To this day, natural breast milk is still regarded as the best nutritional choice for babies. Recent research on stem cells, genetics, and epigenetics [1] from the last three decades, along with information obtained from studies about childhood and youth and testimonials from organizations that guide health policies worldwide, all support this claim. Modern medicine agrees that breastfeeding is the healthiest, most inexpensive, highest quality, and most appropriate choice for protecting both a mother and baby’s health [2]. The World Health Organization holds breastfeeding as an essential gold standard for the immunological development of a child, starting from the first six months to two years of age [3].

Breastfeeding has many benefits. It strengthens the emotional bond between the mother and her baby. It helps ensure that the baby grows in a healthy manner, by establishing its first feeling of trust; positively effects the baby’s intelligence level; and helps bolster the baby’s immune system.

One of the most studied issues in recent studies is the effect of breast milk on respiratory diseases such as asthma. The effects of breastfeeding on asthma, allergic diseases, and respiratory infections has been a topic of concern for the medical world for at least the last 80 years. Recent studies agree that breast milk has a preventive role against lower respiratory tract infections in infancy (0–2 years). However, there are some complications in these studies. Given the challenges in patient standardization, only food-allergy studies can be standardized. Due to the complexity of the environmental and genetic factors that trigger allergies, it should be considered normal that the effect of breast milk has not yet been fully established to protect against a wide range of allergic diseases, particularly asthma [4].

Asthma is the most common chronic disease in childhood and has a complex structure. It has been on the rise lately, and scientists are scrambling to figure out what is causing this increase as well as the best ways to combat the disease. Asthma can be caused by a wide variety of sources, such as genetics, smoking, microscopic ticks and mites in house dust, allergenics such as grass or pollen, obesity, urban life, air pollution, synthetic nutrition, and imbalance in intestinal flora [5]. In addition, premature birth, low birth weight, a young mother, and early exposure to respiratory infections are factors that increase the risk of asthma [6]. Consequently, it is difficult to independently measure the effect of a single determinant in asthma. In a significant study on 3,963 children in the Netherlands, children were breastfed for at least four months and then followed for up to eight years after birth. The outcomes of the study revealed that breast milk significantly reduced the risk of asthma, independent of other variables. It has been observed that the rate of chronic asthma development decreases as the breastfeeding duration increases [7].

Today, breast milk’s benefits have been proven in protecting babies from respiratory infections both early on and later in life. Breastfeeding provides an emergency line of defense against infectious diseases by helping infants whose immune systems are not yet developed enough to fight infections.

Breastfeeding facilitates a beneficial germ exchange between mothers and babies and helps to develop a strong immune system. Enzymes, hormones, bioactive molecules, and growth factors in breast milk are all extremely vital for babies. These crucial molecules help develop the baby’s immune system by interacting with the proximate elements. Thanks to numerous features in its ingredients, breast milk has a significant role in supporting the baby’s immune system with the development of appropriate microorganisms in the intestine. The strength of the microbial structure in the baby’s intestine depends on the way of delivery, diet, and the variety of foods consumed by the mother. This healthy structure in the intestines is essential for the development of the immune system and for building an increased tolerance to new foods that will be taken orally. In infancy, beneficial microbiota in the intestines starts to develop healthily by breastfeeding in the first four to six months.

A comparative study between the intestinal flora of infants fed with breast milk and formula milk showed that the diversity and density of the desired microorganisms increased in a shorter time and in sufficient amount in the breastfed infants. Today, increased hygiene standards have changed the intestinal flora of infants, especially in Western societies. This, however, has increased the risk of diseases such as asthma [8].

Cytokines (a group of proteins and peptides that allow cells to communicate with each other) in breast milk also serve the development and smooth functioning of the immune system and play an important role in protecting the baby against bacterial infections, wheezing, and allergies. Human milk, especially “first milk,” was found to contain more than 20 cytokines [9]. First milk arrives in the first few hours after birth as a miraculous gift to babies when they are most vulnerable to illnesses and helps to protect against diseases. Ig A antibodies in the first milk also protect against infectious diseases that are commonly experienced in early life, besides obesity, diabetes, and allergic diseases that may come later [10].

Infants fed with ready-made foods have lower amounts and types of bacteria in their intestines than those fed with breast milk, which can consequently increase the risk of eczema and asthma. The issue of delaying foods with high allergy potential, especially when switching to supplementary foods, is still being debated. Some researchers suggest that complementary foods should not be introduced to infants up to 12 months. However, the common opinion is that positive intestinal bacteria that develops with sustained breastfeeding can reduce the risk of allergies to additional foods. Another consensus is that the transition to supplementary foods should not be earlier than six months [11].

As breast milk is the most important food for newborns, mothers should diligently endeavor to complete the suggested period of breastfeeding. Breastfeeding, if continued until the age of two and especially in the first six months, is accepted by international pediatric authorities as the cornerstone of nutrition.

Character formation and breast milk

We are physically and emotionally affected by what we eat or drink. Based on this assumption, it can be argued that breastfeeding might also have an influence on the character formation of babies [12]. Although it has been determined that intelligence and brain development are influenced by the emergence or inhibition of some genetic characters in the baby by epigenetic means, no research based on long-term observations has been conducted. In any case, it would be wise for parents to provide the best food both for themselves and their babies. Inasmuch as they make sure the food is hygienic and natural, they should also be cautious that it is obtained through legitimate means. If, for any reason, the mother’s milk is not enough or is suspended, a milk-mother with necessary qualities may be contracted.

Breastfeeding for two years is prescribed in the Qur’an: “Mothers are to suckle their children for two complete years” (2:233). “We have enjoined on human in respect with his parents: his mother bore him in strain upon strain, and his weaning was in two years” (31:14). Likewise, the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, speaking about his son Ibrahim, who died before he could turn two, said, “He has a milk-mother in Paradise, she will suckle him for his remaining milk, (will complete the term of two years).” (Muslim, Fadail, 63, 2316)

References

1. The inherited and non-genetic changes which occur in the disclosure of genetic information i.e. gene expression, without any no change to the structure of DNA.
2. Ballard O, Morrow AL: Human milk composition: nutrients and bioactive factors. Pediatr Clin North Am, 2013; 60: 49–74.
3. World Health Organization Recommendations on Postnatal Care of the Mother and Newborn. Geneva, WHO, 2013.
4. Matheson M, Allen KJ, Tang MLK: Understanding the evidence for and against the role of breastfeeding in allergy prevention. Clin Exp Allergy, 2012; 42: 827–851.
5. Ding G, Ji R, Bao Y: Risk and protective factors for the development of childhood asthma. Paediatr Resp Rev, 2015; 16: 133–139.
6. Oddy WH, de Klerk NH, Sly PD, Holt PG: The effects of respiratory infections, atopy and breastfeeding on childhood asthma. Eur Respir J, 2002; 19: 899–905.
7. Scholtens S, Wijga AH, Brunekreef B, Kerkhof M, Hoekstra MO, Gerritsen J et al..: Breastfeeding, parental allergy and asthma in children followed for eight years: the PIAMA
8. birth cohort study. Thorax 2009; 64: 604–609.
9. Adlerberth I, Wold AE: Establishment of the gut microbiota in Western infants. Acta Paediatr, 2009; 98: 229–238.
10. Goldman AS, Rudloff HE: Are cytokines in human milk? Adv Exp Med Biol, 1991; 310: 93–97.
11. World Health Organization Recommendations on Postnatal Care of the Mother and Newborn. Geneva, WHO, 2013.
12. World Health Organization: Global Strategy for Infant and Young Child Feeding. Geneva, 2003.
13. Ibrahim Canan, Peygamber’in Sunnetinde Terbiye, Istanbul: Isik Yayinlari, 2014, pp. 95.

Original article: Olzsak T. et al, Science (2012, epub ahead of print)

It has been known by epidemiologists that people who grew up in farms are less likely to acquire immune diseases such as asthma, allergies, inflammatory bowel disease and multiple sclerosis when compared to people living in cities. Such observations have been the roots of “hygiene hypothesis,” which essentially points out the beneficial effects of being exposed to infectious agents. Supporting this theory, a recent study at Harvard Medical School showed that exposure to symbiotic bacteria has a long lasting beneficial effect on the immune system development. “We as a species are not exposed to the same germs that we were exposed to in the past,” said the co-author Dennis Kasper, a microbiologist at Harvard Medical School in Boston. In this study, published in Science, the researchers compared germ-free mice to mice with normal bacterial flora. Germ-free mice showed significantly higher levels of invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells in their colons and lungs. “We made the serendipitous observation that these cells were dramatically enriched in the lung and colon in mice that lacked any microbes,” said the co-author Richard Blumberg, the chief of gastroenterology at Brigham and Woman’s Hospital in Boston. Body’s own production of elevated iNKT cells correlated with higher susceptibility to inflammatory bowel disease and allergic asthma in germ-free mice. Most strikingly, the study showed that exposure to these bacteria in late age did not lower the susceptibility to these immune diseases, indicating that the bacterial exposure needs to be early in life to boost the immune system. After all, broad-spectrum antibiotics for babies may not be such a good idea.

2- Giant chickens of Jurassic Park

Original article: Xu X. et al, Nature 484, 92 (2012)

Many of us undoubtedly learned a lot about dinosaurs from the famous Sci-fi movie Jurassic Park, but who would have imagined that some gigantic feathered dinosaurs would be running along with our favorite monster T-Rex? Paleontologists have recently made an incredible discovery in Liaoning Province of China. They found a set of perfectly preserved fossils that belong to a previously unknown species of dinosaurs. These 125-million-year-old feathered giant dinosaurs represent the largest feathered animal species ever lived on earth. The adult one is predicted to be at least 9 meters (30 feet) long with a weight of 1400 kg (~3000 pounds), which is approximately 40 times bigger than the Beipiaosaurus, largest known feathered dinosaur. New gigantic feathered dinosaurs are given a Chinese-Latin name Yutyrannus huali meaning a “beautiful feathered tyrant.” Simple filament like structures as well as the relatively small sizes of feathers seem more similar to feathers from a baby chick than the plumes of an adult bird, suggesting that Yutyrannus used feathers not for flying but for body temperature insulation, perhaps under the harsh climate conditions of that age. Paleontologists are really excited to see that how much more we have learned about dinosaurs over last 15 years and they predict that many different feathered meat-eating dinosaurs lived before and they are still yet to be discovered.

3- Stardust mystery revealed

Original article: Norris B.R.M. et al, Nature 484, 220 (2012)

Heavy elements are formed in the cores of stars and are crucial in formation of celestial structures like our earth. When an intermediate-mass star dies, it triggers a cosmic sandstorm that lasts thousands of years ejecting more than half of its mass into space. Our Sun is expected to go into a similar phase in around 5 billion years. Scientists observed these sandstorms for years but it was a mystery how these particles found could leave the vicinity of the stars and find their way into interstellar space. Computer simulations hinted that these sand-like particles could not be that small, otherwise they would be evaporated by the immense heat of the dying star. Scientists using the Very Large Telescope in Chile had a chance to explore these stars in a greater detail and discovered that the size of these particles is around a micrometer. This size might seem very small to us but for these particles, it is large enough to behave like mirrors for the light rays coming out of the star instead of absorbing them. Since light also behaves like a particle, the momentum transferred by this reflection helps particles to accelerate to the speeds like 10km/second. As the lead author of the study, Barnaby Norris from University of Sydney says: “The dust grains are like lots of little sails catching the wind, or in this case, starlight.” The material that comes out of the stars is recycled during the formation of new stellar objects like our old planet.

4- Babies understand more than we think

Original article: Bergelsona, E. & Swingley, D., P.N.A.S. 109, 3252 (2012)

Most babies do not say a meaningful word until they are a year old. It was not clear whether they knew the meaning of the words prior to the speaking age. It is easy to ask the question on whether the babies understand words but it is hard to scientifically measure it. The researchers from the University of Pennsylvania devised an ingenious experiment to test the hypothesis whether the 6-9 months babies understood the common words. During the experiment babies sat on their parents’ lap in front of a computer while some images of body parts or foods were shown on the screen. The parents were given instructions through headphones about what to say to the baby about the image on the screen. Babies were monitored by an eye-tracking device to measure their attention being directed to screen. The researchers designed a control environment by pairing a body part and a food item. For instance, if a banana and some hair were shown on the screen, the researchers measured the time that the baby fixated on the banana when the parent instructed the child to look at the banana versus when the parent instructed the baby to look at the hair. 33 infants of ages 6 to 9 months and 50 toddlers of ages 10 to 20 months were recruited for this study. The study convincingly showed that the babies fixated longer on an object when they were instructed to do so. Moreover, as the age of the babies increased the period of fixation stayed pretty much constant until 14 months, but jumped dramatically afterwards. The reason behind the jump in 14 months begs further research. Now, the researchers want also to test the vocabulary of the babies and whether the babies also understand the abstract concepts.

In a study conducted by social psychologists Tversky and Kahneman, people were asked to guess the percentage of African nations that were members of the United Nations. Two groups were first asked to estimate whether this number was lower or higher than a threshold: the first group was asked whether it is more or less than 45 percent and the second group was asked whether it is more or less than 65 percent. Then both groups were asked to give their estimates of the actual percentage. The researchers demonstrated that the group that was given the lower threshold estimated a lower value for the actual percentage of African nations that are members of the United Nations. The group that was given the higher threshold estimated a higher percentage. The pattern has held in other experiments for a wide variety of different subjects of estimation. A bias in the estimation of African members of the United Nations may not sound like a big deal, but how about decisions that affect people’s lives seriously?

Consider sentencing in court trials. Social psychologist Mussweiler and colleagues asked trial judges with more than 15 years of experience to consider sentencing demands made by non-experts in a legal crime case before issuing a final sentence. The two sentencing demands were 34 months and 12 months. The judges, despite their experience and despite the fact that the crime was the same, were influenced by the demands. Judges who considered the high demand of 34 months prior to their decision gave final sentences that were almost 8 months longer than judges who considered a low demand of 12 months initially. If prior exposure to a piece of information can make a difference as much as 8 more months in prison, then we ought to know what is going on. The examples above illustrate a psychological heuristic known as “anchoring and adjustment.” The heuristic suggests that when faced with a decision-making or estimation situation, people start with an anchor, or a reference point, and make adjustments to it to reach their final estimate. The anchor serves as a first approximation and then the person makes adjustments to it to reach a final estimate or decision. Why does the human mind utilize this heuristic? The answer is simple—we do not always have a whole lot of information to reach an accurate estimate or best decision.

Therefore, the mind sometimes needs shortcuts, especially under pressing circumstances. To understand this process, let’s have a look at the limitations of human cognition. Models of human cognition Cognitive psychologists and sociologists have worked to develop models of human social cognition. These models emphasize four aspects of our social cognition, which is the way we perceive others. The first is the role of prior knowledge versus information immediately available. For example, when we see a policeman directing the traffic, we use our prior knowledge in our perception. We may assume that he is carrying a gun and he has communications equipment to talk with his station. We deduce these features from our prior knowledge about the traffic police, even if we may not be in a position to observe that particular policeman’s gun or communications device. Relying on prior information in our judgments is called “top-down” processing as opposed to “bottom-up” or data-driven processing. Typically, relying on top-down processing, such as relying on stereotypes, requires fewer processing resources.

The second aspect is the limitation of our cognitive processing capacity. The human cognitive system is modeled to consist of our sensory organs, a sensory register (memory) that temporarily stores our perceptions of external stimuli, a short-term memory, a long-term memory, attention resources and executive control processes. When we receive information in the form of audio-visual or other sensory stimuli, they are processed by our cognitive system and transferred to our short-term memory. Through a process of encoding and categorization, the information is organized and stored in the long-term memory. A part of the long-term memory is “active” or readily accessible. Our further use of information in our long-term memory activates the information, and the lack of use deactivates it, making it less readily accessible. Our behavioral response results from our processing of information. According to this information-processing model of human cognition, the amount of information that can be processed by our cognitive system is restricted in terms of storage, flow and inference (Huitt, 2003).

The third aspect is the amount of cognitive processing that is determined by capacity (amount of free resources) and motivation. Factors such as interest, importance, and relevance determine the motivation to allocate more cognitive resources. We are more likely to devote more cognitive processing resources to subjects that are more interesting, important or relevant in our judgment. The fourth aspect is the interplay between automatic and controlled processing. Automatic processes require fewer resources. Given our limited processing capacity, time and other types of constraints have consequences for our cognitive processing. Under constraints, most individuals tend to simplify their processing by relying on less information, relying on automatic cognitive processes as opposed to conscious ones, or relying on prior information as opposed to information available in the circumstances. Anchoring is one such a simplification. The nature of the situation we are facing will determine which of these mechanisms will be selected. They will be reused or abandoned depending on whether they provide a sound basis for our responses to the social environment. If the simplifications lead to interpretations that harm us, we are likely to abandon them. If, on the other hand, there is no harm or there is a benefit, then we are likely to reuse those simplifications.

Anchoring effect Anchoring is defined as the effect of a prior judgment of an object, the anchor, on our future judgments regarding another object. These judgments may be about a numerical value, a probability, or even a moral or legal judgment. As an example, consider the situation where people are asked whether the population of a city is greater than or smaller than a value. Let’s say two groups of people are asked the same question with two anchors: Group A is asked whether the population of Houston is more than or less than 500,000. Group B is asked whether the population of Houston more than or less than 2,000,000. In this example, the values of 500,000 and 2,000,000 serve as anchors. Both groups are then asked: What is your estimate of the population of Houston? Experiments indicate that the people who were given the lower anchor on average give a lower estimate for the population and vice versa. How does anchoring happen? Cognitive psychologists tell us that human judgment is essentially relative or comparison based, even if we are not asked to make a comparison explicitly. So, in evaluating the present object or person, our minds search for an anchor. A particular anchor may be selected because it is readily accessible, because it is suggested to us, or “self-generated via an insufficient adjustment process” (Mussweiler et al). Our prior cognitive processing of the anchor increases the accessibility of anchor-consistent knowledge, which influences our subsequent judgments. For example, when we meet a person from a country, the first person we met from that country may become our anchor. If we had a positive experience with the first person, we are likely to interpret the actions of this new person with a positive light. While cognitive heuristics such as anchoring help us make quick decisions under constraints, they may also lead to errors. The price we pay for the economy provided by the heuristics is “systematically biased judgments under certain conditions.” (Bless et al., p. 24). For instance, a car dealer may offer you a very high price as an anchor and ask you to make a counter offer. Experiments have demonstrated that under such circumstances, the value of the initial offer has a significant effect on what people will be willing to pay for the final price of the car. If the initial offer is very high, the customer is likely to accept a higher negotiated price and vice versa. The anchoring effect can also be observed when we take a few characteristics of a person and consciously or subconsciously fit them to a stereotype.

In such cases, we may misperceive their motivations or misunderstand their circumstances. Sometimes the anchor can be manipulated by some person other than ourselves, as in the case of the car dealer. Sometimes, we may pick the anchor unintentionally based on information obtained from the mass media. As the mass media tend to focus on rare events that tend to be negative, the stereotypes formed based on information solely derived from the mass media may be misleading (Said, 1997). What are some of the lessons we can derive from our discussion of the anchoring effect? For one, we need to point the mirror at ourselves and ask: Are we forming stereotypes of others that may be inaccurate? Are we influenced by the anchoring effect in our judgment of other people? To see whether we may have anchors for evaluating people of different backgrounds consider your initial thoughts about Christians, Jews, Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, Americans, Russians, Asians, Africans, Mexicans, etc. Are these anchors based on scientific data or news media coverage of events or personal encounters with one or more individuals? It may be infeasible to try to collect encyclopedic information about every nationality, religion, or culture that we encounter. But in matters that impact our society we ought to do a better job of researching a diversity of resources. But perhaps a more important lesson is this—the anchoring effect is here to stay as part of the reality of human cognition. If we would like to provide accurate, reliable information to people about ourselves, our culture and values, we should reach them before they form a negative anchor or stereotype. If we would like our cultural background, religion, or values to be understood without distortion, we need to reach out to as many people as possible around us and interact with them. We need to hold conversations, and share meaningful experiences with them to anchor their future judgments in an accurate reference point. The anchoring effect is demonstrated to be pervasive and robust in psychology. It is not likely to disappear in the foreseeable future. However, we do have the opportunity to reach out and help form positive anchors for better human relationships.

Further reading

• Bless, H., Fiedler, K., Strack, F. 2004. Social Cognition, New York: Taylor and Francis.
• Huitt, W. 2003. The Information Processing Approach to Cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University.
• Mussweiler, T., & Strack, F. 2001. The Semantics of Anchoring. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 86, 234–255.
• Said, E. 1997. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World, New York: Random House.

We agreed with the other organs to explain the splendid art inherent in us to you; we have patiently waited our turn. Our aim is to remind you to look after yourself so you will continue to live a healthy life and consciously perform your duty of servitude to our Lord Who created us. In addition to your perfections, as human beings you also have certain faults, such as being negligent, deceptive, or forgetting easily. Even if you realize that these are your faults, each bears a distinct wisdom in terms of Creation. If from time to time you can succeed in avoiding this negligence and escaping these experiences by using these shortcomings as a springboard or platform from which to depart, you will be able to reflect and contemplate on the attributes of God with greater admiration.

Indeed, we are just inside the gateway of the body that opens to the outer world, the mouth, an area through which the various substances you eat to stay alive pass through the mechanic process we implement before actually entering the body.

When food first enters the mouth, it is passed through a grinding process that carries out a mechanical breakdown before the chemical breakdown in the stomach and intestines. We teeth are aligned along on your lower and upper jawbone. When you were only a two-month old fetus, the Creator Who is aware of the importance of our tasks began to prepare us, and we were planted, just like a seed sown in the earth, in the crevices in your jawbone, and concealed by your gums. But still, we do not appear immediately after birth, because we may hurt your mother when she is nursing you. Initially, it is necessary for you to be fed with that unique nourishment, your mother’s milk. However, we begin to gradually emerge in the form of tiny stumps while you are still being nursed by your mother, when you are around six or seven months old.

We were created to cut, chew, and grind food of various textures and hardness. The number and mechanical functions of my colleagues, who have names such as incisors (cutting teeth), canines, premolars, and molars vary. The incisors, which are at the front, begin to appear when you are still only 6–8 months old, the ones immediately beside them erupt when you are 8–12 months, the premolars appear when you are 12–16 months, the canines at 16–20 months and second premolars when you are between 20–24 months old.

During this period, we are known as the milk teeth. When you are 6–7 years old, the molars emerge and then when you are 7–8 years old the central incisors appear; between 8 and 9 years of age the lateral incisors, between 9 and 11 the first premolars, between 11 and 13 years the second premolars and the canines, and finally between 12 and 14 years of age the second molars erupt; the third molars, known as the wisdom teeth, usually appear any time between the ages of 17 and 40, although sometimes they do not come through at all. The two front incisors, the canine beside them, and the two premolars and three molars, that is, a total of eight teeth, constitute half of the jaw, but all the teeth work as a team of 32. Sometimes you may hear about humans who perform various experiments regarding our strength. My strongest chewing force was recorded as 1900 Newton. In a demonstration of strength, a human was capable of lifting a weight of 620 lb as high as 7 inches from the ground. Although each of us has different functions and appearances, in terms of where we are situated, in general our anatomic structures are the same. The enamel layer covering me is very hard and shiny. My enamel layer is even stronger than bone. My sections, which cut hard substances you put in your mouths like knives without bending, are in fact covered in enamel. Beneath the enamel surface is a solid, bone-like substance known as dentin, which has a slightly different composition than that of the bone found in other parts of the body. The space in the center of this layer (known as pulp chamber) is filled with blood cells and nerves that nourish me. The section of each of us that is buried beneath the jaw bone is called the root, while the part that is visible and which you brush daily is called the crown. Throughout your lives, everything you put in your mouths, whether it is hard, soft, corrosive or acidic, comes into contact with the crown. Some substances can damage us. Even stone or steel would not be able to withstand the conditions that we teeth are exposed to. Although made of metal, a carpenter’s saw becomes blunt, and even a blacksmith’s grinder looses it effect after a while. But if you take good care of us, we will serve you throughout your entire life. Unfortunately, I have noticed that you do not take care of us at all. You eat sweet things, but you do not clean us, you eat meat, but you do not brush us, you relentlessly use us to crack open nuts, and pour anything you find, whether hot or cold, over us. We can withstand this for now because we are still young, but it is impossible to say how long we can carry on like this. If any of us cracks and bacteria begins to eat away at us, eventually causing us to decay, you will start to complain, but it will be too late.

The Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, gave utmost importance to us in his daily life. Whenever the opportunity arose, after eating, before prayer, in the morning when he woke up, the Prophet constantly used a miswak, a cleaning twig, and cleansed us with affection. This is why we sparkled like pearls when he opened his mouth or smiled, and those close to him never sensed an offensive odor from his breath. But many people today do have bad breath because they neglect us. Not only does the smell of bad breath make others uncomfortable, but you are also causing harm to yourselves. After the bacteria that hides in the crevices on and between us makes a hole through the enamel and the bone beneath it, this bacteria then begins to spread to your entire body through the blood cells in the pulp chamber, causing damage to other organs of your body. These bacteria can damage vital organs, such as the heart or the kidneys. At first, you do not notice this, because this occurs over a long period. But these bacteria can gradually destroy many of your organs. When you do finally realize what has happened, it could be too late; your cardiac valves may have stopped working properly, or the filtering function of your kidneys may begin to fail.

If you begin to lose us one by one, initially you will notice the change in the taste of your food, then defects in your speech, and eventually you will notice facial deformities and sunken cheeks. You will have to make dentures at great expense, and only in this way will you be able to restore your appearance; but in terms of function, you will never be able to substitute us with those artificial dentures!

You know that one of the main characteristics that distinguish us from animals is speech. Although the focal point of speech is in the brain, speech actually emerges as a sound or words with the collective assistance of many other organs. These are mainly the lungs, the larynx (voice box), the ears and the tongue; but we too play a big role in the correct pronunciation of many letters and words.

In addition, the mechanoreceptors in us and the cell network in our roots display such perfect precision that when we chew, we do not bite your tongue or cheek. Therefore, you can adjust the force of biting pressure for substances of various textures. If these receptors and cell network did not exist, you would use an identical chewing strategy for eating substances as hard as an apple or as soft as pudding. In which case you could not bite an apple or you would attempt to eat pudding with excessive pressure, causing us to grind together with unnecessary force, even breaking us.

So you can see that nothing has been created without a purpose. Are there any unnecessary details in creation? Of course not! This is impossible; as the eternal wisdom and power of He who created us would never permit something which is deficient or of no purpose..!

Dear Peter! I think this should be sufficient in describing ourselves to you. Naturally, the food we breakdown is not in a condition to be swallowed immediately. Therefore, our neighbors, the salivary glands can explain what happens next…

Irfan Yilmaz is a professor of biology in Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir.

I could not talk to him for awhile, because I was worried about disappointing him. However, it was not fair not to tell him as soon as possible. In a few months I would need some time off and he would need some time to find a new person to replace me. I was aware of the fact that he actually would not be able to lay me off because of my pregnancy. He would not act against the Pregnancy Discrimination Act. According to this amendment women affected by pregnancy or related conditions must be treated in the same manner as other applicants or employees with similar abilities or limitations. In academia, on the other hand, there is a high risk of getting scooped by a competitor if you delay publishing and that’s why scholars are pressured to publish new work quickly. The saying “publish or perish” is well-known in academia; therefore, my boss would need to find somebody who will be able to work significantly more hours than I can work. It was not ethical to delay telling him anymore even if I did not want to quit and knew that when I want to go back to work, it will not be so easy to find a job. I was also aware of the fact that in scientific research, if I slow down and take a couple years off, I am done. It is not good enough to have a PhD degree to set me apart from my competitors on the job market. I am expected to get high-quality publications out to apply for a tenure-track faculty position. I need to constantly be an active and productive researcher.

At last, I have talked to my boss. He was very rational. He asked me if I could manage doing research and raising two kids because research was never meant to be an 8 am to 5:30 pm job. It was not a simple question to answer. I knew that with kids, no matter where I am or what job I have, my life will be challenging. To keep both a family and an academic career intact I need discipline, planning, and some help at work and home. I won’t have time for chatting with colleagues, talking on the phone with friends, reading e-mails or taking lunch breaks at work. I will make long to do lists, and prioritize each item and if I can not get all of them done. I will not stress myself out. Instead, I will be happy with the things I have accomplished. Furthermore, balancing career and family life is a team effort so I need to share parenting duties with my husband, who is also overwhelmed at work. The most difficult part is that I have to deal with the guilt associated with leaving my children to go to work everyday. I love them with all my heart and it is so hard to see them crying behind me when I leave them for work.

The actual question was if I really want to go through all this trouble. I began to think about my motivation for my academic career. Many years ago, as a young woman who was trying to find a direction for my life, I had heard about a Turkish Muslim scholar, Fethullah Gulen. As I studied his teachings more, my perception on the roles of women in society had changed. I realized that I can take on many roles besides being a wife and a mother. My conclusion from his teachings was that men or women, every single human being, should serve God, and that serving humanity is serving God since it is done for the sake of His love. Then I thought that doing science, especially studying biochemistry, would be a great way to serve humanity. By the divine grace of God and with the help of biochemistry, I might prevent the spread of diseases, find cures for them, enhance the nutritional value of crops or even improve plant resistance against environmental stresses, and thus help so many people around the world.

Furthermore, the first word revealed in the Quran was “iqra” meaning “read” (96:1) followed by:

In and with the name of your Lord, Who created–
Created human from a clot clinging (to the wall of the womb).
Read, and your Lord is the All-Munificent,
Who has taught (human) by the pen,
Taught human what he did not know.

“Iqra” is a command to read the signs the Creator placed in creation. So, for me, biochemistry is not only the study of the chemical processes that happen in living things but also a way to better understand God’s Mercy, Wisdom, and Power. When I look at a tiny cell under a microscope, or study its biology in a book, I am fascinated by its perfect structure created in such a small size. This little thing controls so many complicated biological pathways at the same time without messing them up. Then, I ask myself who makes cells from nothing and inspires each one to do all those complex functions. The creation of the little cells, the delicate balances in all the cellular pathways, the nutrients and minerals provided to maintain their lives etc. allow me to better understand God’s eternal wisdom, power and mercy. Furthermore, the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, has said: “Seeking knowledge is mandatory for every Muslim (male and female)” and “Whoever takes a path for knowledge, Allah will make an easy way for him or her to paradise.” In brief, knowledge and science are my vehicles that can take me to God and heaven. When I re-thought all the reasons why I got into this field, I decided to continue on my journey as a scientific researcher, but this time with some “obstacles.”

After 2 months of thinking, planning and contemplating, I told my boss that I would do as much as I can to be a successful scientist and a mother. Afterwards, I even started enjoying my pregnancy and being a mother for the second time. I found comfort and inspiration from a saying of the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him: “Heaven lies under the feet of mothers.” This means a lot to me. I am so happy that all the hard work I do as a mother to raise my kids to become good individuals will be awarded hereafter by God. So, motherhood was an opportunity and honor God has given me, not a burden. I said to myself that as millions of other working women, I will face many difficulties, but this should not prevent me from celebrating every milestone in this pregnancy and afterwards. I would try my best to be a mother like the one in Gracie Harmon’s memorable quote: “My mom is a never ending song in my heart of comfort, happiness, and being. I may sometimes forget the words but I always remember the tune.” I may not prepare dinners like the ones in cooking shows for my kids; I may not do it all and do it well all the time; but I can still be a mother who provides the most care, love, and compassion for her kids. In addition, no matter how tired I am after a long and busy day, if my two little angels greet me with hugs and kisses that will make me happy. They will cheer me up at home so that I will forget all the problems and stress at work. Besides, it will be wonderful and so much fun to explore their world which is so innocent, lovely and full of joy. I am so blessed to have these tiny, cute and adorable creatures around me.

Going through all of this and reading a lot on this subject have helped me realize a few things. First of all, there is no convenient time for me to have babies in academia. It is a dilemma whether pregnancy is more reasonable during graduate school even with dissertation writing and teaching than it is when I am on the job market or have a tenure-track job or a postdoctoral research position. Second, I need a lot of support and encouragement to maintain my motivation. I need my husband’s help to overcome the challenges of managing a family and an academic career. He can’t do anything about 5 months of morning sickness and another full year of nursing and sleep deprivation, but he can share parenting responsibilities and household chores. Third, according to a study done by Virginia Valian, who is a distinctive professor of psychology at Hunter College, females are only 13% of all the full professors at universities and 21% at colleges ; therefore, more universities started to promote their female faculty’s research programs in the science and engineering departments to ensure that more women are walking the halls of academia. For example, Brown University and the University of Rhode Island got $3.3 and $3.5 million grants respectively from the National Science Foundation in 2007 to develop the careers of women in science and engineering departments, where they are significantly underrepresented. There is also a Women Faculty Mentoring Program at the University of Wisconsin-Madison which seeks to support and retain women assistant professors throughout the tenure process. These kinds of programs, which provide funding for principal investigators with their own research projects, or for the inclusion of female researchers, are exciting opportunities and show the support of society and the academic community for women and mothers. This highly encourages me to pursue research and helps me know that I am not alone.

As a result, I am happy with my choice about being a mother and an academic even though it is tough and stressful. I did not deliver my baby who was a beautiful gift from heaven on Friday and go to work on Monday. I took a month off after the delivery, so my research halted for a month; however, I am back now. Am I ever going to get a tenure-track job and get tenure? Am I going to be my little ones’ unforgettable tune? Simply, I do not know, but I sure hope so.

Safiye Arslan is a research fellow in the area of biological chemistry and lives in Nevada.

Time is adorned with the colors of divinity; people become more sociable, as if they were the peaceful residents of the world-to-come, and they are able to attain a profound awareness. Everyone hears an otherworldly poem, both from within themselves and from the hearts of all existence, and they travel at the sunrise and sunset of many fantasies and memories, expectations, and dreams. With associations that are sometimes sad and at other times joyful, the blessed three months remind us of the longing for a lost paradise and embrace us with a thrilling hope that we will be able to find it again. Memories and associations in these days, every minute of which is filled with bliss, happiness, motivation, and action, transform our feelings into a silent poem and our lives into mystical exquisiteness.

This illuminated time of the year presents various delights and spiritual pleasures to those who can appreciate its worth and value, and restores heavenly times as hearts are enlightened with spirituality, as the streets and minarets are adorned with the brightest of lamps, and faces glow with charm and elegance. The colorful lights of this time shine at various wave lengths, the comforting atmosphere of its delicate breeze echoes manifestations of the present time and enchants all in its direction, permeating those of us who have reached an understanding of the belief, Islam, the mosque, and the prayer, preparing us for knowledge and love of God, and spiritual pleasures.

As we live through this golden phase of the time each year, we feel as if we are once again experiencing those pleasant and joyful heavenly days, which are true life itself. Once again, spring pervades the vision of our hearts and life pours out from every location; the countryside flourishes, verdant and cheerful with a multitude of colors, flowers dance and nightingales sing . . . and our emotions burn as if enflamed by roses and tulips. The prevalent ambiance inspires us with a promise of happiness and whispers to us about these unique and exclusive emotions. Even those ill-fated individuals whose lives are locked up in cynicism and gloom benefit from this divine celebration. The days strike those hours of prayer like a plectrum on the wires of the hearts, playing the real meaning of life. A poem starts as the call to prayer is heard in as much purity as in the singing of birds and in the joy of children . . . a poem of prayers as impressive as the beauty of heaven and as complete and mature as a heart which is in love with that beauty . . . a poem of feelings overflows our bosom with praise and reflection in a mode where we are both an addressee and an addresser to God at one and the same time. And then the veils on the face of existence are removed; we are blessed with special peaceful moments of satisfaction of being near to God. Five times a day we tour around a spiral of light, go through times of heavenly ascension, and dream of being a perfected human. 

The Four Holy Nights

Raghaib, Mi‘raj, Bara’a, and Qadr

The calendar may indicate the beginning of Rajab as being on a different day each year, but the blessed three months actually start on the first Thursday evening of Rajab, with a most-welcomed divine grace. Raghaib, the Most Desired, is the first night that stimulates our feelings, preparing them for holier days to come.2 Almost three weeks later, Mi‘raj, the Night of Ascension, comes along, as the creak of the heavenly doors opening wide is heard and the divine breezes for those determined souls can be felt. Bara’a, the Night of Salvation (or Record), calls out to the enthused and watchful ones with good tidings of salvation. And finally the Qadr, the Night of Power, embraces us with forgiveness, mercy, and a blissful prosperity that is beyond imagination and which can only be obtained after an effort of a thousand months.

Days and nights continue one after the other, spreading out a sweet and tempting tenderness for believing hearts. Each day comes along with a brightness and dynamism and pours down on us abundant blessings. After the sun sets at the end of the day, a fantastic morning follows . . . a new, quiet morning with every kind of beauty, a morning that weaves original motifs in the hearts of the wise.

RAJAB

Those of us who are on full alert with prayers, supplications, and glorifications within the month of Rajab, attain a pure pleasure of a wonderful spectacle. Everyone speaks in an elevated manner and style; a majestic look, awe for the divine, and the joy of hope is on our faces. Communication between each and every individual is established through the medium of the heart, improper behavior decreases, and people unload all their worldly burdens and rise to spiritual joy as if on an Ascension. The splendor overflowing from their souls and the colorful refinement on their faces reach such lofty levels that they can soften even the most hardened of hearts and extract elegance from them.

Nights evolve into a mystical form and inspire brilliant thoughts as Rajab begins. Each moment becomes a gateway to the divine and infuses us with hope and heavenly fancies, appealing to our desire for the infinite. Our silent feelings are awakened and remarkable thoughts of happiness are voiced in an extraordinary expression.

SHA’BAN

Sha’ban, or “Shahrullah al-Muazzam” (The Great Month), as it is frequently called, is felt with a pleasure suffused into the entire existence and our inner selves. Our hearts incline toward a hope, an expectation, and joyful beauty. Sha’ban is like a magical tune that captivates those who seek shelter across the horizons of mercy, like a mother hugging her child in a most compassionate manner. During this month it is as if time has been shattered and our feelings welcome blessings from worlds unbounded by time. In the course of the illuminated moments and profound perception of Rajab, everyone goes through a reality; it is as if they were to take one step further they would be elevated up to Heaven on a magical stair. And these moments introduce us to the exhibition of our hidden desires that pertain to infinite existence.

RAMADAN

Ramadan appears on the horizon with its unique warmth and charm; our conscience becomes vigilant and awake. Crowds pour into the mosques and from thereon walk toward Our Lord. Ramadan strengthens spiritual connections and other-worldly desires. Believing hearts acquire greater enthusiasm with love and yearning. Ramadan is the most illuminated, intense, effective, and pleasant of times; it is the most significant dynamism of our religious life. The entire city becomes a residence of the other world . . . the breaths of the minarets echo in the hearts with a Qur’anic lament. Mosques glow with light and resonate with the prayers of worshippers. The joy and contentment of turning to God is felt everywhere. Praying hearts rise aloft, sharing with others all their beauty, and declaring their love in utmost privacy. They consider every night a shab-i arus3 (wedding night), as if commanded “Prepare for the union!”

Every sound during Ramadan resonates with a promise of a new start, just as every breath gives us a glimpse of a hope for salvation. Iftar dinners (breaking the fast) appear on our horizon with implications for the “grand meeting,” while whispering some secrets into our soul. Tarawih prayers (a sunna-an act conducted or recommended by the Prophet-prayer peculiar to Ramadan, observed at night) are each a pledge for our “realm of hope.” Nights open their harem gates like a coy bride and pour into our soul blessings that glow in lights of every hue. Dawns come along, echoing the high pitch of the ferry’s horn, or the sweeping by of a jet, or the blast of a rocket, and bring the good tidings of a night journey on the path to a reunion with the Friend. And finally, a long day embraces us with the first hours of this sweetest encounter in excitement, but cautious; exhilarated, but full of hope.

Life is so profound and meaningful during Ramadan that every word uttered and every sound heard is like a composition gushing out from its very core; exposed to the most fantastic tunes our feelings undergo refinement. The soul blooms in Ramadan, and dormant feelings embedded deep-within awake as we stroll around the most enchanting and wonderful dreams, filled to the bone with zeal and a yearning for ecstasy, filled with a need for reunion, and infusing us with the joy of true life.

Having achieved the attainment of the Ramadan provisions in full, everyone reaches a level of perception where they can see that the end of this illuminated, but slightly veiled, road upon which we are traveling opens to an eternal serenity for which they have always longed; here awaits much beyond what they have been granted here. They turn to Him with all their being. At each dawn and evening they sense a new gate of reunion opening, as well as the need and hope for a loftier and captivating meeting which is merely two steps ahead. They are filled with homesickness and loneliness, on the one hand, and with expectations and dreams on the other; they are enwrapped in a greater magic and drawn into the profundity of true love. They become intoxicated as they start feeling the love . . . the love around which every phenomenon in the infinite space takes place, as it does in the infinity of their hearts. Male and female, old and young, rich and poor, every individual experiences an important time of preparation in Ramadan; each in accordance with their level of perception, and from then on it is as if they are walking toward God on a road that has no end. 

Notes

1. The lunar calendar used by Muslims. The emigration of Prophet Muhammad from Makka to Madina in 622 AD marks the beginning of this calendar.
2. Raghaib is celebrated on the night preceding the first Friday of Rajab.
3. A metaphor by Rumi, portraying death as union with God, the most beloved. 

The modern age has made people so preoccupied with worldly affairs that for a long time people have been deprived of the joy of being in the presence of our Lord. Bediuzzaman felt this honor of celestial presence before God throughout his life, and no prayer was deprived of its share of divine serenity.

Assignment to read the whole Qur’an everyday

Bediuzzaman would assign every one of his students who resided in towns or villages near Isparta to read a certain part of the Qur’an; thus, with the participation of all the students, many hatims (reading of the entire Qur’an) were completed every day. Bediuzzaman would read the hatim prayer on behalf of every participant and would devote it to the blessed souls of the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, his family, his Companions, all believers, and students of the Risale-i Nur.(1)

Additionally, at the beginning of each of the blessed months, Bediuzzaman would issue a letter of celebration, which also served as a means of maintaining communication with his students. An excerpt from one follows:

My esteemed and loyal brothers,

First of all we celebrate your Blessed Three Months and the most precious holy nights therein. May God Almighty reward all your nights to the worth of a Raghaib or a Qadr.

We pray that your night of Bara’a, the forthcoming Ramadan, and the night of Qadr be more rewarding than a thousand months, and be recorded thereby in your “book of deeds.”

Likewise, we celebrate your night of Mi‘raj and we beg that your prayers on that night will be accepted by the divine Mercy-we hope the fact that it rained the day before and the day after this night in this region is a sign for the future manifestation of universal mercy.

My esteemed and loyal brothers,

We celebrate your blessed Ramadan with all our soul and existence. May God Almighty bless the night of Qadr for all of you with more rewards than a thousand months. And may He grant you a lifetime of eighty years, which will be most appreciated for each of you. 

Ramadan nights

Bediuzzaman’s life of worship was transformed into strict discipline during Ramadan. Bayram Yuksel, one of his most loyal students, reports that Bediuzzaman would not sleep on the blessed nights, and most particularly in the second half of Ramadan. He used to check on his students at night and spill water on their faces to keep them awake; he made sure they stood vigilant in prayer.(2) He constantly reminded them of the authenticated hadith that the night of Qadr was to be searched for in the second half of Ramadan, and especially in the last ten days.

Bediuzzaman engaged in supplications and remembrance, and read a part of the Qur’an every day. He paid his sadaqa al-fitr (charity of the fast-breaking) to his students and asked them to collect the same charity among themselves.

He indicated the lofty mission of his students in one of his letters on the occasion of the Three Holy Months:

In His name, glory be to Him,

There is nothing that does not glorify Him with praise.

My esteemed and loyal brothers,

This summer season is also a time of unawareness, a chaotic time of chasing after livelihood, (as well as) a most rewarding time of prayer in the Blessed Three Months, and also a time of diplomatic storms not caused by weapons; if this is not resisted by powerful fortitude and determination in the holy mission, a sort of laziness, a loss of zeal, a state of languor is likely to set in, to the disfavor of the Risale-i Nur service.

My dear brothers, know for certain that the mission that the Risale-i Nur and its students are engaged in is far greater than all the great issues that are on the surface of the Earth. Therefore, do not lose your zeal for your eternal duty by focusing on worldly issues that may arouse your curiosity. (3)

In another letter, Bediuzzaman speaks about the spiritual atmosphere of the Blessed Three Months:

When the weather is unfavorable, it has a bad influence; likewise when the spiritual atmosphere is corrupt, every individual is influenced to the degree of his or her capacity and skills. The blissful atmosphere of the Blessed Three Months and the month of Muharram (the first month in the Islamic calendar) is purified, beautified, and can resist horrendous misfortune and storms, with the considerable inclination, efforts, and illumination of all believers who are involved in the profitable pursuit of earning the Hereafter. Everyone benefits from these circumstances to his or her respective level. But, after the Blessed Three Months depart, the exhibition and market for the Hereafter trade changes, and the exhibition of the world starts. Most effort undergoes a transformation. The smoke of the debris poisoning the air spoils the spiritual atmosphere; everyone is poisoned to the degree of his or her level. (4) 

References

1. Sahiner, Necmettin, Son Sahitler (The Last Witnesses), Nesil Yayinlari, Istanbul: 2005.
2. Akar, Mehmet, Secdede Bir Omur (A Lifetime in Prayer), Sahdamar Yayinlari, Istanbul: 2005
3. Emirdag Lahikasi (Letters from Emirdag), Letter No: 21.
4. Kastamonu Lahikasi (Letters from Kastamonu), Letter No: 40. 

“The Sinning Forelock” reports the astounding story of Phineas Gage, who survived what should have been a fatal work accident, only receiving a serious wound to the frontal lobes of his brain. Although this accident took place in 1848, Gage remains a mysterious a record in the history of medicine. What is more interesting and what is related to the outlook of The Fountain is that a change-or deterioration, to be more precise-in the personality of Gage occurred after the accident; a man who had been an honest individual with an exemplary character, became irritable and rude. Such changes were clues to scientists that helped to determine what roles the different parts of the brain played.

The Journalists and Writers Foundation, Istanbul, added another link to its successful chain of international organizations. Having first started with domestic nationwide events in Turkey, the foundation has taken giant steps to become the organizers for conferences covering the entire globe. “From Terrorism to Global Ethic: Religions and Peace” was the title of the last meeting of Dialogue Eurasia Platform, which operates under the J&W Foundation. As the meeting was organized together with the Institute of Oriental Studies at Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, Moscow was chosen as the venue for an interfaith and dialogue meeting that took place June 7-8. Mehmet Yilmaz reports on this event for us.

We wish you all our readers a blissful and beneficial experience in the Blessed Three Months, which are just around the corner. 

A tooth is created with four main layers: enamel, dentine, pulp chamber and cementum (the thin layer where the tooth attaches to the jaw). The hardest tissue of the body, the enamel is the protective, outermost layer of the tooth. Since it does not contain any living matter such as veins or nerves, we are not affected by hot, cold, sweet or sour stimulants via the tooth. If the Owner of an Everlasting Might and Compassion had not created the enamel of the tooth, which He placed at the entrance of the digestion room in the human palace, as he did, the variety of food we would eat would be very limited. Even slight contact with air would cause us great discomfort, and speaking or even opening our mouth would give us great pain.

The dentine, the hard layer just below the enamel, is a tissue sensitive to hot, cold, sweet and sour stimulants. As a reflection of the Creator’s Affection for His Creation, the dentine tissue is repaired when necessary by the restoring cells that he placed there.

The most inner part of the tooth is the organic part called the pulp chamber, which is filled with veins to protect the tooth from decay and feed it with necessary nutrients. Nerve cells in the soft pulp tissue play the greatest role in sensing the stimulants of heat, cold and pressure.

If we examine the anatomical structure of a tooth in detail, only then can we clearly see how it is perfectly equipped with wondrous and intelligent structures. However, are we really conscious of the duties of our teeth, placed in our jaws like pearls, in protecting our general health?

One of the main entrances to our bodies for microbes is the mouth. Because of this, maintaining healthy teeth and a clean mouth is very important in preventing diseases and maintaining a healthy life. When the mouth is not kept hygienic, a suitable environment is formed for the emergence of even very feeble microbes. In an unhygienic mouth, food residue accumulates and forms a bacterial plaque on the teeth. Using the glucose in this plaque, these bacteria produce acids. It is this acid that causes tooth decay and gum diseases.

Are we adequately informed about dental health and hygiene, a very important concept in preventive medicine? That Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, emphasized the importance of cleaning the mouth and teeth whenever one does his/her ablution and after every meal, grants a profundity of worship to God by keeping our teeth healthy.

Importance of Milk Teeth

Milk teeth start to appear in a baby’s gums after about the sixth month of age. The appearance of milk teeth differs from baby to baby according to factors like genetics, birth weight, socio-economics and nourishment level. By cutting a group of teeth every six months, all of the milk teeth appear by the age of 30 months. Between the 6th and 12th months the first incisors, between the 12th and 18th months the first molars, between the 18th and 24th months the first canines and between the 24th and 30th months the second molars erupt. Since the dentine tissue is not fully developed in this period, milk teeth are not at all resistant to decay. Since the pulp chamber is very soft and packed with blood vessels, it is very vulnerable to decay. Sucking fingers, excessive use of a pacifier, sucking or biting lips and gritting teeth all negatively affect the development of milk teeth. During the eruption of milk teeth, babies may have discomfort like itching gums, a need to bite something, excessive saliva secretion, watery eyes, lack of appetite, loss of weight, fever, bad temper and crying. In order to relieve these discomforts, the baby may be given something to chew on to relieve the pressure on the gums, and some cold drinks and cold food to soothe the pain.

As nothing in creation occurs devoid of wisdom, one may ask “What benefits are there after the discomforts when a baby’s milk teeth are coming in?” In other words, why are the milk teeth so important? Most of us do not give them enough care, because we think of them as temporary. The space occupied by the milk teeth is saved for the permanent teeth, and when the permanent tooth starts erupting, the milk tooth guides it into its proper place. If milk teeth are extracted too early, this alignment and spacing function of milk teeth cannot be performed, hence the permanent teeth may erupt in an improper way. Moreover, milk teeth provide proper chewing and correct vocal speech for the baby. When a baby develops unhealthy milk teeth, this may cause problems like poor facial appearance, and therefore some psychological disorders in the future. Untreated defects of milk teeth can cause pain, bad breath, difficulty in chewing, disorders in jaw development, malnutrition, aesthetic and general health problems like rheumatism and heart diseases.

Protection of Milk Teeth

Since tooth decay in babies’ teeth is very difficult to treat, preventive measures are much more important in looking after the milk teeth. Some of these measures are as follows;

• A baby must not allowed to sleep with A milk bottle in her/his mouth,

• Sugar, honey or any other sugary substance must never be added to baby’s milk,

• Baby must be given water after every feeding,

• After baby’s first teeth erupt, after every morning and evening meal, his teeth must be wiped with a soft, wet, clean towel,

• Give a soft learning toothbrush to the baby to play with.

A child must start using a toothbrush after his molars erupt, at the age of 2.5 to 3 years old. The size of the toothbrush should be suitable to the child’s mouth. It should be soft and made of nylon. Children can only brush the front of their teeth. Since the space between the teeth should also be cleaned to provide a shield against decay, parents should supervise their children when brushing their teeth. At this age, a child cannot brush his/her teeth properly, but the main aim to be achieved is for him/her to get into the habit of brushing teeth. Toothpaste may start to be used for the child after the age of three. We must not forget that the important thing for oral hygiene is not the toothpaste itself, but brushing the teeth properly and thoroughly. If these measures are not taken, or if it is already too late, any disorder in the milk teeth must be treated immediately without making the mistake of thinking the milk teeth will be replaced anyway.

Permanent Teeth

The first permanent teeth are the first big molars, which erupt when the child is about six years old. Between ages 7 and 9, the lower and upper incisors, between ages 9 and 10, the lower canines, between 10 and 12, the first and second small molars, between 11 and 12, the upper canines, between 12 and 13, the second big molars, and finally, between 17 and 21, the wisdom teeth, the third molars erupt. During the eruption of permanent teeth, some problems like distorted development may occur. Genetic factors, early loss of milk teeth, breathing disorders, untreated cavities between milk teeth and a mismatch of jaw and tooth sizes, may cause irregular development of teeth. The dental treatment practiced for aligning such irregular teeth is called ‘orthodontic treatment.’ Since irregularities of teeth form spaces suitable for the accumulation of food residue which allows microorganisms to increase and then leads to decay, orthodontic treatment should be done before the permanent teeth are firmly positioned. Irregular teeth may cause jaw-aches because of abnormal interlacing of upper and lower teeth.

There are different thoughts about whether the wisdom teeth should be pulled out or not. Wisdom teeth are placed at the furthest back part of the jaw curvature. This part of the mouth is very suitable for food residue and microorganisms to accumulate. Because of this, wisdom teeth are very vulnerable to decay. In addition, any decay in these teeth may also affect the adjacent molars. If a positive result will not be achieved from treatment, these teeth can then be pulled out. However, if the wisdom teeth will erupt correctly into their places and do not negatively affect the surrounding tissues, and if there is sufficient space for them in the jaws, it is definitely beneficial for them to stay.

Another tooth problem that seems to concern today’s aesthetic conscious individuals is the color of teeth. However, tooth color is completely a personal phenomenon, like eye or skin color. But still, we must know that some external factors, like tea, coffee, smoking, feeding habits and tooth injuries, and some internal factors, like genetic attributes and aging, may also affect the color of the teeth.

What should we do to obtain Dental Health?

Mouth and tooth hygiene is an important issue that was emphasized strongly by Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, and the most effective method he used was brushing the teeth. However, after eating acidic foods or drinking acidic drinks like fruit juice, fruits, soft drinks or fizzy drinks, you should wait for about 30 minutes, because the dental enamel will be softer and more sensitive just after consuming such foods and drinks and if you brush straightaway, you may rub the acid into the enamel tissue of your teeth. You can clean the residues of acidic foods and drinks by rinsing your mouth with water or a fluoride based mouth rinse.

Having a healthy mouth and teeth mainly depends upon applying a good brushing technique to the teeth and gums. By applying the brush in a circular manner, you should always start brushing the gums towards the teeth, then the outer surfaces and finish with all inner surfaces. You must avoid damaging the masticator surfaces by applying too much force. Brushing the teeth twice a day at least is necessary to prevent the formation of bacterium plaque.

In order to achieve ideal hygiene for your teeth, you should also use dental floss for cleaning between the teeth. This will help to clean places where a brush cannot reach and thus prevent dental plaque. Also, special mouth rinses may be used in order to provide an effective general cleanliness.

Toothpicks can also be used between the teeth. While they are cheaper, they cannot provide a hygiene as comprehensive as dental floss, since they are thicker than floss. When using toothpicks, you should choose those with blunted tips to prevent any inflammation of the gums. Food residue that has stayed too long between the teeth should not be swallowed, since large amount of harmful microorganisms may grow on it.

In elderly people, due to a lack of sufficient calcium, disorders like gum retraction and wobbly teeth may occur. For people who have lost their teeth completely, because of osteolysis of the lower jaw, dental prostheses may not fit properly in the jaw. During this time of life, extra calcium intake should be provided by following a calcium-rich diet.

With age, the amount of calcium also decreases in the body. In relation to this situation, teeth also become more fragile. Using the teeth to break open nuts may cause cracks that cannot be seen with the eye, which may later cause fractures in the teeth. Therefore, we must never use our teeth to break hard foods, such as nuts, at any age, and we must be careful about breaking teeth, especially during old age.

Among all living beings, it is also man who needs the longest period of care and upbringing. Although most modern legal systems have set the age of discretion at 18 years, it may be said that, with rare exceptions, a person does not reach the age of discretion much before 30 years. Almost everyone, even a genius, needs to consult with others before taking important decisions. Besides, everyone is susceptible to making errors and therefore in need of correction. This is because man is a fallible social being compelled to live together with his fellow-men and co-operate with them. The first school where he receives education and learns social manners is his family.

Especially in infancy, man is in dire need of love and affection. For man to grow into a resolute, well-educated, well-mannered and loving, useful member of society, and a strong, sound, healthy individual, the warmth of a family environment is of the greatest importance. In this environment, the mother has a special place. It is the mother who nourishes the infant with her milk. Probably more than her milk, the love, care and affection of the mother for the baby have great significance for the development of sound human personality and character. 

A baby has the deepest need for its mothers direct care and close attention especially in the symbiotic penod. Even in the most professionally-run nurseries the baby cannot find a substitute for the affection, love and interest its mother can show it. Whereas the baby is embraced by a halo of care and love in the family and attracts the direct attention of its mother, in nurseries it has to share the care of a stranger, however professional or efficient a carer he or she may be, with at least ten or fifteen other infants. Whereas it is embraced, caressed, kissed and played with many times in the family, and is in the lap of love, in a public nursery it is abruptly deprived of almost all of these things in an alien environment.

The first twelve months of the relationship between mother and baby is called the symbiotic period during which the baby feels a deep attachment to its mother. Indeed, in the first six months or so, the baby cannot distinguish its mother as a being separate from itself. It begins to do so only after this period. During this first year of life, the love of the mother forms the foundation of the baby’s spiritual personality and develops in it the feeling of self-confidence. The mother’s love is also an important factor in the development of the baby’s intelligence and in enabling the baby to grow as a social being. Long or short term separation of the mother from the baby gives rise to depressive anxiety.

Dr R. Spitz, a modern psychiatrist, defined two syndromes in children who have grown up without sufficient maternal love. One of these syndromes, called anaclitic depression, arises from short-term separation of the baby from its mother after the first six months. This usually occurs when the baby is placed in a public nursery. The baby thus separated from its mother reacts initially with long, loud cries. If one approaches it when it stops crying, it begins to cry again. After this initial reaction it stops crying and an expression of exhaustion and sulkiness appears on its face. Dr. Spitz called this the period of protest: the baby begins to eat less and lose weight and its physical development ceases. Vomiting and diarrhae may accompany these symptoms.

The period of protest, usually two or three weeks, is followed by a period of depression when the baby is sulky and mournful. After two months, these emotional reactions become less frequent. The baby now becomes uninterested in its environment and in those who approach it. In short, it introverts.

The meaning of these phases of response is easily understood. The baby first of all reacts against separation from its mother with long, loud cries to call her back. After that, it grieves. Then, when it is no longer hopeful of reunion with its mother, it suffers depression and becomes introverted.

If the separation does not exceed three months, the baby can recover and restore to its former state. But if the separation continues beyond three months, the baby does not recover fully and develops a long-term separation depression.

This kind of depression arises in infants separated in very early life and brought up in public nurseries or hospitals for long periods. It is characterized by insufficient bodily, spiritual and intellectual development and growing up as a dissociable being.

A baby has the deepest need for its mother’s direct care and close attention especially in the symbiotic period. Even in the most professionally-run nurseries the baby cannot find a substitute for the affection, love and interest its mother can show it. Whereas the baby is embraced by a halo of care and love in the family and attracts the direct attention of its mother, in nurseries it has to share the care of a stranger, however professional or efficient a carer he or she may be, with at least ten or fifteen other infants. Whereas it is embraced, caressed, kissed and played with many times in the family, and is in the lap of love, in a public nursery it is abruptly deprived of almost all of these things in an alien environment.

Children separated from their families in the early years of their lives and left in public nurseries suffer difficulties in adapting to new environments and circumstances in later life, and give late responses to different stimulants. They develop tics and other involuntary movements such as swinging their legs while sitting, leaning against something, hitting the head against a wall, pulling their hair, playing with their ear- lobes, and shaking the head. Such behaviour in an infant left without its mother is in part an attempt to compensate for the loneliness and deprivation it feels. In addition, some sort of mental retardation may be observed in them. Studies have shown that, even in properly and sufficiently nourished children, rates of susceptibility to illness and death are higher. Compared to their equals in age, they are usually less in height and weight. Although thirsty for love, they respond with indifference or suspicion when they are shown love and nearness.

Some of the children deprived in this way grow up destitute of self-confidence; some become timid, reserved and passive, others become aggressive. They display signs of ill-breeding such as petty theft and truancy. Some of them are disposed to criminal behaviour and violence. They may also commit suicide or attempt it. Studies done on criminals and the mentally ill have shown that most of them spent their childhood separated from their families, deprived of love.

Character weakness and personality defects which arise as a result of long-term separation from the mother are, unfortunately, long-lasting. The younger a baby is when placed in a nursery and the longer it remains there, the more undesirable the effects are.

In sum: the love and care a mother shows her baby is so important for the growth, education and character of the child, that nothing can compensate for the lack of it. The symptoms observed in children growing up separated from their families also appear in adopted children. These children cannot adapt easily to the new family and can never have the same feeling towards their adoptive mothers as they have towards their own mothers. The state of children in divorced families or ‘broken homes’ is more pathetic still.