The eye is a miracle as it is. Even though we have a rough understanding of its basic anatomy, we are confronted with a much more complex miracle when we venture into the intricacies of its anatomy and the physiology of the act of seeing. We have theories about the many details – such as the perception and representation of mental images and their storage in the memory – but we still do not exactly know how the act of seeing works.

One of the most mysterious layers of the eye, the retina has an elaborate structure with a slew of functions. Not every eye surgeon dares touch the retina, which houses the most sensitive and special cellular layers. It is a three dimensional, crescent-shaped structure located in the back of the eye and is made up of ten super thin layers of cells that span the exterior part of the eye abutting the veins and its interiors.

Retinal layers

The ten layers that form the retina are:

1. Pigment (coloring matter) layer
2. Layer of rods and cones
3. External limiting membrane
4. Outer nuclear layer comprising rod and cone cells
5. Outer plexiform layer
6. Inner nuclear layer
7. Inner plexiform layer
8. Ganglion layer
9. Nerve fiber layer
10. Inner limiting membrane

These layers are incredibly sensitive and elaborate, and studying their intricate structure give a sense of awe.

Light for sight

Light first arrives at and penetrates through the cornea, the living glassy layer at the outermost layer of the eye. It then goes through the frontal fluid (aquesous humor) and the aperture called the pupil (pupilla). It hits the internal wall of the retina (the inside of the crescent) after passing through the lens in the eye and then the optic fluid filling up the chamber in the back. This alone is an interesting fact because it is much later that the light that gets to the retina reaches the layer of sensitive cone and rod cells, which perceive light. As these cone and rod cells are lined one after another for their protection, light reaches this outer layer of the retina after the ganglion cells, retinal layers and nuclear layers. Such an alignment leads to a reduction of acuity in the peripheral regions of the retina.

We have theories about the many details – such as the perception and representation of mental images and their storage in the memory – but we still do not exactly know how the act of seeing works

The central pit (fovea centralis)

The inner layers at the center of the retina, on the other hand, are drawn to the sides to prevent any loss in visual acuity. Resembling a pit, this section is much thinner than the periphery of the retina, so the layers that are likely to obstruct the passage of the light, and hence reduce visual acuity, are aligned specifically to allow light to directly hit cone and rod cells. Besides, cone cells, which are in charge of exact, colored sight, exist in this region, whereas rod cells, which are in charge of rough and uncolored (black and white) sight, do not.  The central pit where visual acuity is at its highest is for keen, colored, and exact sight. Why then is the rest of the retina not created for acute sight and why is this small section equipped with this ability?

As it turns out, if the entire retina had the ability to see keenly then it would not be possible for the eye to focus on a spot and accurately distinguish it from surrounding objects. If we could see the entire page of a book at a glance, for example, the lines would mix up in our brain. We would not be able to understand what we are reading. We normally start reading from the top of the written page and continue line by line as we focus on and take in each word. Our brain then can focus and perceive a single word accurately by restricting keen perception of the surrounding area.

The retinal pigment layer

The color black is known to absorb, not reflect, light. Thanks to such absorption, the layer made up of black pigments (melanin) or dyes prevents the reflection of light, which is crucial for visual acuity. This black substance functions like the black dye in the bellows of old cameras. If there were not any layer to absorb light, light would scatter off the wall inside the eyeball, thereby obscuring the sharpness between light and dark spots, which is essential for the formation of a clear image, and producing a blurry image due to the overall illumination of the retina.

People who lack this melanin pigment as a result of a genetic defect (Albinism disorder) have white hair, and they are oversensitive to light because the colored iris layer of the eye does not contain the melanin pigment, which refracts light. When an albino person enters a bright area, the light that hits the retina is reflected in all directions through the pigment-lacking retina and the white surfaces of the rigid layer underneath (sclera). Therefore, a ray of light that would normally stimulate a few cones or rods is scattered everywhere, stimulating all or most of the light receivers. As a result, visual acuity in albinos can only be between 20/100 and 20/200, even with the help of the best optical correction, which is a low value compared to 20/20 in normal sight. The joke that rabbits do not wear glasses because they eat carrots is based on the high concentration of vitamin A in this pigment, or black dye, layer of the eye. Indeed, vitamin A is a crucial factor for the health of these pigments.

Layer of rods and cones

Composed of 127 million light-sensitive receivers (photoreceptors), the retina is 0.2 mm thick at the yellow spot (macula lutea), where the image forms most clearly, and 0.1 mm thick at the edges of this area. The 120 million cylindrical rods in the retina are in charge of black and white sight (at twilight), and the 7 million tapered cones, of colored, colored and exact sight. The more common cylindrical rods are 50 µm (microns) in length and 1-5 µm in thickness. The less common cones are 40 µm (microns) in length and 3-5 µm in thickness.

The concentration of the cones increases toward the center of the retina and decreases toward the edges, to be outnumbered by the rods. In the cytoplasm of the cones and rods are stored substances that are sensitive to light (photosensitive) which break up when light contacts them and produce electricity in the cones and rods. In rods this chemical is called rhodopsin. In cones, on the other hand, are three substances corresponding to the colors red, green, and blue that are sensitive to the wavelengths of colored light. To be more exact, there are three separate cone cells that include one of these three substances. Chemically, the photosensitive substances in the cones are a little different from rhodopsins.

The destruction of rhodopsin by light energy

Rhodopsin, along with the color substances, fills up about 40% of rods and cones. They are made up of a protein called scotopsin and a molecule called retinene that is derived from vitamin A. When light energy is absorbed by rhodopsin or the color substances, rhodopsin starts to fade in as fast as one trillionth of a second. The underlying reason for this is that the electrons in the retinene (vitamin A) part of rhodopsin is activated by light, which alters the shape of the retinal molecule at a mind-boggling speed (one trillionth of a second). Extremely complicated and precise chemical and physical changes then take place. It is very difficult to monitor all of these biochemical changes, and they require specialization [1].

The regeneration of the rhodopsin destroyed by light

Rhodopsin destroyed by light is regenerated in the dark. Only in the twentieth century did we manage to partially identify the mechanism by which molecules with very specific geometric shapes decay at incredible speeds only to be regenerated later. It is wondrous that such knowledge and power are present in the cell allowing the light energy to destroy the molecule and the regeneration process is launched. The circulation between destruction and regeneration of the molecule continues throughout a lifetime [2]. Vitamin A is assigned a crucial task in the generation of rhodopsin in the dark. All-trans retinal is converted in the retina into all-trans retinol, which is then converted into 11-cys retinol with the help of an isomerase enzyme. Finally, 11-cys retinol is converted into 11-cys retinal, which in turn combines with scotopsin to form rhodopsin. Vitamin A is present both in the cytoplasm of rods and in the pigment layer of the retina. In this way, vitamin A is kept in reserve to be used for generations of new retinal. If, on the other hand, there is an excess of vitamin A in the retina, the excess amount is converted into retinal, by which the amount of light-sensitive pigment in the retina is lowered.

Night blindness

Night blindness appears in anyone who suffers a serious deficiency of vitamin A. Because there is a lack of vitamin A to be converted into retinal, rhodopsin amounts decrease dramatically. This disease is called night blindness as it is noticeable only in the dark or at night and does not affect sight during the day, due to the reduction of light for proper seeing. In daylight, however, cones can still be stimulated despite a similar decrease in color pigments. Night blindness typically only appears in people that have a low vitamin A diet because huge reserves of vitamin A are normally stored in the liver to be used for the eyes.

The human retina contains 400,000 light receptive cells per square millimeter. For comparison, this number is 680,000 in the retina of the owl, which needs to perceive even the slightest glow when hunting in the night. As another example, with 397,000 such cells the amount in the cat’s retina is almost the same as ours.

An average of 130 sight cells in the retina are connected to a ganglion (nerve node) cell. Constituting the nerve of sight, or the optic nerve (nervus opticus), every nerve fiber is connected to a ganglion cell. It takes about 15-60 seconds for the retinal optic nerves to adapt from dark to light, while it takes as long as 30-45 minutes to adapt from light to dark. The visual range of optic cells, i.e. the lowest and highest amount of light the eye can perceive, is between 10^-7 and 10⁶ nanometers. Light that is below or above this range is invisible to us because of its insufficient or overwhelming wavelength.

All the colors we see in the world are named according to the wavelengths absorbed and reflected by optic cells. The spectrum of the optic cells lies between red and violet, which is the limit of visible light for humans. Light with a wavelength of 400 nm is perceived as violet, while light with a wavelength of 760 nm is perceived as red. Our eyes cannot see infrared and ultraviolet light. Some animals, however, are known to see light beyond these limits. For example, we know that bees can see certain shades of ultraviolet light, which helps them find flowers to pollenate.

Clearly, it is not an easy job to elaborate on the divine art manifested in such a small area as the retina. Complicated structures and reactions that require specialization even to comprehend keep taking place smoothly every moment we look around. At least we can be thankful for this amazing gift of vision given to us free of charge so that we can recognize the universe.

Notes

[1] It causes the cys form of the molecule to change into the all-trans form. Although the all-trans form has the same chemical structure as the cys form, its chemical structure is different in that it is a flat rather than angular molecule. With the impact of light photons, the position of the molecule in space changes, yet its chemical composition remains the same. Because the position of the reactive regions of all-trans retinal no longer fit in with the reactive regions on scotopsin protein, the molecule is pulled off. The product that forms at that moment is batorhodopsins, which is a partly destroyed combination of all-trans retinal and scotopsin. An extremely unstable compound, batorhodopsin turns into lumirhodopsin in nanoseconds, into metarhodopsin I in microseconds, into metarhodopsin II in about one millisecond, and finally into decomposed products, scotopsin and all-trans retinal much more slowly (in seconds).

[2] The first step in the reformation of rhodopsin is the recycling of all-trans retinal into 11-cys retinal, which requires ATP energy and is catalyzed by retinal isomerase enzyme. Once created, 11-cys retinal combines with scotopsin to form rhodopsin.

Do you know what hemoglobin does? You should, because it has been perfectly created to keep you alive!

Hemoglobin is one of the miraculous molecules in the human body. While its most important function is to carry oxygen in the blood, it also plays a role in maintaining the body’s acid-base balance. It also carries carbon monoxide in the blood, though to a much lesser amount than oxygen. Hemoglobin is not yet free to roam in the blood; it is carried in red blood cells, which act as hemoglobin sacs. Red blood cells have almost no other function but to carry hemoglobin. They lose all their organelles, including the nucleus, to be able to carry more hemoglobin – and hence, our oxygen.

Hemoglobin is produced in the bone marrow by combining the “hem” molecule with the “globin” molecule. The hem part is produced in the mitochondria of the red blood cell. Two succynil coenzyme “A”s and two glycine amino acids are combined to form pyrrole. Four pyrroles are then combined to form protoporphyrin, which is combined with the iron atom to produce the hem. Four hems are combined with four globins, a kind of protein, to produce one hemoglobin molecule. Since each hem has one iron atom, every hemoglobin has four iron atoms. And since an oxygen molecule binds with each iron atom, every hemoglobin can carry a total of four oxygen molecules – or eight oxygen atoms.

The makeup of hemoglobin along with its production steps is very complicated and it features a precise and intricate design.

Hemoglobin functions much like a truck that hauls oxygen. The blood circulates between the lungs and tissues thanks to the continuous work of the heart. As hemoglobin moves through the lungs it binds with oxygen and as it flows through tissues it releases the oxygen.

For this process to work, the bond between oxygen and hemoglobin can be neither too strong nor too weak. If it were too strong, oxygen would not be able to break free in the tissues, and the tissues would go without oxygen. If the bond were too weak, hemoglobin would not be able to bind with enough oxygen in the lungs, in which case the tissues would again not get oxygen.

There are basically two kinds of hemoglobin. The first type is found in fetuses, and it is called fetal hemoglobin (Hb-F). The other is found in adult humans and is called adult hemoglobin (Hb-A). Before being born, the fetus gets oxygen from the mother’s womb. To get more oxygen from the mother, fetal hemoglobin is designed to bind more strongly with oxygen. One is tempted to ask: Because fetal hemoglobin binds so strongly with oxygen, will the fetus’ tissues not be deprived of oxygen? Yet there is no need to worry. Because there is less oxygen in fetuses than in adult humans, this different hemoglobin easily breaks free from the oxygen in the low-oxygen environment. After the baby is born, the body produces Hb-A instead of Hb-F because it starts to breathe through its own lungs.

Hemoglobin is charged with carrying 97% of the oxygen carried in the blood. 3% of the oxygen is carried in dissolved form in plasma. Because an increase in dissolved oxygen leads to oxygen poisoning, it is not desirable at all. If one breathes from a tube containing 100% oxygen instead of atmospheric air containing 80% nitrogen, the amount of dissolved oxygen in the blood increases, causing oxygen poisoning.

Hemoglobin is designed to store some oxygen, too. At rest, there is 20 ml of oxygen in the hemoglobin of 100 ml of arterial blood. Only 5 milliliters of this oxygen will be given to cells. The remaining 15 milliliters remains in the hemoglobin. In other words, not all oxygen in the hemoglobin is transferred to the body’s tissues. This is a security measure against possible risks. In the event that blood does not come from the lungs, this stored oxygen is used so that life can continue, though for a short time. The same situation is experienced when we do not breathe for a long time.

Exercise

During exercise or work that requires physical effort, the amount of oxygen demanded by the body increases twenty-fold. The heart works faster as does circulatory system. Hemoglobin is supposed to get 20 times more oxygen from the lungs so that it can take 20 times more oxygen to the cells. Body temperature increases, too. Hemoglobin is designed to respond to all these changes. During exercise, hemoglobin starts to give almost all the oxygen to the tissues. When it gets back to the lungs, it is like an empty truck and can load more oxygen.

The exercising person breathes more deeply and quickly; thus, the lungs work faster, the heart pumps blood with greater force and speed, and the design of the hemoglobin is just good enough to carry more oxygen to the tissues.

Inflammatory diseases

Cellular metabolism speeds up when a person has an inflammatory disease. More oxygen is needed because the chemical reactions in cells gain speed. The body’s temperature increases; so, too, the amount of acids and carbon dioxide in the blood due to increase in metabolic rate. In addition, the amount of a very important molecule in the blood increases. This molecule is called diphosphoglycerate. It is charged with protecting the cell during inflammatory diseases and preventing cell death. Diphosphoglycerate coaxes hemoglobin to send more oxygen to the body’s tissues. As we can see, the body has been perfectly created to ensure it receives enough oxygen, even during illnesses!

Transfer of carbon dioxide

Hemoglobin is also assigned the task of carrying carbon dioxide. Carrying carbon dioxide in the blood is easier than carrying oxygen, as carbon dioxide is twenty times more water-soluble than oxygen. Doctors, therefore, do not have to make an extra effort to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in blood, and it is enough to give oxygen to patients with breathing problems. If carbon dioxide were not easy to dispose of, we would face an enormous problem, because there is no way of disposing of carbon dioxide and it is virtually impossible to develop one.

A vast amount of the carbon dioxide in the blood (70%) is carried in the form of bicarbonate. First, carbon dioxide combines with water, as a result of which carbonic acid, and then bicarbonate, are produced. After these reactions, carbon dioxide hides in bicarbonate (HCO₃) and arrives at the lungs. Then bicarbonate combines with H⁺, by which carbonic acid (H₂CO₃) is made. Then water (H₂O) and carbon dioxide (CO₂ ) are produced. The carbon dioxide that breaks up from the bicarbonate is discharged through the lungs into the atmosphere. 7% of the dissolved carbon dioxide in the blood is carried in plasma and 23% in hemoglobin. That is to say, as hemoglobin travels from the lungs to the cells, it carries oxygen, and as it returns from the cells it loads off some of the carbon dioxide.

Acid-base balance

The pH value of human blood is 7.4, on average. It is vital for cells that the pH of the blood remain stable. The regulation of the acid (H⁺) ion concentration in body fluids is called the acid-base balance. Little changes in H⁺ ions cause enormous changes in cellular chemical reactions. The regulation of the balance of H⁺ ions is therefore crucial for the body’s internal balance.

Hemoglobin plays an important role in the acid-base balance of blood. If strong acids find their way into the bloodstream because of certain diseases, hemoglobin help prevent an increase in the amount of acid (and a decrease in pH) by binding with the acid or carbon dioxide. A similar role is also true for times when the amount of base rises.

When we study hemoglobin and the chemical substances and reactions it is involved in, we can see that they are all arranged extremely precisely, and everything is in its proper place.

As science develops further, the “veils” of the universe are lifted and humanity can explore realms beyond which our senses would normally allow.

We are conscious beings and we seek answers to our existence. People search for answers to questions like, “Who am I and why do we exist?” The sciences reveal that existence is full of meaning and purpose. However, judgmental values and beliefs enter the process; restrictive and ideological approaches lead to confusion during man’s voyage to truth.

Take the question of how we exist. Different perceptions have their own point of view and reach different conclusions. While a materialist person accepts the matter to be eternal, for some the theory of evolution has all the answers; yet on the other hand, a person of faith explains existence with creation. Therefore a materialist, an evolutionist, and a believer struggle to reach a common conclusion.

Human vision is somewhat veiled; the things that are not witnessed are considered unknown. The events of both the micro and macro cosmos are veiled to us. Yet the more our science advances, the more of these worlds we begin to see. We understand how complex existence is, while also appreciating how majestically it has come into being.

Can senses and observations guide humanity to the truth? Our strongest senses are seeing and hearing; however, these senses can only perceive a narrow band of the electromagnetic spectrum. The human eye can see the wavelengths in between 4,000-7,000 angstroms; the ear can hear frequencies in between 16-20,000 Hz. When we rely only on our senses to understand and comprehend existence, the things that are outside our ability to see or hear become absent.

Dimension and distance are very important for vision. The dimension that humans can see with the naked eye starts at the millimeter scale; in perfect conditions, we can barely see beyond 18-25 miles. Things at dimensions much smaller than a millimeter and at considerably longer distances remain out of our visual range. A microscope brings the small dimensions into our visual spectrum and the telescope does the same for long distances. Before the invention of these devices, humankind was not aware of things such as the atom, molecule, galaxy, nebula, or black hole. Today, because of scientific advances, as we get closer to seeing things on the nanometer dimension, we are newly discovering structures at this scale and the laws that are effective here. The inner makeup of the atom has not yet been elucidated; our knowledge is based on certain theories and experiences. Our information regarding the universe is also limited. It is considered that in an expanding universe, according to the expansion velocity of galaxies and gravitational force calculations, the amount of visible matter only corresponds to 4% of the total mass of the universe, the rest estimated to consist of 26% dark matter and 70% dark energy.

When the true nature of things (objects, existence) that are unknown or seem to be simple are explained through science, the truth is found to be very different. From space, the earth looks like a small and pale blue dot. After getting closer, at first the oceans, continents, and major mountain ranges start to appear. There is not any indication of people or other organisms on earth yet. However, after looking closely enough, it is observed that earth is filled with numerous life forms.

We witness the twinkle of countless stars when we gaze at the sky on a dark night. These stars, each shining as a small spot, may seem insignificant. When we turn our telescope towards one of these spots, we face a giant star or a galaxy that houses billions of stars; we become astonished. And when we take a better look at these stars, some of which are colossal, we witness interesting events. In these thermonuclear cauldrons that are utilized like millions of atomic reactors, enormous amounts of energy are released into space after being produced each second under immense pressure at temperatures reaching millions of degrees. Humans should think for a while and be amazed by these things. The power required is immense and they last millions of years.

People can also observe the wonder of the universe by delving into much smaller dimensions (the micro world). Here, we witness the creation of wonderful beings and the employment of tiny creatures in vital tasks, even though this micro world is hidden secret from the naked eye. For instance, in the thousands of small chemical factories fitted in a seemingly plain leaf, sugars are produced from carbon dioxide and water via sunlight; nutrients are synthesized from various minerals in the soil and stored in the fruits, seeds, and roots of plants to serve as nourishment for the living.

The biological structure of a human body is built by the proliferation of a fertilized single cell, called a zygote, through division. More than 200 different cells executing very unique functions in tissues such as the brain, liver, kidneys, muscles, and bones are created from a single cell. Cells have specific structures and tasks according to their types, each housing various work benches and laboratories. For example, the make-up and function of a brain, liver, or muscle cell is very diverse, each shaped for their assigned task. The organelles inside the cells are also specialized; the job of one cell type cannot be completed by another. The molecules, secreted enzymes, and hormones synthesized in cells are different. While a pancreatic cell secretes insulin and glucagon, a thyroid cell releases thyroxine. Various dimensions and models of protein, hormone, enzyme, and antibody molecules are formed with structures called ribosome to be employed in unique processes. The energy that cells need is generated in organelles of mitochondria. In addition, various transmission lines, communication networks, and defense mechanisms are established inside cells.

Organs are not just packs of meat. Billions of cells in each organ are completing their works around a common goal. In each organ and cell, micro factories and laboratories of microscopic dimensions are set up, micro-machines and robots are being utilized, and atoms and molecules are employed like conscious workers.

The entire body is formed by the specialization of this zygote into very diverse cell types during the formation of these organs. The set of tasks in different organs is programmed to sustain the life of a single organism and to serve a common goal. How could one not be amazed by the combination of trillions of cells in a way to serve one purpose, form a body, and distribute tasks to different organs?

It is also important to analyze the composition of atoms and their relations with each other for a better understanding of the facts of creation. Different atoms form with varying numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons in their atomic structures. A different element is generated when the proton number is changed; an isotope of the same element is generated with the replacement of the neutron number. Millions of types of molecules with unique features can be made via different combinations of atoms. Molecules are the smallest units that determine the chemical properties of matter. While the simplest compound is the hydrogen molecule, formed by two atoms, there are also molecules composed of millions of atoms.

There are molecules of diverse types and sizes present in the universe. Each molecule type is constructed in a three dimensional and unique way. The number, order, and shape of the bonds present among atoms in a molecule, even the angle between atoms, is very important. Because of these differences, despite the fact that they both contain a carbon atom, a diamond and graphite (coal) are distinct substances. The carbon atom can miraculously form 1,700,000 types of compounds on its own. Just as in hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂,) and water (H₂O) molecules, a change of an atom in a molecule can alter the entire property of that particular molecule. A small change taking place on a single base sequence of the DNA chain may disrupt its condition leading it to be ineffective or cause a disease.

As humans, we only observe the tangible side of such materials. Yet the universe contains multitudes that we cannot detect or know. Just like a software composed of commands is required for computers and electronic devices made up of physical elements, the presence of an intangible world that is dominated by souls and commands undetectable by senses is necessary within the matter where the program of fate is operated.

As mankind accumulates knowledge about the universe and existence, we notice that not only do we have a greater understanding of the nature of things, but also that each dimension in existence is a veil and this veil is lifted with science.

Cellular joints are called “intercellular junctions.” There are thousands of molecules (proteins) in charge of these regions. As members of such molecules, the Cadherin and Catenin linkage system holds two cells together just like a secured nut and bolt. Thus unity of tissues and organs is ensured.

Masayuki Ozawa, a Japanese scientist, was the first to call these proteins “catenin” in 1989, derived form the word “catena” in Latin which means “chain.” Catenin links cells to each other like a chain. As you construct your buildings, you place cement or similar adhesive materials in between bricks and stones. In a similar fashion, when your body is developing, cellular cement is put in between cells, linking them via bolts of cadherin and nuts of catenin.

The catenin family has three members: alpha catenin, beta catenin and gamma catenin, classified according to our weight and length. Cadherin is a Calcium (Ca) dependent adhesion molecule (to bond and stick) that was discovered in 1961. Cadherin refers to a calcium dependent adhesion molecule. As Cadherin enables linkage between the two cells, catenin in the meantime sticks to the ends just like a nut on a bolt. This way a connection is properly secured. Structural cadherin deformities have been found in some stomach cancers. Cells without a properly secured anchor leave the flock like lost sheep. It relocates to other places and new proteins are synthesized there. Researchers have stumbled upon catenin while investigating the Cadherin molecule.

Catenin carries a special motif called “Armadillo” named as such because of its resemblance to this insectivorous mammalian which means “armor” in Spanish. Together with Cadherin, Catenin fulfills very important tasks in many places from the embryologic development in the mothers’ womb to the salivary glands through the skin. A body without Catenin would look like a building without nails, cement, hinges, and screws. Catenin operates like the anchor of a ship, thus it is also named as “anchoring junction molecule.”

While Cadherin molecule links two cells to each other, Catenin secures the Cadherin ends, and then connects Cadherin to the Actin as the main molecule of cellular framework. Catenin does other jobs in addition to the role of fastening. This multitasking is observed in many structures and molecules in the body. With the principle of maximum saving, these molecules are created to take care of many jobs in a limited space. For instance, Catenin works in a communication system called “WNT.” The WNT system relays signals that arrive at the cell to Catenin so that it can transfer the signal to the cell nucleus. In recent years errors in this system have been reported in breast and intestinal cancers. Furthermore, Catenin helps Cadherin as it functions like an orchestral conductor in the organization of intestinal cells. Catenin undertakes active tasks for the maintenance of intestinal cellular homeostasis, and it becomes hyperactive in Hirschsprung disease. This disease is a state of neural network absence that is in charge of intestinal (bowel) movements and supposed to be present through the intestines. In such parts of the intestines, bowel movements cannot be monitored and excretion cannot take place properly.

The diseases associated with cadherin have been reported in many cancer cases. Both cadherin and catenin are made to function flawlessly as best as possible. But just in every other blessing, we tend to appreciate their presence in times of sickness and disease – we seem to realize in such times the fact that nothing is insignificant in nature. When cadherin and catenin fail to work properly, embryonic lethality happens, and the baby may die even before he or she is born.

Cells cannot completely come together to arrange tissues and systems without these molecules. If these molecules in the salivary glands suffer from a problem, abnormal cellular structures may form, and cellular specialization is put at risk, and again death may happen in the womb. Unwanted situations arise from brain and face cartilage if these molecules do not function well during prenatal development. Miscarriages might happen because of flaws regarding establishment of fertilized egg in the womb. Zygote may have trouble transforming into an eight-celled blastocyst.

Mechanisms and systems that are built in our body are mind-blowing and put to service for many purposes only some of which we have been able to uncover. These molecules fulfill quite a number of those purposes assigned to them by the Creator, the One who acts with absolute subtlety, wisdom, and generosity.

Kadir Can is a science teacher in Ankara, Turkey.

For the sake of simplicity, the very complex – yet flawless – organization of a single cell can be portrayed as a city. Even in a very small city that has a relatively low population there are different establishments of various sizes and capabilities that work in concert. Likewise, in order to keep the cell alive the intracellular organelles and proteins of a cell complement each other’s functions. Even though the majority of cities may have the resources to supply themselves, they also need to import and export goods. In addition, some cities may have greater industrial, residential, or agricultural strengths, making it necessary for it to communicate and trade with neighboring towns to eliminate shortages. In a similar way, cells have to communicate with neighboring cells, and bring in new sustenance and get rid of waste at different stages in their life cycles. In this article we will focus on one of the key elements of the import mechanism that is used by living cells, endocytosis.

Endocytosis is the process by which cells take in substances from outside. Since living cells are surrounded by a membrane, the cargo molecules, which are too large to penetrate through the membrane, have to be internalized by different means; this can be classified as Cell eating (i.e. phagocytosis: the endocytosis of large solid materials), cell drinking (i.e. pinocytosis: the endocytosis of liquids in large amounts) and receptor mediated endocytosis (the internalization of molecules that have specific receptors on the cell membrane) (Figure 1). During the course of these events, the portion of the cell membrane that surrounds the cargo is also internalized. However, at the present time, very little is known about the mechanisms that cause the cell membrane to invaginate and eventually be pinched off during the onset of endocytosis. Here we will concentrate on receptor mediated endocytosis, which has been intriguing biologists for more than three decades now.

Receptor molecules, which are located on the outer surface of living cells, function like receiving docks for cells. These are sites where the membrane-encountering molecule is first engaged. The cargo molecules, which arrive at the receiving docks, are often known as ligands (Latin ligare = to bind). Ligand molecules are either secreted from a neighboring cell or come directly from the bloodstream and can bind to the specific receptor molecules on the cell surface. In most cases the ligand is either a signaling molecule, which transmits information to the cell from the extracellular milieu, or a nutritious substance that needs to be internalized via endocytosis.

Unlike other forms of endocytosis, receptor mediated endocytosis occurs in a very controlled way. First of all, the ligand determines whether endocytosis will occur or not. Basically, a ligand molecule that does not have a corresponding receptor on the cell membrane cannot interact with the cell and, as a result, will not be internalized. For instance, a certain virus, which can cause severe lesions in the mouths of horses, cannot infect human cells, as our cells do not have the receptors that link the virus to the cell membrane. Secondly, the ligand cell determines how much intake will take place. That is, cells can control the amount of receptors on their membranes and thus how much the ligands that are recognized by these receptors will be internalized. By acting in this way, cells can adapt to different conditions by controlling the rate of endocytosis through the receptor molecules. The third way of control is concerned with the size of the molecules that are to be internalized. As we will discuss below, receptor mediated endocytosis is performed via some scaffold proteins that form cages (i.e. coats) around the membrane. These cages are fairly small in size, and molecules that are larger than 100 nanometers (100 nanometer is one-thousandth of the thickness of a human hair) cannot fit into them nor enter the cells along this pathway.

The conformation of the plasma membrane changes substantially during endocytosis. Given that the cell membrane has a fluidic nature, it must be accompanied by a firmer construction in order to perform these structural modifications. In the case of receptor mediated endocytosis, this function is carried out by clathrin cages (or clathrin coats), which are formed adjacent to the membrane. The clathrin protein is a three-legged molecule which can freely diffuse inside the cell. However, when a ligand molecule binds to a receptor on the membrane then multiple clathrins aggregate into that region and polymerize into cages composed of pentagons and hexagons (Figure 2a). These cages surround the cell membrane, compelling it to engulf the cargo (ligand) by invagination. When the cargo is entirely enclosed by the membrane a scission protein seals off the enclosed cargo from the plasma membrane (Figure 2b). The completely internalized membrane pouch rapidly casts away its clathrin coat with a quick uncoating reaction. After this point, the membrane pouch, including the cargo, can be transported to the inner compartments of the cell. In living cells, this process takes a little less than a minute. Even though the lifetimes of the clathrin coats are not very long, scientists have found ways of ascertaining the detailed organization of these molecules.

One of the most intriguing findings about the clathrin scaffold (or coat) is its breathtaking geometry. X-ray crystallography studies showed that the cages formed by the polymerization of multiple clathrin proteins are composed of pentagons and hexagons (Figure 3a). It has been also shown that in the majority of the cases the three dimensional structures of the cages are very similar to a soccer ball, where 12 pentagons are accompanied by 20 hexagons in order to create a curve (Figure 3b). However this is not the only geometry that clathrin coats can have. Electron microscopy images taken on frozen cells reveal that clathrins can also form some large flat arrays on the membrane which look exactly like honeycombs. In this configuration the pentagons are missing and all the clathrins align in the hexagon geometry to preserve a flat surface (Figure 3c).

The function of the honeycomb-shaped flat clathrin arrays is still a mystery. All we know is that they are more durable than the cages. In other words, although they do not have definite sizes like cages, they last much longer. Some scientists believe that these structures might be functional in the internalization of huge cargo molecules, such as bacteria, however, these claims still need to be proved. More research is needed if scientists are to be able to better understand clathrin-based endocytosis. Nevertheless, the fact that a simple geometrical modification at the molecular level can alter the entire mechanism of a biological process is on its own a very fascinating discovery.

Hamdi Sener is a biophysicist living in Boston. He can be contacted at hamdisener@gmail.com.

Note

1. Even though bacteria are the smallest cells known, compared to the regular cargo molecules they are gigantic structures.

Figure 1. Taken from Wikipedia.org

Figure 2. A) A clathrin coat (or cage) formed by the polymerization of multiple three-legged clathrin molecules. A single clathrin molecule is shown died with cyan. Adapted from RCSB protein data bank website (http://www.rcsb.org/pdb). B) The different stages of receptor-mediated endocytosis. The entire process takes a little less than a minute.

Figure 3. Taken from Wikipedia.org

Original Article: Lieberman, D.E. et al., Nature 463, 531 (2010).

The modern running shoe was not invented until the 1970s. However, the presumption that running barefoot is dangerous and causes pain could be wrong. To explain this phenomenon, scientists studied three groups of people in the United States and Kenya: those who had always run barefoot, those who had always worn shoes, and those who had converted to barefoot running from shod running. They found a striking pattern: the three groups positioned their feet differently; while most shod runner people made initial contact with the ground heel-first (rear-foot striking), barefoot runners used their flat feet (mid-foot striking) or the lateral ball of the feet (fore-foot striking) first. Kinematic and kinetic analyses showed that barefoot runners who used the fore-foot or mid-foot strike generated smaller collision forces than the rear-foot strikers with shoes. This means that it is possible to run barefoot on the world’s hardest surfaces without experiencing the slightest discomfort or pain; all one needs is a few calluses to avoid damaging the skin. It is also clear that running-shoe companies and other footwear designers should pay more attention to how God designed our body and redesign more appropriate shoes for running.

The Molecule with a Thousand Faces

Original Article: Ehre D. et al., Science 327, 672 (2010).

Water freezes at 0 C… or perhaps not? Pure water can remain in liquid form at temperatures down to –40 C, which is known as a “supercooled” state. When agitated by stirring or adding impurities, supercooled water freezes instantly. A team of scientists report that under certain conditions, supercooled water freezes when warmed up (!). Supercooled water can freeze at a higher temperature on a positively-charged surface than it does on a negatively-charged one. Initially, the surface is negatively charged at a lower temperature. The surface becomes positively charged when warmed up and the supercooled liquid water solidifies. Will the day ever come when we will be able to understand the water molecule completely? This is something we just don’t know. What we know for certain though is that water, which is apparently the “most normal” substance around us, has already proven itself ironically as one of the most unusual ones in nature. We take this familiar molecule for granted within our daily routine, but H2O-or water as we know it-still remains a celebrity in the eyes of scientists.

Cancer-Causing DNA Mutations Are Deciphered

Original Articles: Pleasance, E.D. et al., Nature 463, 184 & 191 (2010).

DNA mutations are changes in the DNA code caused by external or internal agents known as mutagens. Scientists have identified mutations from lung cancer and skin cancer and have compared them to normal samples in order to find the mutations that lead to these cancers. They have identified ~23,000 mutations in lung cancer (small-cell lung cancer) and ~33,000 mutations in skin cancer (melanoma). The researchers revealed that most of these mutations are single-base DNA changes, suggesting that they are a direct cause of the carcinogens in tobacco smoke and UV light. Under normal conditions, our cells are equipped with a “DNA repair mechanism” which detects any changes in the DNA code and repairs it. However, when excess amount of mutations occur due to tobacco smoke in our lungs or to too much exposure to sunlight in our skin cells, the DNA repair mechanism cannot repair all of the mutations. Accumulations of these mutations lead to cancer-a state in which cell division has gone out of control. Scientists have calculated that every 15 cigarette causes one mutation in the DNA. These studies will be immensely useful for understanding the reasons behind the genetic changes in cancer and more importantly they will provide a comprehensive catalogue of mutations that can be used for cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Scientists Inspired by the Spider Web

Original Article: Zheng, Y. et al., Nature 463, 640 (2010).

Even though spiders may not be the most appealing creatures living on earth, they are one of the most intriguing predators in the animal kingdom. For centuries the intricate ways that spiders hunt, their (relatively) enormous appetite, their strong senses and extraordinary craftsmanship have been fascinating research topics for scientists. In this study, researchers wondered why and how spider webs become decorated with pearl-like drops of water in humid weather conditions. At nanometric scales, the group revealed that the fibers which constitute the web of Uloborus Walkcenaerius-a non-venomous spider-change conformations after interacting with water. When the web becomes wet the fibers condense into knot-like structures which are distributed evenly along the entire silk. The geometric structure of the web results in surface-energy gradients that drive water particles towards the knots. Concentrating water molecules at the knots may help to keep the rest of the web dry, which is a necessary factor to capture prey. This extraordinary finding has inspired the building of an artificial spider silk, which exploits the same geometric trick, trapping and transporting water droplets. In the near future, such “green” materials could be used in a wide variety of applications, such as filtering substances out of chemical reactions without need for a catalyst.

Self-Sacrificing Mother Yeast Cells

Original Article: Liu, B. et al., Cell 140, 257 (2010).

Humanity has always searched for the fountain of youth. Yet, the process of aging is still a poorly understood concept in biology. How ironic that the budding yeast, a mere single cellular organism, has a fascinating way of keeping its offspring young and healthy. It was previously shown that protein aggregates appear within the cytoplasm of yeast cells as they age. These protein aggregates are thought to be toxic to the cells and thus potential risk factors to both mother and daughter cells. Researchers demonstrated that these aggregates are consistently transported to the mother cell, thereby allowing the daughter cells to make a fresh start to life. Polymerizing actin filaments, which are nucleated from the polarisome in the daughter cell, bind to these aggregates and push them towards the mother cell cytoplasm. In addition to being an amazing biological process, these self-sacrificing mother cells which keep their offspring healthy form a controversial issue. The common understanding in biology is that all organisms struggle for their own survival. However, why a simple organism like yeast prefers to have a healthy daughter cell and to jeopardize its own life is unclear and shows the existence of a mother’s mercy, even at the single-cell level.

Honey Bee Collapses

Original Article: Ratnieks, F.L.W. & Carreck, N.L., Science 327, 152 (2010).

Throughout history an extensive loss of honey bee colonies has occurred in many different locations; however, in North America, particularly after 2006, there has been an increase in the disappearance of adult honey bees from hives, in which they abandon their food and brood; this has been coined a “Colony Collapse Disorder” (CCD). The most likely cause of the syndrome is seen to be the presence of a parasitic mite Varroa destructor. It is not the mite that causes bee death, but rather the number of bee viruses which it carries, such as the Israeli acute paralysis virus; it was previously thought that these were insignificant to honey bee biology. It has also been suggested that CCD is not caused by a previously unknown pathogen, but rather a combination of factors, which only have subtle effects on bee health if considered separately. The health of honeybee colonies is vital for agriculture. In 2000, the total U.S. crop value wholly dependent on honey bee pollination was estimated to exceed $15 billion. The sudden disappearance of honey bees and the complexity of the causes behind CCD remind us of the delicate balance that exists in nature.

Most, if not all, of water’s anomalous properties make life possible. To name a few of its many oddities, water is the only material that naturally exists in all possible forms (solid, liquid, and gas) on earth. Of all known chemical compounds, water has the second highest capacity to store heat, which is crucial for climate regulation and keeping living organisms’ body temperatures constant. Water is the second best heat-conducting liquid (after mercury), and this helps large masses of water to reach uniform temperatures quickly. Water has an astonishingly high heat of vaporization which eases body temperature regulation for humans and animals via providing a cooling system through sweating. This high heat of vaporization also prevents dehydration.

The absorption coefficient of water is a million times lower for the visible region of light than the rest of spectrum, a property which enables passage of the useful and prevention of the harmful rays from the sun, and makes the earth amenable to the accommodation of biological life. Furthermore, the greenhouse effect which keeps the Earth’s climate at moderation also stems from this aspect of water. Because the sunlight that is reflected from the Earth is mostly in the infrared region, it is effectively absorbed by the water vapor in the atmosphere due to water’s higher absorption of light within the non-visible regimes, and hence the heat does not escape from the earth.

Water is one if the best solvents, which is very important for cleansing. Finally (and thankfully), water does not display its peculiarity when it comes to taste. Such a “famously odd” molecule is somewhat ironically tasteless and odorless, and extremely easy to drink and consume.

“If We so willed, We would make it bitter and salty. Then should you not give thanks?” Waqi‘ah (56:70)

Although each of the aforementioned physical aspects of water deserves mentioning in its own right, from here on we will focus on water’s properties from a biological standpoint. To this end, we will first introduce some aspects of water, look at the interaction of water with bio-molecules, and finally elaborate on three particular biological examples (protein folding, cellular membranes and water channels), which demonstrate how such interactions provide the bases for life.

Life based on water

“We made every living thing from water.” Anbiya 21:30

Thanks to its abundance on earth, water is easily accessible and inexpensive. However, in the summer of 1986, Professor Michael Levitt of Stanford University spent almost half a million dollars on a tiny amount of water, that would hardly wet the point of a pin. Certainly, the money was not spent on the water itself, but the expenditure (it now costs about 50 cents to run such a simulation) reflected the cost of running a simulation on a cluster of supercomputers for two weeks to understand the interaction between water molecules and a particular protein. Eventually, the money turned out to be well spent. Although the same protein had been modeled before by a research group at Harvard University in 1977, the simulation had been carried out as if the protein were in a vacuum. Levitt and his co-workers realized that the previous attempt to model the proteins in the absence of water was a poor predictor of the real-life scenario. Likewise, earlier DNA simulations meant to model the double helical DNA in the absence of water had failed, Levitt and his colleagues also succeeded in simulating the DNA by adding water in the environment, and the water molecules were found to be interacting with nearly every part of the DNA. Levitt’s groundbreaking discoveries not only revealed the importance of the interaction between water and biological molecules, but also paved the way for computational biologists to simulate biological entities in the presence of their native watery media.

When a drop of oil is placed in water, it does not mix with water. Hence, oil and water are said to be immiscible. In contrast, sugar easily dissolves in water and forms a homogenous mixture upon mixing. Although not as obvious at first sight, the underlying principles which govern this phenomenon can explain how water can interact with biological molecules.

Materials can be classified according to their “water tendency”: the ones that tend to avoid water (e.g. oil), are considered hydro-phobic (hydro: “water,” phobic: “fearing”), whereas materials that mix well with water (e.g. alcohol) are called hydro-philic (or water-loving). Water’s particular molecular structure turns out to yield a non-uniform electron distribution, and thus makes water molecule highly “polar” (see Figure 1.a). As a consequence, polar or charged molecules prefer being close to water molecules, whereas the apolar or neutral ones tend to avoid them.

Many curious aspects of water stem from another fact-that water molecules can interact with each other through “hydrogen bonding” (see Figure 1b). Although the molecules in a liquid are highly disordered, hydrogen bonding gives water molecules some order even in the liquid phase. A molecule’s ability to cooperate in hydrogen bonding is very important for breaking (or formation) of hydrogen bonds, and affect two parameters (i.e. the “order” and the “energy”) of the system which determine the feasibility of a certain chemical reaction.

Actually, most, if not all, of the oddities of water are due to these two properties (water-tendency and hydrogen bonding). Furthermore, these two aspects determine a great deal of how water interacts with other molecules, and the way water enables the proliferation of life. We will now elaborate on some biological phenomena and try to understand them in the light of these aspects of water.

Protein folding

Proteins are biological molecules that carry out the vital tasks of life. In the cell, proteins are initially synthesized as linear chains of amino acids ranging in size from a few to several thousand amino acids in length. Subsequent to synthesis, a linear chain spontaneously folds into a particular three-dimensional (3D) form (see Figure 2). This precise fold is essential for the execution of protein’s specific function (see Figure 3). As simple as it may sound, protein folding is currently one of the biggest questions in biophysics.

Researchers are working hard to be able to devise principles to estimate which 3D fold a certain linear amino acid sequence adopts, and what functions the eventual 3D structures execute. Although these questions related to the protein folding phenomenon are still far from being totally understood, some clues have been discovered.

In 1969 Cryus Levinthal stated that an average size protein would fold within about 1030 times longer than the expected lifetime of the universe if it were to fold via sampling all possible conformations even if the conformational sampling is very fast (e.g. a millionth of a millionth of a second for each conformation). This obviously is not what happens in reality, and the experimentally observed folding times are within milliseconds (a thousandth of a second) – second regime. This discrepancy between the estimated and the measured timescales is referred to as the “Levinthal Paradox.”

Consequently, proteins cannot rely on randomly sampling all the possible conformations to fold, but the folding must rather be a driven and directed process. Scientists hypothesize that water comes to the rescue at this point. As the linear protein chain is being synthesized, water-hating amino acids try to bury themselves away from water as soon as possible. This leads to the rapid collapse of the linear amino acid chain into a compact structure where hydrophobic regions are protected from water (see Figure 2c). This initial compaction which is provided by the interaction with the ambient aqueous medium is thought to be the key step in achieving folding within reasonable timescales. After the first rapid compaction, the protein adapts its final structure by sampling a much smaller number of possible conformations.

Simultaneously, hydrogen bonding helps the stabilization of certain folds with respect to other possible structures and contributes to the folding process. Eventually, the functional 3D fold is thus realized from the nascent linear protein chain.

Cellular compartmentalization

“He has let flow forth the two large bodies of water, they meet together, (but) between them is a barrier, which they do not transgress (and so they do not merge).” (Rahman 55:19-20)

Compartmentalization is an important feature of life. First of all, the boundary of a cell must be well-defined and well-controlled. Secondly, different tasks are carried out by specialized compartments (so called organelles) within most of the cells. The major design principle of the cellular boundaries depends on the immiscibility of water and oil. The subunits of cellular membranes are “lipids” which simply are oil-based molecules. A lipid molecule has two parts: A water-loving “headgroup” and two water-fearing “tails”. Because of the dual water-tendency of lipids, they can self assemble into bi-layers (see Figure 4 a and b), which eventually form enclosed structures. Thanks to the properties of water, this compartmentalization is readily achieved.

The cell membrane thus formed is impermeable to ions, and many chemical agents important for sustaining the cellular functions. Although such a barrier is essential for holding the cell contents as well as maintaining intracellular balance, material exchange between inside and outside of the cell is also an indispensible trait for carrying out the vast majority of vital processes (nerve impulse formation and transmission, cell signaling, nutrition, etc.). In order to achieve well-controlled material transport across the membrane, the cell membrane is decorated with various proteins that function as “channels” (see Figure 4c). These channel proteins come in different flavors and show specificity towards different chemicals. For instance, the channel protein for the potassium ion (K+) only allows the passage of potassium ions, whereas the sodium channel only lets sodium (Na+) through. Other channels have “gating” mechanisms that enable the channel to be “open” or “closed” depending on the need for the transport to happen. Although the specificity and gating mechanism of every channel protein relies on a unique ingenious design principle which deserves detailed mention in its own right, in the rest of the article we will focus on the water channel, for it once again exemplifies the perfect harmony between water and the bio-molecules.

Aquaporin: The water channel

Almost 170 liters of water is recycled in the human kidney on a daily basis, and this requires that kidney tissue possesses high water permeability. Since water cannot diffuse in and out of the cell membrane very rapidly for the reasons given above, reconciliation of the enormous daily flux of water in the kidneys has been a long-standing puzzle. The discovery of water channels (also known as “aquaporin”) by Peter Agre in 1992 resolved the mystery, and this finding was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2003. It is now known that the recycling machinery in the kidney chiefly consists of millions of aquaporins. Like other channel proteins, aquaporins also display selectivity: water is effectively transported across aquaporins, whereas the passage of other ions and miscellaneous agents is not permitted.

However, how this selectivity is achieved presented another riddle: Hydrogen is smaller than water and can move through the smallest opening. How, then, is the hydrogen selected against, while water is allowed? It was also well known that water molecules which are ordered within the channel constriction (see Figure 5) normally form a “proton wire” through which the hydrogen ions (i.e. protons) can easily flow just like an electrical current flows along an electrical wire. Thus, as water is transported across aquaporins, hydrogen ions should in principle move rapidly in and out of the cells through the chain of ordered water molecules (i.e. the proton wire) in an uncontrollable manner. This would cause an imbalance in the cellular environment, and most likely would lead to cell death.

The answer came from a computer simulation of aquaporin by Emad Tajkhorshid and Klaus Schulten at the University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign. They found that the water molecules change their orientation (see Figure 5) as they spun through the water channel. This rotation was achieved via water molecules’ specific interactions with the amino acid residues in the channel. Thanks to this orientation, the formation of the proton wire is disrupted (just like a break in an electric circuit) and the hydrogen ions are not permitted through the channel, while rapid water diffusion takes place. The interaction between water and aquaporin thus provides just another reason water is rightfully considered the cradle of life.

Conclusion

“There are only two ways to live your life. One is as though nothing is a miracle. The other is as though everything is a miracle.” Albert Einstein

… and that He sends down water from the sky, and revives with it the earth after its death. Surely in this are signs for people who will reason and understand. Rum 30:24 

References

1. Gedik, N. “The Miracles of Water,” The Fountain, Issue 43, January–March 2005.

2. Ileri, R. “Water and Vitality,” The Fountain, Issue 2, April-June 1993.

3. Unal, Ali. The Qur’an: An Annotated Interpretation in Modern English, The Light, Inc. NJ: 2005.

4. “Simulating Water and The Molecules of Life,” Scientific American, November 1998.

5. Errington, J. R. & Debenedetti, “P.G.” Nature, 409, 318–321, 2001.

6. Water, Wikipedia.

7. “Mysteries of Water,” Physics Today, June 2003.

8. Sener, Hamdi. “Mikroalemdeki Canli Motorlar” (Living Engines in the Micro World), Sizinti, September 2005.

9. Figures are modified from: Chemical polarity, Wikipedia
Hydrogen bond, Wikipedia
http://www.ccl.net/cca/documents/dyoung/water/
http://www.helsinki.fi/~jtvaara/images/water.gif
“Inner Life of The Cell” animation, http://multimedia.mcb.harvard.edu/
“Molecular Biology of the Cell,” 4th Edition; Bruce Alberts et al.
http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=53074&rendTypeId=4
http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/179_11_011203/van10722_fm-5.jpg

The air that we breathe consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% other gases, such as water, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. First of all, the level of oxygen in the air is of extreme importance; that is, if the air were to contain 40% oxygen instead of the normal 21%, then there would be no life on Earth. Most living organisms, if not all, would die due to oxygen poisoning. Their proteins and DNA would be oxidized and become non-functional. Metals would be corroded and trees would burn at slightly higher temperatures than normal.

Vertebrates have been equipped with two principal mechanisms to supply their cells with an adequate and continuous flow of oxygen. The first one is the circulatory system and the second one is oxygen-carrying molecules; hemoglobin in the red blood cells and myoglobin in the muscles. The air we breathe is filtered even before it reaches our lungs. Then, it dissolves in the mucus, a highly viscous material, which coats the inside of our lungs. Next, the dissolved oxygen diffuses into the blood through alveolar cells and the walls of the capillary vessels. Finally, the oxygen is picked up by the red blood cells; these are what make our blood red. The red color is due to a molecule called heme that is present in hemoglobin and myoglobin. Every heme molecule in hemoglobin can bind four oxygen molecules together. Every oxygen molecule bound to hemoglobin increases the affinity of hemoglobin to bind to another oxygen molecule. The hemoglobin becomes saturated if the dissolved oxygen is above a certain level; this can be seen in the lungs. If the level of dissolved oxygen drops below a certain level, as can be seen in tissues like the muscles, brain, and liver, then the oxygen molecules start to dissociate from the hemoglobin. Likewise, every dissociating oxygen molecule facilitates the dissociation of another oxygen molecule from the hemoglobin. This is one miraculous design that is known to us: a molecule devoid of any wisdom and intelligence grasps a very crucial cargo where it is abundant, carries it to a place where the cargo is most needed and less abundant, and releases it. The myoglobin in the muscle tissue then binds the oxygen and serves as an oxygen backup resource for times when there is inadequate oxygen supply during exertion.

Fetuses have their own specific hemoglobin, called hemoglobin-F, which is different from that of adult hemoglobin, hemoglobin-A. Before birth, the fetus gets its oxygen from the mother’s blood through the placenta. The higher affinity of hemoglobin-F than hemoglobin-A to oxygen makes the oxygen exchange between the maternal and fetal blood possible. It is interesting to note that right around the time of birth the fetus switches the production of hemoglobin-F to hemoglobin-A, as this is more efficient under normal breathing conditions. Our current knowledge is insufficient to completely understand how this switch-over occurs and how it is regulated. Future studies will shed light on this complex but magnificent mechanism of regulation and this superb design.

Why are we so dependent on oxygen? In fact, our energy metabolism is completely dependent on oxygen. The chemical breakdown of nutrients by a dozen enzymes releases energy, which as is cannot be stored or transferred to the places where it is required. We are equipped with a second mechanism, which involves another set of different proteins that converts the released chemical energy to a more useful and transferable molecular form, called ATP. ATP, which we can think of as small packages of energy, is the main form of energy within our cells that can be readily used by all reactions that require energy. The first set of enzymes abstracts electrons from the nutrients during their chemical breakdown. These so called high-energy electrons are transferred from one protein to the next by the second set of proteins that form the electron transport chain. The final acceptor of these electrons is molecular oxygen. If oxygen were not there to pick up the electrons at the end of this chain, the last protein (cytochrome oxidase) would lead to a dead end, as it would be rendered inactive with the electrons that it is carrying. This would make this superb design of complex mechanism useless and wasteful; the synthesis of every new and active cytochrome oxidase would require more energy than is produced in one cycle of an electron transfer in the absence of oxygen.

It has been known for some time that cells can sense the level of oxygen in their environment. They are equipped not only with a sensing mechanism, but also with a response mechanism, by which they can survive for a short period of time. In 1995, a protein called HIF (Hypoxia Inducible Factor) was identified and was shown to regulate cellular response to hypoxia, i.e., a reduced oxygen level. HIF is a transcription factor, which induces the expression of a set of genes that are required for survival under hypoxia. Several genes encoding glycolytic enzymes are regulated under hypoxia; this allows cells to produce ATP even without oxygen. Nevertheless, oxygen-independent energy generation is very inefficient and the yield is insufficient. Another set of genes induce angiogenesis (vascularization), or the making of new capillary vessels. VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) is one of the best known HIF target genes that induces the formation of new vessels where expressed.

One of the most remarkable aspects of HIF-based oxygen sensing is that under normal oxygen levels the HIF protein is simultaneously synthesized and degraded. Only under low levels of oxygen does HIF accumulate and induce its target genes. At first sight, this continuous production and degradation of HIF may look wasteful, whereas in reality it is a very well designed precautionary mechanism. The HIF protein is marked and sent for degradation by a class of enzymes called HPH/PHD. These enzymes also use the oxygen molecule to tag the HIF protein. If there were not enough oxygen around, HPH/PHD enzymes would not be able to tag HIF. As a result HIF accumulates and induces its target genes to ensure the adequate supply of oxygen. With this mechanism cells can quickly adapt and survive. Therefore, continuous production and degradation of HIF turns out to be a necessary precautionary measure which is taken against the risk of death arising from a low oxygen level.

This article is by no means a complete picture of the miraculous world of oxygen, perhaps it is no more than a brush stroke on the entire picture. Yet, even this incomplete glimpse is enough to help us realize how perfectly we have been created, and how well we are taken care of. We do not have even the slightest control over any of these aforementioned mechanisms. We breathe day and night, and every breath should be taken in gratitude to God, who created us as this masterpiece.

Yusuf Ali, in his translation of the Qur’an, asks several questions about lightning: Why look to evil rather than to good? To punishment rather than to mercy?”To the fear in the force and fire of the lightning rather than to hope of good and abundant crops in the rain which will come behind the lightning clouds (note 1818); Nay, thunder itself which may frighten you, is but a tame and beneficent force before Him, declaring His praises, like the rest of creation. Thunder thus aptly give the name to this surah of contrasts, where what we may think is terrible is shown to be really a submissive instrument of good in God’s hands (note 1819); and: To cowards, lightning and thunder appear as terrible forces of nature. Lightning seems to kill and destroy where its irresistible progress is not assisted by proper lightning”conductors. But lightning is also a herald of rain-bearing clouds and showers that bring fertility and prosperity in their train (3530).

Journals publish articles on injuries and death caused by lightning. However, the Qur’an specifically mentions the hope of lightning as a good or beneficent force. This article addresses this issue.

What are ions?

After a storm, the air feels clean and fresh filled with negative ions. People often report feelings of pleasantness and well-being following an electrical storm. Electrical storms are generally preceded by higher levels of positive ions and followed by higher levels of negative ions.

Air is made of individual molecules. When the outer electrons of two or more atoms join together, the resulting particle is a molecule. Each molecule, in turn, contains smaller particles of positive and negative charges (protons and electrons). Under normal circumstances, the number of protons and electrons are equal, and so their charges cancel out and leave the molecule electrically neutral. However, negatively charged electrons are lighter and more mobile. If they happen to absorb energy from intense sunlight, they tend to jump from one molecule to another. When a negative charge jumps from a molecule, it upsets the equilibrium and leaves behind more positive than negative charges. Thus the molecule becomes a positive ion. The electron arriving at the new molecule brings with it an extra negative charge. This molecule now becomes a negative ion. When the energy supply is removed, the electrons return toward the vacated spaces, and everything becomes balanced and has a zero charge.

Oxygen, a prime example of small gaseous molecules, remains neutral as long as the proton“electron balance is maintained. Since atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons, they have no charge. However, if an electron is lost or gained, the molecule becomes positively or negatively charged, respectively, and an ion is created.

The simplest way to visualize an air ion is to consider it a tiny charge of static electricity carried by the air. This charge can be either positive or negative. The charged particles, or ions, are not merely suspended in the atmosphere; rather, they are part of the air’s very fabric. The air we breathe contains billions of tiny, invisible, electrically charged energy packets called ions, each of which have either positive or negative charges. Every time we take a breath, ions fill up our lungs and are carried by our blood into every cell in our body. Without ions in the air, our body could not process oxygen properly.

A lack or imbalance of ions affects the environment in which we live and breathe. Research shows that most of us who live, work, and travel in closed spaces suffer some degree of negative ion starvation or positive ion overabundance. This has become extremely evident to NASA in its space travel program.

People are spending their lives submerged in an atmospheric ocean of nitrogen, oxygen, and a small percentage of other elements, plus the toxins and pollution of our industrial world. In cities like New York, Los Angeles, Hong Kong, Tokyo, Mexico City, Karachi, Delhi, Bangalore, Mumbai, Calcutta, and many other densely populated cities, there may be few or no detectable negative ions at all during heavy traffic and high pollution periods.

In nature, abundant ions are generated wherever energy is transferred into the air by the friction within wind, rain, and surf. Certain events occurring in nature, such as lightning discharges, falling water, and air friction can cause electrons to be torn loose from a molecule. These orphan electrons are then adopted by other nearby molecules, which transforms them into negative ions. The parent particles become positive ions.

Negative ions carry the air’s electrical energy. Some examples of nature’s ion generators are solar (ultraviolet) and cosmic radiation, air friction, lightning, falling water (the splitting of water into droplets by waterfalls), ocean surf and waves, evergreens and Earth’s radioactivity (from natural radiation in rocks and soil).

The ion effect: Serotonin hypothesis

An excess of positive ions and a lack of negative ions can produce uncomfortable effects. Scientists have demonstrated that small air ions are biologically active. Moreover, they can stimulate the over-production of serotonin, a powerful neurotransmitter and very active neurohormone that causes profound nerve, glandular, and digestive effects throughout the body. Tests show that positive ions increase the production of serotonin and that negative ions decrease the hormone level.

High serotonin concentrations are associated with migraines. Negative ions accelerate the oxidative degradation of serotonin, whereas positive ions deactivate the enzymes that break it down. Thus more negative ions should reduce migraines. A higher serotonin level also produces tachycardia, higher blood pressure, bronchial spasms and even asthma attacks, increased intestinal peristalsis (intestinal contractions and dilations to push the contents through), increased sensitivity to pain, and increased aggression. Reduced serotonin levels result in a mentally relaxed state and reduce feelings of depression. Negative ions appear to reduce serotonin by enhancing monoamine oxidizing activity. Paradoxically, mental illness is often treated successfully with drugs that inhibit this activity and raise serotonin levels in the brain.

The three major effects of positive ion excess are irritation and tension, exhaustion, and a hyperthyroid response. The common symptoms of dizziness, headaches, depression, anxiety, and a generally lower level of physical and mental functioning were shown to be alleviated and, in most cases, reversed by increasing the negative ions in the air.

Positive ions

Many people find a pre-storm atmosphere heavy and oppressive. This has been attributed to the high levels of positive ions building up in the air, which are also believed to trigger storm-sensitivity in asthmatics and many other people. In the hours before a certain storm arrived, hundreds of people reported to hospital with severe asthma attacks. Was this due to positive ions?

Scientists have found that if the air is charged with too few negative and too many positive ions, we become anxious,tired, and tense. This positive-ion poisoning results from weather disturbances, central air conditioning, smog, and driving too long. It even has been linked to heart attacks, aggravated asthma, migraines, insomnia, rheumatism, arthritis, hay fever, and most allergies. However, a negative electrical charge imparts positive feelings of health and vitality.

Negative ions

Refreshing places, usually located in the mountains and near waterfalls and seashores, where health resorts are traditionally situated, have high negative ion concentrations. Areas with high levels of positive ions often make us feel uncomfortable and irritable.

In addition to providing a rewarding visual experience, waterfalls may be beneficial to our health. Those wishing to enhance their body and mind through breathing exercises should do so by a waterfall. Nearly everyone agrees that visiting a waterfall is a stimulating, refreshing, and energizing experience.

The energy produced by falling water causes negative ions, for as the falling water breaks into droplets, electrons (negatively charged parts of an atom) are separated from water atoms. These electrons combine with oxygen atoms in the air to create negative ions, which then are inhaled and absorbed into the bloodstream. Negative ions are not known to permanently cure anything. However, experts believe that they help our bodies by accelerating the delivery of oxygen to our cells. Some researchers believe that they may stimulate cells that regulate the body’s resistance to disease.

Plants grown in an ion-enhanced atmosphere show a marked increase in size and growth rate. Air-borne bacteria greatly diminish in number when there is a high negative ion count in the air. Synthetic materials, forced air circulation, improper humidity levels, excess static electricity, and a lack of fresh air all contribute to an ion imbalance. Natural negative ion levels should be maintained through full-spectrum lighting; natural materials on walls, floors, and furniture; windows that open to the outside; and living plants. These should be kept in mind when designing a place in which to live.

On average, 1,500 ions are found in a cubic centimeter (roughly the size of a sugar cube) of fresh air. Of these, about 45% are negative ions and the rest are positive ions. At Yosemite Falls in California, a reading of 100,000 negative air ions per cubic centimeter was recorded.

The fresh air after a thunderstorm, on a mountain top, or by the seaside are due to high negative ion concentrations. The reduced well-being often felt in highly polluted areas, cars, smog-enclosed areas, artificially air conditioned offices, or in hot dry weather conditions are usually due to an unduly low negative ion balance. Negative ions can be found in the billions on mountain tops, waterfalls, and by the sea. Radioactive substances in Earth’s crust and cosmic rays cause most ionization. But fire, crashing water, and plants during photosynthesis also produce negative ions. They give the air its invigorating freshness, which is so good for us.

Physiologically, the presence of negative ions in a sweat bath is as important as the heat. The discovery of negative ions in certain types of saunas a few years ago became headline news in Finland. Until then, the sauna’s healing power was attributed to relaxation and increased circulation. Now, negative ions add startling new possibilities.

Ions and our modern lifestyle

We now live in an environment that virtually eliminates negative ions. Rural areas have a higher concentration of ions, but many of us live in towns and cities that have very low levels due to dirt and pollution. Pollution from car exhaust, smoking, overcrowding, and even breathing all contribute to this.

Modern vehicles have many problems. For example, opening a window lets in polluted city air. Many drivers, especially long-distance ones, keep an ionizer in their vehicle to help them maintain a high level of alertness and concentration. In addition, this can relieve car sickness and remove pollen and smoke. In cities, closed rooms, cars and elsewhere, the proportion of negative ions is markedly reduced compared to what it is in undisturbed nature. According to experts, positive ions rob us of our good senses and dispositions, while negative ions enhance them, stimulating everything from plant growth to overall bodily well-being. In general, people who are sensitive to air-borne allergens will benefit far more and quicker from the cleansing action of negative ions.

A second potentially important factor is the person’s body voltage, for a high body voltage could alter considerably the ion ingestion rate. Perhaps the same effect as positive ion enhancement could be produced by a high negative body potential, even if the ambient air ion concentrations are balanced. Control and reduction of bodily voltage to a near-zero condition should reduce any such effects and restore ion ingestion due to the ambient air ion balance condition. For Muslims, body voltage to a near-zero condition is achieved when they prostrate during prayer.

Ironically, even today’s air-conditioned buildings, vehicles, and airplanes frequently become supercharged with harmful positive ions because the plastic and metal fans, filters, and air-conditioning duct systems strip the air of negative ions even before it reaches its destination. In addition, fluorescent lighting, electrical and electronic equipment, television screens, and static-producing as well as artificial fibers in carpets, clothes, and upholstery, all reduce the level of negative ions and increase the level of positive ions.

Desktop PCs have a cathode ray tube monitor that produces a positive static charge during normal operation. It also sweeps the nearby air of negative charges, depleting the negative-ion concentration in the immediate vicinity. Apparently when ion concentration is lowered by this or any other means, such as air conditioning, workers complain of headaches, lethargy, dizziness, and nausea. Tests conducted in England indicate that the more complex the task a person tries, the more he or she is affected by negative ion levels. Also, women are more responsive than men to negative ion depletion or enrichment.

The graph below provides some average sample readings of negative air ions taken in various locations. Note that the body responds to levels above 1,000 ions per cc.

Effects on our health

Besides cleaning the air, negative ions aid in mood elevation and increased oxygen intake, both of which make us feel more alert and energetic. Negative ions can provide major benefits for suffers of asthma, chronic fatigue syndrome, nervous energy, hay fever, allergies, sleep disorders and snoring, depression, emphysema, sinus, migraines, colds and flu, nausea, chemical sensitivity, fibromyalgia, cigarette smoke and other odors, and computers and office pollution.

Scientific studies

Research shows that negative ions can reduce histamine, which triggers hay fever; affect levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter or a neurohormone associated with anxiety, stress, and migraines; help suffers of bronchitis, asthma, catarrh, the common cold, insomnia, migraines, emphysema, eczema, headaches, tiredness, and general feelings of malaise; speed the healing time of burns and surgical incisions with less cross-infection and reduced pain (including post-operative pain); enhance the body’s absorption and utilization of oxygen, thus assisting concentration and alertness; reduce the effects of passive smoking and allergies to pollen, dust, and pets; remove and destroy air-borne bacteria and viruses; and lower serotonin levels, which leads to greater calmness and strengthens defenses against infection, as proven with the flu.

Negative ions also increase hemoglobin/oxygen affinity so that the partial oxygen pressure in the blood rises while the partial dioxide pressure decreases. This results in a lowered respiratory rate and enhances the metabolism of water-soluble vitamins. In addition, negative ions increase one’s pH level, which makes bodily fluids more alkaline.

The effect of negative ion depletion varies from person to person. Negative ions in the bloodstream accelerate the delivery of oxygen to our cells and tissues, whereas positive ions slow this down and produce symptoms markedly like those in anoxia (oxygen starvation). Negative ions may stimulate the reticulo-endothelial system, a group of defense cells that marshal our resistance to disease. Treatment with negative ions has produced dramatic improvement in healing severe burns and reducing pain. Children, in particular, seem to respond quickly, for tests have shown that children breathing negatively ionized air were superior in incidental memory and had many difficulties in dichotic listening offset.

Offices and organizations having negative air ionization equipment have found that their employees are less likely to get colds or be absent, and generally are more cheerful and alert. Negative air ionizers are used in the closed and artificial atmospheres of submarines and spacecraft.

Conclusions

The Qur’an’s verses inspire people to make new scientific discoveries, as seen in 13:12, quoted above. Nature contains many sources of the negative ions that are so beneficial to people.

Reading and acquiring a deeper understanding of the Qur’an lead to many life-enhancing discoveries. Given the right conditions, healthy food and pure water, our bodies will usually right themselves and develop properly. But so often we neglect the air we breathe. Most of us live in environments full of invisible pollution and devoid of negative ions.

References

• Buckalew, L. W. and Rizzuto, A. Subjective Response to Negative Air Ion Exposure. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 53, no. 8 (Aug. 1982): 822-23.
• Negative Air Ion Effects on Human Performance and Physiological Condition. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 55, part 8 (Aug. 1984): 731-34.
• Fornof, K. T. and Gilbert, G. O. Stress and Physiological, Behavioral, and Performance Patterns of Children under Varied Air Ion Levels. International Journal of Biometeorology, no. 32 (1988): 260-70.
• Hawkins, L. H. Biological Significance of Air Ions. Proceedings of IEE Colloquium on Ions in the Atmosphere, Natural and Man-Made. BLL Conf Ind.
• Inbar, O. et al. The Effect of Negative Air Ions on Various Physiological Functions during Work in a Hot Environment. International Journal of Biometeorology 26, no. 2 (1982): 153-63.
• Kreuger, A. P. and Reed, E. J. Biological Impact of Small Air Ions. Science, no. 193 (1976): 1209-13.
• Kellogg, E.W. Air Ions: Their Possible Biological Significance and Effects. Journal of Bioelectricity 3, nos. 1 and 2 (1984): 119-36.
• Kornblueh, I. H., Piersol, G. M., and Speicher, F. P. Relief from Pollinosis in Negatively Ionized Rooms. American Journal of Physical Medicine, no. 37 (1958): 18-27.
• Kornblueh, I. H. Aeroionotherapy of Burns. In Bioclimatology, Biometeorology and Aeroionotherapy. Gualtierotti et. al., eds. Milan: Carlo Erba Foundation, 1968.
• Soyka, Fred (with Alan Edmonds). The Ion Effect. E. P. Dutton & Co, 1977.
• Sulman, F. G. The Effect of Air Ionization, Electric Fields, Atmospheric and Other Electric Phenomena on Man and Animal. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1980.
• www.aranizer.com/ions.htm. Negative Ions.
• www.consultces.com/ions.htm. (information on ions)
• www.odatus.com/ions.html. (negative ions)
• www.pentax.com/ion_explain.htm. (negative ions)
• Yaglou C. P., Brandt, A. D., Benjamin, L. K. C. Physiological Changes during Exposure to Ionized Air. Heating, Piping, Air Conditioning 5 (1933): 423.
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A point of Divine Unity*

In His Name, be He glorified.

There is nothing but it glorifies

Him with praise.

My dear and faithful brothers and sisters! While reflecting on air during a mental journey, a subtle point related to Divine Unity suddenly became clear to me in the word He in There is no deity but He and Say: He is God. I observed that the way of belief is so easy as to be necessary, and that the way of misguidance and associating partners with God is so difficult as to be inconceivable. I shall explain this comprehensive matter briefly.

A handful of soil serves as a flowerbed for hundreds of flowers. If this process is attributed to nature or causality, each handful must contain hundreds of minute machines or factories [to produce the flowers] and an immaterial factory [to determine and govern their lives in place of the Divine Knowledge and Destiny]. Or, each particle must know how to make each flowers different characteristics and living elements. In other words, each particle would possess infinite knowledge and power, both of which are unique to God.

Each air molecule (a conductor of Divine Will and Command) in each gust, each shift of air making the sound He, must have minute centers, exchanges, receivers, and transmitters of all human means of communication so that each air molecule could perform those countless acts simultaneously. Or, each particle or molecule must control all relevant faculties (of mind, spirit, personality, etc.) of all means ofcommunication, know their users languages, and transmit them to the other particles simultaneously. Unbelievers, naturalists, and materialists ask us to believe this impossibility.

(If attributed to the Majestic Maker, however, all air particles become soldiers under His Command. Through their Creators permission and Power, their connection to and reliance on Him, and the manifestation of their Makers Power, they perform their innumerable universal duties as easily as if they were one particle with only one duty.)

Their duties are performed instantly, and with the ease of uttering He and the movement of air. And so air becomes a page for the Pen of Powers endless, wonderful, orderly inscriptions. Its particles become the Pens ribs, and the particles duties become the points inscribed by the Pen. All of this is done with the same ease as it takes to move one particle.

While observing and studying the world of air, I saw this truth clearly and in detail. I realized with a certainty based on knowledge that this is so because the actual word He and its utterance are both brilliant proofs and gleams of Divine Unity. I understood that its meaning and resonances contain a radiant manifestation of Divine Oneness and strong proof of Divine Unity. Moreover, that proof contains an indication to the identity of the One to Whom the indefinite, third-person, singular pronoun He refers. I came to know that both the Quran of Miraculous Expression and those who constantly recite the Divine Names frequently repeat this sacred word to express Divine Unity.

If several points are jumbled around one, it is almost impossible to distinguish that point. If you do several jobs simultaneously, you will be confused. If a living creature is loaded with many burdens at once, it will be crushed. If you listen to or say many words simultaneously, they become confused and muddled.

However, I saw with a certainty based on clear observation that although thousands of points,letters, and words are deposited in each air molecule ” even in each particle ” they are conveyed without confusion or irregularity. Also, the air performs its duties simultaneously and without confusion. Each air molecule or particle bears heavy burdens without lagging behind or displaying any weakness. Also, I witnessed countless words enter ears and leave mouths with perfect order.

(By carrying out all of its extraordinary duties, each particle and air molecule proclaims in the tongue of its being and functioning, in ecstasy and perfect freedom, and through its testimony: There is no deity but He and Say: He is God, the One. All of them travel among air-clashing waves like lightning and thunderstorms in perfect order and harmony.)

Given this, can we assert seriously that each particle or air molecule necessarily has infinite wisdom, knowledge, will, power, and all qualities needed to dominate all other particles so that it can perform those functions? Or, from a position of certainty based on knowledge, clear observation, and personal experience, can we assert logically that air functions here as a changing page for the Pen of Power and Destiny, used by the All-Majestic One with infinite knowledge and wisdom, and as a signboard (the Tablet of Abrogation and Confirmation) reflecting a changeable copy of the Divine decrees preserved on the Supreme Preserved Tablet?

Air shows the above-mentioned wonders and manifestation of Divine Oneness by transmitting sound, and shows the impossibility of what the misguided assert. In the same way, it performs other duties (e.g., transmitting such subtle forces as electricity and light, attraction and repulsion) while simultaneously transmitting sound. It also carries out duties essential for plant and animal life (e.g., respiration and pollination) with perfect order and without confusion.

Air is a very important means of conveying the Divine Will and Command. It performs its duties without any real or imagined interference from random chance, blind force, deaf nature, confused and aimless causality, or powerless, lifeless, and unknowing matter. I also understood that each particle and air molecule proclaims in the tongue of its being and functioning: There is no deity but God and Say: He is God, the One. Just as I witnessed these wonders in the physical aspect of air with the key of He, so air itself became a key, like He, to the World of Symbols or Ideas and the World of Meaning.

Peace be upon everybody!

* Adapted from Bediuzzamans Thirteenth Word.