p. 15).

According to El Fadl, a major reason for the emergence and popularity of misleading interpretations of religions is the claim to be searching for the “pure” version of religions. Yet, by emptying the Qur’an both of its historical and moral context, the puritan trend ends up transforming the text into a long list of morally noncommittal legal commands” (p. 15). For El Fadl, the self-proclaimed Puritans, such as Osama bin Laden, who claim to “purify” Islam from traditional deviations, misunderstand and misrepresent Islam. For example, they misuse the term jihad. In Islam, war is never holy; it is justifiable or not. Contrary to what the Puritans claim, “the highest form of jihad is struggle waged to cleanse oneself from the vices of heart” (p. 19). Nevertheless, since there is a vacuum of religious authority in Islam, the marginal puritans, may find followers.

The puritan Muslims, El Fadl notes, are intolerant of other religions. That view is against the message of the Qur’an, which says,

“Those who believe, those who follow Jewish scriptures, the Christians, the Sabians, and any who believe in God and the Final Day, and do good, all shall have their reward with their Lord and they will not come to fear or grief” (5: 69, 2: 62).

El Fadl argues that the true message of Islam is open to diversity and tolerance. There is no compulsion in matters of faith in Islam. He refers again to the Quran:

“To each of you God has prescribed a Law and a Way. If God would have willed, He would have made you a single people. But God’s purpose is to test you in what he has given each of you, so strive in the pursuit of virtue, and know that you will all return to God, and He will resolve all the matters in which you disagree” (5: 49).

The rebuttals to El Fadl’s essay are written by several well-known scholars. Two of their critiques are worth mentioning. First, some critics argue that terror can only be explained by socio-economic reasons and El Fadl’s theological discussion is therefore pointless. Second, some other critics also find the theological debate irrelevant, since the real cause of terrorism in the Middle East is historically Western colonialism and currently Western domination in this region. In his “Reply,” El Fadl emphasizes that, although socio-economic conditions are also important, theology is crucial, since Islam “remains central to the dynamics of public legitimacy and cultural meaning” in many Muslim countries. In this regard, a critical view of theology is needed to search for solutions to the socio-political problems of Muslim societies. He also adds that simply blaming the West does not contribute anything to the solution. Muslims should preserve and respect the real message of Islam, even though they have been oppressed by colonizers. Muslims, El Fadl concludes, should avoid political myopia or losing the moral ground by embracing an intolerant interpretation of their religion. Instead, they must go back to the real message of Islam, which calls for tolerance and respects religious diversity.

What is the Qur’an?

The word “Qur’an,” which comes from the Arabic root q-r-a, means “something that is read or recited repeatedly or diligently.” As a book, the Qur’an has about six hundred pages in Arabic and consists of 114 chapters of 6,239 verses altogether.¹ The longest chapter is about forty-eight pages, and shortest is one line.

The Qur’an is the religious text of around 1.4 billion Muslims worldwide.² Muslims believe that the Qur’an is the verbatim word of God, revealed through Archangel Gabriel to Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, who is the final messenger in a long chain of prophets. The verses were revealed at different times and places over twenty-three years, sometimes as answers to specific questions, or in reference to certain events happening at the time. The Qur’an has been recited and practiced daily by Muslims since its revelation, and it is the first and primary source of Islamic jurisprudence. The Qur’an has to be interpreted in the light of the practices of the Prophet, the second source of Islamic teachings and practices. The record of everything Prophet Muhammad said, did, or approved of is termed hadith in Islamic terminology.³

How did the revelation of the Qur’an start?

In 610 AD, the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, was sitting alone in a cave nearby Mecca. He was forty years old, and he was on a spiritual retreat. According to his own account, Archangel Gabriel appeared to him and commanded him to read. He was illiterate, and he replied that he could not read. The angel embraced him in a devastating grip until the Prophet thought he would faint. Then, the angel commanded again, “Read!” The same chain of events occurred, until he was commanded to read for the third time, when he asked, “What should I read?” Upon his submission, Gabriel brought the first revelation:

Read: in and with the name of your Lord Who has created,
Created human from a clot clinging (to the wall of the womb),
Read: and your Lord is the All-Munificent,
Who has taught by the pen,
Taught human what he did not know. (Alaq 96:1–5)

After an initial period of confusion and fright, he eventually came to accept the Prophetic mission given to him by God. He was to announce that there is no God but He, and call humankind back to the service of God, a path they had deviated from long before. From then on, the revelation continued, with some occasional gaps, for twenty-three years.

When the Qur’an was revealed, what was the reaction?

Although there were Christian and Jewish people living in Mecca and nearby cities, idolatry was the predominant religion in seventh-century Mecca. They conceived the Prophet’s monotheistic message as an insult to the religion they had inherited from their ancestors. Also, Mecca was at the center of trade routes, and the Ka‘ba, a holy shrine inside Mecca, was a centre of pilgrimage. The Ka‘ba was filled with idols, and removing them would pose a threat to the economic welfare of the Meccan chiefs. Therefore, most Meccans, especially the rich and powerful, opposed the message right away. They attempted to prevent the message from spreading by verbally assaulting early Muslims. When the Muslim community kept growing slowly but surely, the opponents proceeded to persecute and torture the Muslims. Since the early Muslim community consisted of weak and poor people, they were an easy target. Some Muslims concealed their identities for a while and practiced their religion in secret. When persecution became unbearable, in 610 AD they migrated to Yathrib, a nearby oasis city, in order to be able to practice their religion freely. That city is now known as Medina.

While few people believed the message in the early stages, there are many historical accounts reporting the impact of the Qur’an, even on those who did not convert. They confessed that the Qur’an has a mesmerizing beauty, beyond the most exquisite poems written of that time. Due to the prevalence of oral arts (as opposed to written media), eloquence and oratory was valued and appreciated by the common people at the time. Consequently, the beauty and power of expression of the Qur’an was widely acknowledged. Some famous poets believed the message simply because they perceived the eloquence of the Qur’an to be beyond human capability.⁴

How did the revelations come?

Archangel Gabriel brought the revelations to the Prophet on different occasions, in various forms. When the revelations came, people could detect that it was happening by changes in the Prophet’s condition. He would lose attention to everything else, sweat profusely, and his weight would increase. Once, a companion was sitting together with the Prophet when the revelation came, and the Prophet’s thigh was resting upon his. He thought his thigh was going to break due to Prophet’s increased weight. When the experience was over, the Prophet would recite the verses.⁵

How was the Qur’an preserved?

When the Qur’an was revealed, it was recorded by the scribes of revelation, and subsequently announced to the public. After the verses had been announced, many people memorized them, and recited them daily in their prayers. Since the Qur’anic order of verses is not chronological, the Prophet himself, under divine guidance, would indicate the location and sequence of different verses when the revelations were recorded. The entire Qur’an was compiled based on the records of multiple scribes shortly after the Prophet passed away. The Qur’an compiled from written records was subjected to confirmation by the most prominent memorizers of the Qur’an at that time.⁶ During the time of Uthman, the third caliph⁷ after the Prophet, several copies of the Qur’an were produced and sent to the largest cities under Muslim rule. In time, many copies of the Qur’an were written. Today, Muslims take pride in the fact that all the copies of the Qur’an around the world are the same. The text has remained intact for over fourteen hundred years.

What does the Qur’an say about people of other religions?

Muslims are required to believe in the earlier prophets and their scriptures, in their originally revealed form. The authenticity of the current Gospels and the Old Testament is widely disputed, even by Christian and Jewish scholars. Muslims believe that the original texts were tampered with as they were passed from generation to generation. As such, Muslims regard it as normal that other religious texts contain passages not compatible with Islamic teachings and only believe in the sections supported by the Qur’an or Prophet Muhammad’s sayings.

The Qur’an gives a special status to Jews and Christians and calls them the “People of the Book,” that is, people who received scripture. People of other religions are welcome to choose Islam out of their own free will, but forceful conversion to Islam is explicitly prohibited (Baqara 2:256). People who choose to keep their religion are to be treated respectfully, and if they are living in a Muslim country, their rights are under the protection of the Muslim ruler. Because of this protection, many minorities have preserved their religious identity and have been free to practice their religions under Muslim rule for centuries. Muslims, in daily life, are also required to treat people of other religions kindly and respectfully.⁸

With respect to the question of salvation in the hereafter, the answer is more complex. First of all, even Muslims are not guaranteed to be saved from hellfire, if they do not practice their religion. Faith alone is not sufficient for salvation, and practicing the faith is essential.

Second, the Qur’an is very clear on the fact that every person will be rewarded for all good deeds and will be held accountable for bad deeds, regardless of his or her religion. In this context, the Qur’an states that no action is in vain:

Surely be they of those who declare faith (the Community of Muhammad) and be they of those who are the Jews or the Sabaeans, or the Christians (or of another faith) – whoever truly and sincerely believes in God and the Last Day and does good, righteous deeds – they will have no fear, nor will they grieve. (Maeda 5:69)

On the other hand, unjustified erroneous beliefs, such as ascribing partners to God, are harshly criticized by the Qur’an:

As it is, some say: “The All-Merciful has taken to Himself a child.” Assuredly you have (in such an assertion) brought forth something monstrous – The heavens are all but rent, and the earth split asunder, and the mountains fall down in ruins – That they ascribe to the All-Merciful a child! It is not for the All-Merciful to take to Himself a child. (Maryam 19:88–93)

This, and similar verses (e.g. Maeda 5:72, 73, Tawba 9:30) have led others to believe that people that hold such beliefs are doomed to hellfire. Since salvation in the hereafter is a matter of dispute among scholars, the safe way for Muslims is to avoid making judgments in this matter, since God alone is the ultimate judge. Muslims are neither expected nor encouraged to ascribe people to Heaven or Hell. Let us conclude this section with an authentic saying of the Prophet, narrated by Abu Hurayrah, one of the Prophet’s companions:

I heard the Apostle of God (peace be upon him) say: “There were two men among Children of Israel, who were striving for the same goal. One of them would commit sin and the other would strive to do his best in the world. The man who exerted himself in worship continued to see the other in sin. He would say: ‘Refrain from it.’ One day he found him in sin and said to him: ‘Refrain from it.’ He said: ‘Leave me alone with my Lord. Have you been sent as a watchman over me?’ He said: ‘I swear by God, God will not forgive you, nor will he admit you to Paradise.’ Then their souls were taken back (by God), and they met together with the Lord of the worlds. He (God) said to this man who had striven hard in worship: ‘Had you knowledge about Me or had you power over that which I had in My hand?’ He said to the man who sinned:’ Go and enter Paradise by My mercy.’ He said about the other: ‘Take him to Hell.’”

Abu Hurayrah said: “By Him in Whose hand my soul is, he spoke a word by which this world and the next world of his were destroyed.”⁹

Why is the Qur’an considered a miracle?

Muslims regard the Qur’an as a miracle, beyond the capacity of any human to produce. Scholars point out several miraculous aspects of the Qur’an. One of these aspects relates to Qur’anic predictions that came true about events that took place shortly after verses were revealed, as well as events that took place centuries later. Some examples of predictions are: Mecca’s conquest (Fath 48:27), the Roman victory over the Persians (Rum 30:2–6), that all male children of the Prophet would die before the age of puberty (Ahzab 33:40), and that the body of the Pharaoh (who drowned chasing Prophet Moses through the Red Sea) would be recovered many centuries later (Yunus 10:90–92).

Another aspect relates to scientific facts that were unknown at the time of the Prophet. Among many examples, it suffices to quote the following:

i. The universe started from a single piece (Anbiya 21:30), and it is constantly expanding (Dhariyat 51:47).

ii. Mountains are like masts, that is, the bulk of a mountain lies underneath the earth’s crust (Naba 78:6–7).

iii. The earth is a globe (Naziat 79:30).

iv. Heavenly bodies follow orbits (Anbiya 21:33).

v. The atmosphere is a protective roof for the inhabitants of the earth (Anbiya 21:32).

vi. Plants have genders (Ta Ha 20:53).

Finally, the Qur’an is regarded as a linguistic miracle by Arabic-speakers.

What is the main message of the Qur’an?

The Qur’an talks about a variety of subjects, but according to the classification of Said Nursi, a notable scholar,¹⁰ it has four main themes:

i. The unity of God and His attributes

ii. The notion of Prophethood, and stories of Prophets

iii. The afterlife: descriptions of Heaven, Hell, and Judgment Day

iv. Social regulations and justice: rituals of worship, manners, and regulations governing social and economic life.

Contrary to common misconception, the last category constitutes less than one tenth of the Qur’an. The bulk of the Qur’an details the essentials of belief and places them in the broader framework of God’s attributes and the mission of human beings on earth.

Among the many messages the Qur’an delivers, if one has to be picked as the main message, it is that human beings are created to know and serve the one true God, and are tested during their life on earth. They will be sent to their destinations of Heaven or Hell, depending on their actions in this life.

Was the Qur’an built upon the stories in the Bible?

The Qur’an mentions many of the Biblical prophets by name, and there are commonalities among stories told in the Qur’an and the Bible. However, there are differences as well. Some specific examples are:

i. The Qur’an mentions that the news of the Prophet Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) coming was delivered by the earlier prophets.

ii. When relating the story of Prophet Joseph (peace be upon him), the Qur’an does not use the term Pharaoh to refer to king of Egypt, but the Bible does. Scholars argue that the title Pharaoh did not start to be used until much after Joseph. The preservation of Pharaoh’s body as a sign for later centuries is mentioned in the Qur’an but not in the Bible.

iii. When relating past Prophets’ stories, the Qur’an uses very respectful language, and never ascribes intentional wrongdoing to any of the Prophets. This is in stark contrast with, for example, the stories of Prophet David and Prophet Lot (peace be upon them) in the Bible.

iv. The Qur’an rejects the concept of Trinity, and proclaims that Jesus (peace be upon him) never claimed to be the son of God.

Furthermore, one needs to keep in mind that religion is not a collection of Prophet stories. It is a way of life. In this regard, the Qur’an reiterates the essentials of belief (which, by and large, overlap with those of Christianity and Judaism); reinforces, adds or omits some of the social regulations of earlier religions; and introduces rituals for worship. However, the style of the Qur’an is very different from the style of the Bible; it refers less to historical events and puts more emphasis on God’s attributes and the afterlife. Overall, it would be wrong to claim that the Qur’an is merely an extension of the Bible.

Is violence condoned in the Qur’an?

The topic of peace and war in the Qur’an is very broad; so, it cannot be successfully addressed in the limited space here. The short answer is that violence is never approved in the Qur’an. Peace is the norm in Muslim life, but the need for war on certain occasions is acknowledged. War is only allowed to reestablish peace in and among societies. Legitimate reasons for the declaration of war are:

i. For self-defense

ii. For the protection of weak people against oppression

iii. On account of the violation of peace treaties between Muslims and others, or against those allying with the attackers of the Muslim community, or those attacking members of the Muslim community without just cause.

Difference of religion, that is, simply being a person or nation of a different religion is not considered a legitimate reason for war.¹² Also, a person or a group cannot declare war. Just as justice cannot be executed by individuals but only by government-appointed officials or representatives, so it is only within the government’s authority to declare a war. Moreover, when engaged in warfare, Muslims are bound by wartime regulations. For example:

i. They cannot harm innocents, such as women, children, elderly, people who dedicate themselves to religion in monasteries, and in general, non-combatants.

ii. Torture and rape are prohibited.

iii. Damaging the physical infrastructure, such as the water supply, trees, tilled land, animals, is also prohibited, unless unavoidable.

iv. When the enemy inclines to peace, Muslims are not authorized to continue warfare.

The Qur’an also states that killing an innocent soul is as evil as killing the whole of humankind (Maeda 5:32). Hence, violence perpetrated by terrorist groups and any other form of warfare which breaks these regulations cannot be attributed to Islamic teachings.

Can the Qur’an be translated?

There are many Qur’an translations available in a variety of languages. The scholars are in unanimous agreement that no translation can do justice to the Qur’an. Hence, the reader should not fall into the error of assuming that the message communicated in the Qur’an is limited to that found in its translation. The translations have well-known shortcomings. No language is a perfect substitute for another and the concepts that exist in one language may not exist in others. The style and beauty of expression is almost always lost, and the translator has to choose a specific meaning out of many meanings of a certain word. This is very much true for the Qur’an, in which:

i. Words are used with multi-layered meanings.

ii. Some words map onto specific religious concepts, which should be explained in detail before their meaning can be given.

iii. Many verses refer to other verses or historical events; hence, a contextual explanation is usually necessary.

iv. Some verses are abrogated by others, and the user needs to know the chronological order of revelation before each verse can be interpreted.

Therefore, reading a translation provides a basic understanding, but also raises many questions in the reader’s mind. Those questions can only be answered by referring to a properly qualified teacher or through reading books or articles dedicated to the explanation of certain concepts. Such an explanation necessitates looking at the Qur’an in its entirety, considering the interpretations of leading Muslim scholars, and looking at the practices and explanations of the Prophet of Islam.

Among the most widespread translations are those by Abdullah Yusuf Ali,¹² Marmaduke Pickthall,¹³ and Muhammad Asad.¹⁴ A recent translation by Ali Ãœnal combines the best of the previous translations. It provides detailed annotations, and it is written in modern English.

Why do Muslims recite the Qur’an in Arabic?

Muslims strive to recite the Qur’an in its original language, since only the Arabic version is considered the word of God. It is recited in Arabic in the daily prayers and as a form of worship. But translations and commentaries are available in every language, and readers are encouraged to consult those. The memorization needed for the daily prayers is minimal, and can be done by an uneducated person in a single day. Most people memorize much longer portions of the Qur’an, and people who have memorized the entire Qur’an are not uncommon. Reciting the Qur’an in a beautiful and sad voice is a highly valued Islamic art. “Embellish the Qur’an with your voices, for indeed a beautiful voice enhances the beauty of the Qur’an,” declared the Prophet.¹⁵ Many Muslims also try to learn at least some Arabic to be able to understand portions of the Qur’an. However, knowing Arabic is not essential to be a good Muslim. Being a good Muslim is measured by God-consciousness and by how much one practices the religion.

Conclusion

The Qur’an is considered the word of God by over a billion Muslims. Western readers unfamiliar with the Qur’anic message should familiarize themselves with the Qur’an before making any judgment about it. However, reading a translation only provides a basic understanding, and supplemental reading is necessary. This brief article serves as an introduction to the Qur’an, by providing answers to frequently asked questions. The reader is encouraged to consult the reference list below. Further detailed information is widely available through the Internet and printed media.

References

• Abu Dawud, Sunan, accessed on 06/01/2007at:
• http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud
• Muhammad (2003), The Message of the Qur’an, The Book Foundation, Bristol.
• Canan, Ibrahim (2004) “Rivayetlerin Isiginda Kur’an’in Cem edilmesi” (“Compilation of the Qur’an in the light of Historical Records”) Yeni Umit April–June 2004,
• Gulen, Fethullah (2000), Prophet Muhammad: Aspects of His Life, The Fountain, Virginia.
• Khan, Muhammad M. (1995), The Translation of the Meanings of Summarized Sahih Al-Bukhari: Arabic-English, Kazi Publications Inc.
• Kurucan, Ahmet (2006), Niçin Diyalog: Diyalogun Temelleri (English, “Why Dialogue? Pillars of Dialogue”), Isik Yayinlari, Istanbul.
• Nursi, Said (1997), The Words, Kaynak Kol. Sti. Izmir.
• Pickthall, Marmaduke (2001), The Glorious Qur’an, New York.
• Unal, Ali (2006), The Qur’an with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English, The Light, Inc., New Jersey.
• Teece, Geoff (2005), Religion in Focus: Islam, 1st ed., Smart Apple Media, North Mankato.
• Wikipedia, Online Encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/
• Yusuf Ali, Abdullah (2004), The Meaning of the Holy Qur’an, Amana Publications, 11th ed., Maryland.

End Notes

1. Pagination differs across different prints, but the text does not. The 604-page version refers to Arabic text only, written according to a particular script, which takes longest verse as the measure of a single page, and shortest chapter as a measure of a single line. With roman text and explanations, the translations usually exceed thousand pages.

2. Teece, Geoff (2005)

3. Gulen (2000)

4. Nursi (1958), 25th Word on the Holy Quran

5. Bukhari, Volume 4, Book 52, hadith 85.

6. Canan (2005)

7. Caliph is a historical title given to leaders of Muslim community. It is no longer used.

8. Kurucan (2007)

9. Abu Dawud, Adab, Book 41, Number 4883. Compilation of Sunan was completed on 241 A.H.

10. Nursi (2000).

11. Kurucan (2006)

12. Yusuf Ali (2004). Originally publishes in 1938.

13. Pickthall (2001). Originally published in 1930.

14. Asad (2003). Originally published in 1980.

15. Al-Haakim, al-Mustadrak, 1/236