Nanotechnology is any kind of scientific application that deals with such small materials.  Nanotechnology has become a very important branch of development in the last 30-40 years. As advanced microscopes, such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) or atomic force microscopy (AFM), became more popular, nanometer scale visualizations become easily accessible in universities and laboratories. This has allowed laboratories to try modifications on different materials or biological samples. Nanotechnology is relevant for every branch of science; however, in this article we will talk about the application of it in materials science, which is the study and design of new materials.

Hydrophobic means water repelling, as the name implies. A super hydrophobic surface means a surface that does not hold any water. On the other hand, super hydrophilic means a surface that loves water, and therefore is completely absorbent (Figure 1).

A material that doesn’t get wet is desirable for many applications. These kinds of materials don’t hold any dirt or mud, and can be especially useful as military clothes or as water repellant glass for the front window of cars, etc. Even though today’s nanotechnology can make the surfaces of materials super hydrophobic, the materials can remain so only for a short period of time. These kinds of modifications either get torn off the surface or lose their hydrophobic properties due to friction, etc. Therefore, water repellant surfaces haven’t become commercially popular – yet.

There are many surfaces in nature that are super hydrophobic. Almost all of the hydrophobic nano-technological developments have been inspired by these natural surfaces. This is also called “bio-mimicking,” because nature is mimicked for scientific purposes. Examples of super hydrophobic surfaces in nature are butterfly wings, cicada wings, mosquito feet, duck feathers, and some plant leaves. There are many reasons for hydrophobicity to exist in nature. For instance, the super hydrophobicity of a butterfly’s wings allows it to fly while it is raining. The same quality allows ducks to stay dry while swimming or mosquitoes to walk on water. And the super hydrophobic nature of lotus leaves allows them to “self-clean.”

Every creature with super hydrophobic properties has different nano structures. Nano structures on animal surfaces not only allow for super hydrophobicity, they can also give the creature different properties. For example, the nano pattern on shark skin was discovered to be anti-biofilm forming. The mechanism of how this structure prevents bacteria from colonizing it is still a mystery. It is thought to have the exact surface tension for repelling bacteria. This pattern has been commercialized by Sharklet® and is sold to help make much hospital equipment bacterial resistant.  

Lotus leaves also have many interesting micro/nano structures. Lotus leaves are known to grow at the bottom of ponds, but emerge above the water surface as if untouched by the contamination of the dirty water that they grow in [3]. The water-repellant lotus leaf is often associated with extreme purity, as the surface restricts the growth of bacteria and pathogens [4]. When a water droplet touches the lotus leaf, it immediately rolls off the surface, dragging the dirt and dust accumulated on the leaf’s surface (Figure 2 and Figure 3). Thanks to this mechanism, the surface of the leaf is constantly clean and dry. This “self-cleaning” mechanism was discovered by advanced microscopes that allow scientists to observe the micro/nano structure of the leaf’s surfaces.

When a piece of lotus leaf was observed under a SEM microscope it was seen that these surfaces have physical hierarchical surface features. What this means is that the surfaces have micro scale roughness patterns, and on top of these roughness patterns they have even smaller nano scale roughness patterns (Figure 4). These roughness patterns allow for air pockets to form on top of the surface; therefore, water does not stick to these surfaces. When the roughness is only at the micro scale, the surface becomes hydrophobic; however, for super hydrophobicity to occur, a combination of micro and nano scale roughness is necessary (Figure 5).

Many labs are trying to mimic this hierarchical micro/nanostructure roughness pattern. Some of the modifications have been successful, such as coating polymer surfaces with inorganic particles like Nano-diameter silica particles. Another possible application is making physical modifications on the surfaces of polymers using sophisticated methods like photolithography. Various suggestions have been made by laboratories all around the world. However, super hydrophobic surfaces have not been commercialized yet because these applications are either too sophisticated and time consuming to apply, or the modifications made are not permanent – meaning they get peeled off over time.

The micro/nano scale topography of every creature in nature is different, giving each of them different properties. Some of these properties allow for super hydrophobicity, some allow for super hydrophilicity, and some nano scale patterns prevent bacteria from sticking to the creature’s surface. When these creatures were created, their surface topographies were tailored according to their needs. It’s remarkable they could be made so perfectly when we as humans have to put in an incredible amount of effort and research to mimic the roughness of a single leaf. As science allows us to understand how nature works, our amazement at the perfection of the universe becomes stronger.

References

1) ARC-FLASH® Thin Film Coating Techniques, 2004.

2) Barthlott, W. et.al. Raster-Elektronenmikroskopie der Epidermis-Oberflächen von Spermatophyten. Tropische und subtropische Pflanzenwelt, 1977. 19: p. 110.

[3] Li, X. M. et.al. What do we need for a hydrophobic surface? A review on the recent progress in the preparation of superhydrophobic surfaces. Chem. Soc.Rev., 2007. 36: p. 1350–68.

[4] Genzer, J. et.al. Recent developments in superhydrophobic surfaces and their relevance to marine fouling: a review. Biofouling, 2006. 22: p. 339–60.

5) Goodman, T. Inspired By The Lotus Leaf: Lotusan® Paint. Invertor SPOT.

Locusts and other similar creatures manage to jump thanks to the strong, fast movements of their rear legs. Unfortunately, since locusts have legs loosely connected to their main body, they do occasionally wobble or divert from their target. Issus coleoptratus, on the other hand, has a gear system in its rear leg joints that are inside the main body. This allows the insect to jump without diversion. In addition, the two rear legs move with the same angular velocity, also thanks to this gear system.

The machinery in Issus coleoptratus is perfectly designed for its task, showing the handiwork of a master craftsman. Every gear in the nymph form is 350-400 µm (microns) long and is made up of 10 to 12 teeth. Please note that a micron is one millionth of a meter. If a tooth is broken in one of the gears, it is repaired during the skin-shedding process. Front teeth are 80 µm long; yet the teeth are gradually shorter toward the rear, down to 30 µm. The teeth are extremely ossified. The fact that these teeth do not lose their dimensions due to friction and abrasion is really amazing. Moreover, the gears in the rear legs of the nymph form of this insect are asymmetric, while the gears we humans manufacture are symmetric. These gears are functional in the synchronous mechanical movement of the insect.

It has been determined through high-speed camera systems that the rear legs of Issus coleoptratus are fast and synchronous while the creature jumps. The speed of both rear legs while jumping is equal to a wheel during at 33,000 RPM (revolution per minute) – or 550 in a second. Please keep in mind that typical cars have a maximum of 8,000 RPM.

It has also been recorded that the gears are strongly engaged during the preparation and the pushing movement for a jump. In this impeccable functioning, gears have revolved through engaging approximately 50,000 times in a second. During this process, power is transmitted to the legs equally and without loss. The front legs start moving in two milliseconds and reach a speed of 3.9 m/s. The gears in the rear legs start moving even faster (within one millisecond) and jump with a speed of 5.5 m/s. 

At this speed, Issus coleoptratus can be exposed to a force of 500-700 G, compared to its body mass. The magnitude of this force becomes more comprehensible when one considers that the regular gravitational force is 1 G; pilots can withstand a force of 9 G; and airplanes can endure 11 G. And yet Issus coleoptratus can withstand up to 50 times more force than an airplane.

Reference

• Science, “Interacting gears synchronize propulsive leg movements in a jumping insect”, 13 September, 2013.

Today, there are many new fields of study, such as research on high energy and particle physics which led to the discovery of subatomic particles. Many researchers work to reveal the properties and behaviors of atomic and molecular level structures. Studies on nanotechnology, biotechnology, cybernetics, and bionics have led to advanced robot technologies; research on genetics and diverse medical fields are increasingly important.

Now, let us make some predictions on developments in these fields.

Information technologies

The advancements in this field not only support the developments in other sciences, but also lead them. In the future, following the launch of biologic and organic processors, leaps will occur in the processing speed of information and their re-use capacity. It is estimated that super-fast quantum computers will be manufactured within 20-25 years. High-end networks which provide large amounts of data transfer will increase the information flow. Information technologies will be effective in all fields of life as a result of fast, facilitated access to information and communication; wireless communications will be more common. All kinds of information will be comfortably and quickly accessed with a small device. Holographic TV, and three or four dimensional video imaging systems will be produced; movies will provide a realistic spatial sharing experience to the audience. Electronic devices operated with vocal commands and the mind will be manufactured; software capable of translating speeches into languages of interest will be more widespread.

Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is the science of attempting molecular designs at a scale of one billionth of a meter and making functional structures from these designs. With the manipulation of atoms and molecules, the production of Nanotubes that are absent in nature, along with nano-electrical circuits and sensors, is now possible; with the synthesis of Nanofibers, the production of multifunctional new materials is also possible.

These can make waterproof and stain-proof dyes that change color. Textiles, electronics, clothing, and merchandise can be manufactured from multifunctional materials featuring thermal, mechanic, acoustic, and opto-electronic properties; they will be utilized in all avenues of life. With the integration of multifunctional detectors and solar cells on fibers, electricity-generating solar clothes can be designed that regulate their own heat and provide humans with their daily energy demands.

High efficiency illumination systems and light sources that are able to convert almost 100% of the energy they absorb into light can be developed with the development of opto-electronic devices. The use of new technologies like solar energy, nuclear energy, and hydrogen fuel cells in vehicles and other operations requiring energy will be more widespread. Recyclable Borohydride as an important hydrogen source and acceptor which can be put to use as a very light and inexpensive fuel reserve.

The manufacture of high efficiency motors and machinery will be possible through a reduction of friction, but also with the invention of motors running on magnetic forces. Through these and other developments, a considerable amount of fuel will be saved and energy conservation will become a reality. Advanced smart robots capable of communication with humans and imitating human behaviors will fill in for the majority of daily tasks for humans; they will complete jobs in places too risky for human life.

Material transportation, teletransportation, interdimensional shortcuts and the bended space-time continuum are already among frequent themes of science fiction. Even some theologians consider the story of the Prophet Solomon and the Queen of Sheba and the instant transportation of her throne as a sign that these miracles can one day be realized.

Various breakthroughs in genetics may lead to cures for some illnesses. Once the functions of genetic code are illuminated completely, the way genes affect the developmental stages of an organism starting from the embryological phases will be apparent, and this will enable the necessary regulatory genetic interventions and genetic alterations during the development of an organism. Cloning may just be the beginning.

The yield in agriculture will increase as a result of biotechnological developments. It will be possible to grow disease-resistant vegetables and fruits big enough to feed many people. The range of acceptable climates for growing will also be expanded. Referring to the bounty and abundance that would be obtained, the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, is recorded to have spoken of pomegranates that are as big as to provide shade for one person, and that there would be giant wheat grains,” which may relate to increased harvests and abundance, and may also point to the enhancement of fruits and plants by gene modification in the future.

New combinations may be formed with modifications of the genetic code of organisms. Not only new viruses and bacteria can be made possible via genetic intervention, but genetically different plant and animal species can also be generated. It is also possible that while working on the enhancement of the human genetic makeup through genetic editing, strange creatures in the form of humans may be born. Certain people or organizations with ill intentions may try to propagate such organisms to benefit their interests. Among the essential principles in scientific studies is the belief that new developments should benefit humanity, conserve the true nature of organisms and species, and must be aimed to preserve species from extinction and genetic anomalies.

Currently, artificial organs can be used to replace vital organs, except the brain. With developments in gene transfer and stem cell therapy, it will be possible to develop and produce artificial organs and bionic limbs, thus eliminating the lengthy time patients endure waiting for organ donations. There are great expectations from stem cell therapy in terms of curing certain cancer types and damages to the neural system and heart.

Upon elucidation of brain function maps, certain basic brain tasks can be executed through devices – not to mention the probability of motivating humans with injections of certain materials, in addition to the transfer of limited knowledge by lodging microchips into the brain.

The advancements in nanotechnology and biotechnology may instigate certain people to be deluded with power. On the other hand, since humans cannot create anything out of absolute absence, they can also not destroy what has been created already. In fact, the works of humans constitute only the replication and application of natural patterns into technology after learning the effective laws and principles found in the existence. The technologies that scientists discover and develop in large laboratories established with extensive budgets in fact are exhibited already within the existing structures in the universe.

Science can only be a means for materialistic welfare and eternal happiness if developed and implemented wisely. Otherwise, science may as well cause humankind to doom itself with the accessed technology and developed weapons.

The fascinating aspect of these materials stems from the fact that when certain particles or devices are manufactured on the nanometer size region by means of special chemical and physical methods, they start showing distinct properties dependent on size, shape, and elemental compositions (such as huge amount of light absorption/emission, plasmonic resonance, high surface area, ability to convert light into heat, desirable magnetic properties, etc). Each of these features have found many applications in technology and they provide superior properties when compared to conventional materials. This article will not cover each technology based on nanomaterials but rather focus on the medical aspects and applications of nanotechnology and the direction it is heading.

Nano-medicine is a novel branch of nanotechnology seeking to deliver medically relevant drugs and imaging agents to the desired sites of the body. Biomedical imaging and drug delivery fields are benefitting from nanotechnology to a greater extent because not only do nanomaterials provide unprecedented results in diagnosis and therapies, considerable amounts of incentives in the form of governmental and private funding also drive topnotch institutions and scientists to study these materials around globe. For instance, iron oxide—when designed and manufactured on the nanometer order—can compete with, if not replace, most of the commercial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents due to some of its attributes, (i.e., being much more sensitive) requiring a less amount compared to other contrast agents, non-toxic to humans, and easy to manipulate in terms of its chemistry (1). Nanometer-sized spherical and rod-shaped Cadmium/Tellerium/Lead sulfides and selenides, also known as “Quantum Dots,” can absorb and emit light from ultra-violet (UV) to infrared region (IR) and this phenomenon could be utilized to construct biomedical sensors capable of detecting biologically relevant species (such as blood glucose, tumor markers, hormones, and etc.) with great accuracy and speed (2). Even by using multiple colors emitting “Quantum Dots,” one can, in principle, detect more than one biological entity simultaneously. Furthermore, their superior emissive properties could be harnessed to develop sensitive and selective fluorescence imaging techniques and assays which can lead to simple and early diagnosis of diseases. Gold nanorods, if irradiated with IR lasers, can generate extreme local temperatures in the surrounding medium owing to “plasmonic resonance of surface electrons,” and this feature could be directed to killing of localized tumor tissues known as “Photothermal Theraphy” (3).

Another class of nanomaterial called liposomes (4) can actually mimic lipid bilayer of the cell membrane which gives rise to a protective layer around organelles and nucleus, and maintains the transport of ions and molecules in and out of the cell. Synthetic liposomes, strikingly, can accommodate various cargoes extending from drugs to imaging agents in their inner cavity and render controlled release of its cargo as it circulates in the body, thereby providing longer bio-availability.

One of the most alluring uses of nanoparticle formulations in cancer therapy is their dimension. Certain sizes of nanoparticles can permeate into tumoral sites and be retained in that region longer than small particles or molecules. This extraordinary feature of nanoparticles, called “enhanced permeability and retention effect” (5), was utilized with liposomes to deliver chemotherapeutics to cancerous tissues effectively in a slow and controlled manner. In addition, chemical malleability of nanoparticles give rise to smart formulations which could respond to external stimuli in drug delivery applications. For example, the fact that cancer cells have lower pH values as compared to normal cells has been used to trigger release and delivery of drugs on site (6).

An alternative approach to conventional treatments is gene therapy in which the malfunctioning or mutant gene has been reintroduced into cells with a properly functioning one in order to restore the malady (7). Nanoparticles, especially polymeric counterparts, have shown promising results in encapsulating, carrying and delivering the gene of interest into desired cells.

Apart from synthetic nanoparticles, naturally occurring nanoparticles, have lately received great attention due to their unique structures and properties such as biocompatibility, uniform size, as well as suitability to chemical and genetic engineering. Plant and bacterial viruses, known as viral nanoparticles (8), have been tested for imaging and drug delivery applications, and because they infect only plants and bacteria, they are considered to be benign towards mammalians. Their inner and outer amino acids could be chemically modified with drugs and imaging modalities and cleverly engineered drug release mechanism could be invoked to operate upon external or internal stimulus.

Nanomaterials are, furthermore, suitable candidates for vaccine development. The immune system normally recognizes certain chemical groups on the surface of antigens (pathogens) and develops its defense mechanism based on this recognition. Multiple copies of these chemical groups could be chemically tailored around the surface of nanomaterial, and thereby could trigger the same immune response more efficiently (9).

The future of medicine will be shaped and enhanced through a targeted delivery of drugs and imaging contrasts into desired sites. Promisingly, nanoparticles will be able to assist in this regard to a considerable extent. Today’s cancer chemotherapy rely mostly on administering a variety of cancer drugs via intravenous (injecting through the vein) or oral means which delivers drugs to cancer cells as well as a considerable amount to healthy tissues which causes major side effects. In order to accumulate higher doses of drugs in tumor cells selectively and minimize nonspecific delivery, nanoparticles loaded with drugs and chemically decorated with “smart molecules” which have the ability to recognize cancer cells and specifically bind to them have been designed and tested successfully (10). These smart groups (organic molecules, antibodies, peptides and small molecules), surprisingly, have higher binding affinities toward some receptors over-expressed in cancer cells. Furthermore, encapsulation of drugs by nanomaterials provides a protective shell which prevents leakage of drugs to other sites.

An important drawback of cancer therapy is drug resistance in which cancer cells develop mechanisms to pump chemotherapeutics out of cells and decreases the efficacy of drugs. Nanoparticles, however, invalidate these resistance mechanisms by encapsulating drugs and should therefore not be exposed directly to surrounding cell environment. When nanoparticles reach the desired destination in the cell, an engineered mechanism or stimulus augment the release and drugs are expected to show their activity without any compromise (11).

It is fascinating to see how these small nanoparticles behave cleverly and orderly even though they look like inanimate and unconscious clusters of atoms. The extraordinary art, design and engineering witnessed in macro dimensions can also be seen in nano dimensions which means that a conscious and purposeful Hand of Power is present and visible in this nanoworld.

To sum up, nanomaterials could be ideal platforms for drug delivery and imaging applications and could complement the deficiencies in conventional therapies. Loading multiple copies of these entities into nanoparticles and devising clever mechanisms to target and deliver them into desired sites would be key elements in the nanomedicine of the future. We are living in a world where each of us has someone in our families or among our friends who are going through painful cancer treatments, which is a heart-rending and traumatic experience. Hopefully, nanomaterial-based therapies would give rise to solutions and success in battling against cancer. For in one prophetic tradition the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, says: “O servants of God! Search for ways for treatment of illnesses. If God gives you ailments, for sure He bestows upon you cures for those.”

And why can’t this bestowal be in the nano form?

References

• Qiao RR, Yang CH, Gao MY. “Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles: from preparations to in vivo MRI applications” (vol 19, pg 6274, 2009). J Mater Chem 2009;19:9286-9286.
• Raymo FM, Yildiz I. “Luminescent chemosensors based on semiconductor quantum dots.” Phys Chem Chem Phys 2007;9:2036-2043.
• Giljohann DA, Seferos DS, Daniel WL, Massich MD, Patel PC, Mirkin CA. “Gold Nanoparticles for Biology and Medicine.” Angew Chem Int Edit 2010;49:3280-3294.
• Jesorka A, Orwar O. “Liposomes: Technologies and Analytical Applications.” Annu Rev Anal Chem 2008;1:801-832.
• Sancey L, Barbier E, Hirsjarvi S et al. “Enhanced Permeability and Retention (EPR) effect in tumors: characterization by MRI and fluorescence imaging.” B Cancer 2011;98:S67-S67.
• Hruby M, Konak C, Ulbrich K. “Polymeric micellar pH-sensitive drug delivery system for doxorubicin.” J Control Release 2005;103:137-148.
• Waehler R, Russell SJ, Curiel DT. “Engineering targeted viral vectors for gene therapy.” Nat Rev Genet 2007;8:573-587.
• Yildiz I, Shukla S, Steinmetz NF. “Applications of viral nanoparticles in medicine.” Curr Opin Biotech 2011;22:901-908.
• Peek LJ, Middaugh CR, Berkland C. “Nanotechnology in vaccine delivery.” Adv Drug Deliver Rev 2008;60:915-928.
• Ruoslahti E, Bhatia SN, Sailor MJ. “Targeting of drugs and nanoparticles to tumors.” J Cell Biol 2010;188:759-768.
• Liang XJ, Chen C, Zhao Y, Wang PC. “Circumventing tumor resistance to chemotherapy by nanotechnology.” Methods Mol Biol 2010;596:467-88.

Nanoscience and nanotechnology started off in the early 1980s when scientists were able to detect materials on the nano-level through microscopic systems. This development enabled the synthesis of nano-level materials such as carbon nanotubes, nano crystals, and metal oxide nanoparticles. Nanotechnology is a type of technology, resulting from the research conducted on the atomic, molecular and macromolecular levels. A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter. Nano-level studies are conducted with materials whose sizes range between one to a hundred nanometers. Studies on the nano-level are conducted in the contemporary science fields such as chemistry, materials science, physics, biology, etc. One of the most compelling reasons that renders the research with nano-level materials so significant is that nanoparticles reflect a lot more different characteristics than when they do at the macro-level. Due to their small sizes, nanoparticles, especially those under 20 nm, have magnificent optical, magnetic, and chemical properties.[1] Nanoparticles include much more energy than the macro-level materials; this is because the ratio of the surface area of nanoparticles to their volume is much more bigger than the ratio in macro-level materials. A significant amount of energy is stored in nanoparticles as free surface energy. This energy revealed on the nano-level not only increases the reactivity of iron nanoparticles (the propensity to chemical reactivity), but also renders the magnetic qualities of materials quite differently than they would be at the macro-level.

Many types of nanoparticles are widely used in our daily lives. Iron, gold, silver and cadmium sulphide nanoparticles are some of the most commonly investigated nanoparticles. Yet iron nanoparticles receive special attention from scientists essentially in the field of biotechnology. Iron nanoparticles demonstrating different magnetic features have a wide range of use in fields, including but not limited to health care and electric/electronic industry. Owing to its magnetic feature, iron is also used in magnetic recording. The production of needle-shaped iron nanoparticles with high magnetic features has facilitated the manufacturing of mobile electronic devices with a high recording capacity. In this paper, we will focus on the use of iron nanoparticles’ contribution to the advances in the field of biotechnology, among numerous other contributions of iron nanoparticles in other fields.

Nanobiotechnology

Nanobiotechnology, among other fields of nanotechnology, is the field that focuses on biological systems. Nano-level devices designed to work with biosystems, nano-level cell biology, cell and nanoparticle interactions are some of the applications used in nanobiotechnology. Through those applications, biochemical processes and reactions in living beings can be scrutinized in great detail, which, in turn, enables scholars to come up with innovations in both diagnosis and treatment of various illnesses.

The following are the primary application areas of magnetic nanoparticles in the field of bionanotechnology: development of magnetic resonance imaging systems, and cancer research. Especially, iron oxides (magnetite, Fe3O4, maghemite, Fe2O3), owing to their cohesion with the chemical structure of biological systems, are prevalently used in biotechnology.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

MRI, mostly used in the medical field, is the method to monitor the internal structure of living mechanisms. Through the magnetic area and radio frequency waves, the image of a living tissue is formed. MRI is a complex system that produces images based on the intensity and movements of hydrogen atoms in the tissue. The MRI technique is used to diagnose almost all sorts of illnesses today. Yet it is most frequently used with illnesses pertaining to the central nervous system, brain and spinal cord. It has also been used to diagnose muscle-related and skeleton-related medical conditions, such as meniscus and herniated disc symptoms, as well as all types of neurological illnesses. MRI has not been found detrimental to any living organism thus far.

It is the paramagnetic ions such as gadolinium that are most frequently used as contrast enhancement agents in MRI applications. Although gadolinium has a high moment, this moment is too low compared to superparamagnetic materials. For this reason, superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles are known to be more efficient MRI contrast enhancement agents. Known as such, those iron oxide nanoparticles are quite advantageous over gadolinium. Those nanoparticles can easily be functionalized to interact with biological samples. For example, superparamagnetic nanoparticles, which are not normally taken up by cells efficiently, can do so after being covered with another material (e.g. Dextran) that can ordinarily go into a cell. Thus, MR images of particular tissues could be obtained clearly, which enables us to make more accurate diagnoses and treatments.

Iron oxide nanoparticles are also deemed to be an efficient potential future method in cancer treatment. The results of several studies conducted to fulfill this goal are encouraging.

Iron oxide superparamagnetic nanoparticles are being tested as a method in hyperthermia treatment. Hyperthermia is defined as an abnormally high body temperature, and its treatment is carried out through the removal of certain tissues by increasing its temperature up to (42–46) 0C for 30 minutes. For instance, cancer infected liver tissues are exterminated through the hyperthermia method, which sends biologically activated iron oxide nanoparticles to those infected tissues. Moreover, none of the healthy tissues are damaged during this process. You may find more detailed information in references [1, 2, 4, 6] on how nanoparticles are aptly sent to the cancer infected tissues only while the surrounding healthy tissues remain unaffected by them. Hundreds of researchers carry out experiments and publish their findings on this topic everyday. Yet, further research needs to be done in order to reach solid conclusions.

Iron, which seems to carry greater potential significance than we previously thought, should receive much attention from scholars due to the fact that a chapter (surah) in the Holy Qur’an is entitled “Iron” (Hadeed). The question is, why was a 29-line chapter in the Qur’an is called (Iron) when the word “iron” was only mentioned once throughout the entire chapter.

The chapter “Iron” first begins by drawing the reader’s attention to the attributes and praised names of God. It invites people to believe in God and his messenger Muhammad (peace be upon him) by exalting God as the Almighty, Sovereign, Ruler, One whose existence is without a beginning and an end, Manifest and Hidden. Then, the chapter goes on to encourage believers to donate their wealth for the sake of God, for those who follow the word of God are rewarded with a place in Heaven. It also advises believers never to lose their ardor, while reminding them that even the earth will be resurrected after all has perished. And the wisdom behind the creation of iron is explained as such:

Assuredly We have sent Our Messengers with manifest truths (and clear proofs of their being Messengers), and We have sent down with them the Book and the Balance so that (relations among) humankind may live by equity. And We have sent down iron in [the essence] which is stern might and benefits for humankind, so that God may mark out those who help (the cause of) God and His Messengers, though they do not see Him. Surely God is All-Strong, All-Glorious with irresistible might. (57:25)

This particular verse includes several remarkable points. First, the very use of the phrase “sending down” for iron is so striking that it was also mentioned in [3, 5]. Another perplexing statement is, We sent down iron in [the essence] which is stern might and benefits for humankind, which might pave the way for thought-provoking venues regarding nanotechnology. The verse also indicates that which makes iron so special, its indiscernible or hidden qualities, rather than the outer surface of it. The specific reference to the “essence” of iron hints at this point. If the message of the verse had been related to the external qualities of iron, then the choice of the words would differ accordingly. Since the Qur’an is the word of God, there is wisdom behind the selection and sequencing of each word and letter. From this point of view, we can interpret that this verse informs us about the significance of the essence of iron on the nano level.

The significance of iron as stated in a single verse of the Qur’an has been briefly discussed. Numerous studies on the use of iron in nanotechnology seem to be on the horizon, which will only contribute to our admiration for the miracle of the Qur’an.

Kamil Ezgin is pursuing a PhD degree in chemistry in USA. For correspondence with the author kamilezgin@gmail.com.

References

1. Dale L. Huber. Synthesis, Properties, and Applications of Iron Nanoparticles, small, 2005, 1, No. 5, 482-501.
2. An-Hui Lu, E.L. Salabas, and Ferdi Schuth, Magnetic Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Protection, Functionalization, and Application, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 1222-1244.
3. Edib Masûkî. “Enteresan Bir Tespit: Demirin Sakladiði Sir,” Sizinti, 1985, No. 73.
4. Peter Majewski and Benjamin Thierry. “Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticles- Synthesis, Properties, and Bio-Applications,” Critical Reviews in Solid State and Materials Sciences, 2007, 32, 203-215.
5. http://www.mergeous.com/bullet.asp?tag=72
6. Volker Mailander and Katharina Landfester, “Interaction of Nanoparticles with Cells,” Biomacromolecules 2009, 10, 2379–2400.

Scientists were working on ways of obtaining complex micro or nano (a billionth of a meter) structures by using simple inorganic substances like silicon. Producing a micro-scale device such as a transistor required difficult and expensive processes such as cutting a silicon layer neatly. A species of sponge (tethya aurantia) has proved to be a model for a possible solution.

Like every other creature, sea sponges are given the ability to use chemical substances in the exact proportions they need to carry out their vital functions like an expert chemist. A sea sponge obtains siliceous acid from the water around it a few hundred meters under the sea. By a mechanism where chemical energy is used at high efficiency and silicatein enzyme functions as a catalyzer, this acid is transformed into silicon dioxide or silica, and perfect three-dimensional structures are built from it.

The most noteworthy aspect of this process is that there is no need for the poisonous chemicals or high temperatures scientists use to obtain complex inorganic structures. Sea sponges are granted the ability to build these complex structures far more effectively than the engineers who try to produce semi-conductive materials. When the outer tissue of a sponge is removed, the 2mm-long skeletal structure, which is thinner than human hair and which takes the form of glass needles, becomes visible.

Sponges fall into three categories with respect to the abundance of their cavities and the intricacy of the channels between them. Those with the maximum proportion of cavities and channels are the most desired ones. We can better understand how wonderful are the nano-scale structures within sponges by observing the relation between a sponge and water. When we dip a hand-size sponge in water and take it out, we see that it holds water equivalent to thousands of times more than its own weight. This is caused by the countless nano-cavities invisible to the naked eye within the body of the sponge. In these minute capillary distances, the adhesion and surface tension forces are given a dominant role between water and the substance of the sponge by the divine will. Sponges, which are classified as simple structured animals by some biologists, are granted some specialties to inspire us in making high technology products such as computer microchips and solar cells.

Daniel Morse and two of his colleagues from the University of California are working on some semi-conductive materials with amazing electronic features like turning daylight into electricity. The most important application field of this new technique will be more efficient photovoltaic solar cells. Presently, solar cells are produced under high temperatures and low pressure, which requires too much energy. However, the method taught to sea sponges is highly efficient and does not require high energy. Scientists have managed to produce simpler and cheaper solar cells by imitating sea sponges and using zinc oxide instead of silicon. This way the billion-dollar facilities where the semi conductive materials are produced can possibly be replaced by smaller units of production. The world of living beings has always opened doors to new horizons. Things we take for granted and to which we do not give much thought are waiting to be reflected upon and seen through the eye of wisdom.

References

• Paul Marks, Sea sponge leads way to cheaper solar cells, New Scientist, 24 March 2007, p. 32.

In the 21st century, we are plunging forward into a new era of technological power — one that offers enormous promise and danger.

What is nanotechnology?

In its most basic form, nanotechnology refers to the manipulation of materials at the atomic or molecular level. The name derives from the nanometer, a scientific measurement unit representing a billionth of a meter, three to four atoms wide. Scientists are learning how to connect atoms and molecules together to create nano-scale mechanisms that create switches or transistors, or even small machines that can perform complex tasks.

To use an oft-quoted comparison, a human hair is between 100,000 and 200,000 nanometers thick, while a typical virus can be just 100 nanometers wide. Atoms are typically between one-tenth and one-half of a nanometer wide. Due to the difficulties involved in working at this scale, manipulation of items as “large” as 100 nanometers is generally included in the concept of nanotechnology.

Nanotechnology enables scientists to create new materials atom by atom. With increasingly more powerful microscopes, scientists can see molecules that are mere nanometers (billionths of a meter) in size. To clarify this size, a pinhead is one million nanometers across. The field intertwines nearly all fields of science.

Most nanotechnology discussions deal with the futuristic concept of nanomachines or nanorobots: microscopic devices that carry out tasks at the atomic or subatomic level. Nanotechnology, also called molecular manufacturing, is “a branch of engineering that deals with the design and manufacture of extremely small electronic circuits and mechanical devices built at the molecular level of matter.” The goal of nanotechnology is to manipulate materials at the atomic level to build the smallest possible electromechanical devices, given the physical limitations of matter. Many of the mechanical systems that we know how to build will be transferred to the molecular level as some atomic analogy.

A typical vision of the twenty-first century: “Nanotechnologists will be building our cars one molecule at a time, invading our bloodstream to declog our arteries, and replicating themselves thousands of times over.”

Nanorobots (1)

A nanorobot is a computer-controlled robotic device constructed of nanometer-scale components to molecular precision, usually microscopic in size (often abbreviated as nanobot). This reminds one of the 1966 film Fantastic Voyage, in which a team of scientists (including Raquel Welch) are miniaturized, placed in a tiny submarine, and injected into a sick man’s bloodstream. Nanotechnology invariably involves work on a much smaller scale than the average blood cell.

Producing commercially viable nanomachines will be more challenging, since atomic manipulation, while not theoretically contrary to the laws of physics, is still extremely slow and costly. The most widely discussed long-term solution is to make the nanomachines self-replicating. Control mechanisms for such systems, mainly how a machine “knows” to copy itself and when to stop doing so, are still in their very early stages. Once again, theory is far ahead of practical reality.

Many of nanotechnology’s more recent practical applications have been in the area of material research. However, scientists believe that transistors eventually could be built in this way, paving the way for computational technologies that do not depend on silicon and that can pack even more circuitry into microscopic spaces.

Nanoshells (2)

Nanoshells, defined as tiny particles that can manipulate light, can be used to transform medical procedures, ranging from cancer therapy to medical testing and drug delivery. They are ideal for biotechnology applications because they are biocompatible, can be altered and modified, and absorb light easily in the near-infrared region, where human tissue is most transparent.

Nanoshells can be tagged and delivered specifically to tumor cells, thereby leaving healthy cells undamaged. In addition, they can reduce the amount of time needed to conduct medical tests from several days to a matter of seconds. When incorporated into temperature-sensitive polymers, nanoshells can be triggered to release a chemical using infrared light, thus enabling a patient to control the release of medicine that requires periodic dispensing.

A new bandage (3)

A new bandage that imitates natural healing process is used for injuries ranging from minor cuts to gunshot wounds. The bandage, a flannel-like material, stops bleeding immediately and eventually is absorbed by the body. This new material is developed by spinning a compound naturally found in the blood into a bandage that can minimize blood loss and be absorbed by the body, according to an article in the 12 Feb. 2003 issue of Nano Letters, a journal of the American Chemical Society. “We’ve taken an old technique — electrospinning — and applied it to natural fibers,” says Gary Bowlin, associate professor of biomedical engineering at Virginia Commonwealth University.

When a person bleeds from a cut or a wound, a blood clot forms and netting made of a substance called fibrin develops over the clot. According to researchers, fibrinogen, the compound in blood that comprises the “natural” bandage, is a fibrin precursor that can come from human, bovine, or genetically engineered bacterial sources. The goal is to pack the bandage like gauze so that it can be used to treat trauma patients, according to Bowlin.

Science fiction into reality (4)

Imagine a world in which cars can be assembled molecule-by-molecule, garbage can be disassembled and turned into beef steaks, and people can be operated on and healed by cell-sized robots. Sounds like science fiction? Well, with current semiconductor chip manufacturing encroaching upon the nanometer scale and the ability to move individual atoms at the IBM Almaden laboratory, we are fast approaching the technological ability to fabricate productive machines and devices that can manipulate objects at the atomic level. With this ability, we will be able to develop molecular-sized computers and robots that will give us unprecedented control over matter and the ability to shape the physical world as we see fit.

Nanofabrication techniques with applications in fiber optics, biotechnology, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), and “tiny mechanical devices such as sensors, valves, gears, mirrors, and actuators embedded in semiconductor chips,” are of particular interest, as they are but a mere step away from the molecular machines envisioned by nanotechnology. MEMS are used in automobile airbag systems as accelerometers to detect collisions, and will become an increasing part of our everyday technology. In 1986, K. Eric Drexler, a researcher at MIT, foresaw the advent of molecular machines. In his Engines of Creation, he outlined the possibilities and consequences of this emerging field, which he called nanotechnology. Drexler has written numerous books on the subject, such as Unbounding the Future, and has founded the Foresight Institute, a nonprofit organization dedicated to the responsible development of nanotechnology. Today, nanotechnology research and development is widespread in numerous universities. The U.S. government has created an organization, the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI), to monitor and guide research and development in this field.

Potential benefits

It does not take much of a leap of imagination disassemblers dismantling garbage to be recycled at the molecular level, and then giving it to assemblers who will use it to build atomically perfect engines. Stretching this vision a bit, you can imagine a Star Trek type replicator that could reassemble matter in the form of a juicy steak, given the correct blueprints and organization of these nanomachines.

A laboratory-scale “in vivo nanoscope” could be capable of providing atomic resolution, real-time movies of happenings inside living cells in intact living animals. This nanoscope, a hybrid of conventional technology and early (pre-assembler) nanotechnology, is an enormous leap in the ability of biologists to understand the workings of cells and develop medical therapies.

Some of the more prominent benefits of nanotechnology would be precision manufacturing, material reuse, and miniaturization. Medical applications are pharmaceutical creation, disease treatment, and nanomachine-assisted surgery. Environmental applications lie in toxin cleanup, recycling, and resource consumption reduction.

Nanomedicine deals with the comprehensive monitoring, control, construction, repair, defense, and improvement of all human biological systems by working at the molecular level with engineered nanodevices and nanostructures; the science and technology of diagnosing, treating, and preventing disease and traumatic injury, as well as relieving pain and preserving and improving human health through the use of molecular tools and molecular knowledge of the human body; and the use of molecular machine systems to address medical problems and using molecular knowledge to maintain and improve human health at the molecular scale. Cosmetic nanosurgery carried out with simple nanomachines (no on-board computers, for example) could change hair color, cause hair to grow or not to grow in specific locations, keep teeth clean and skin smooth, and so on, all far more effectively than current treatments.

Looking somewhat further in the future at more radical modifications of the human body through nanotechnology, Edward Reifman describes dentistry with assembly-fabricated teeth, and even with the teeth and jaws being made of diamonds. “In the long term, we hope to be able to build small nanorobots which can search out and destroy cancerous tumors when they comprise just one or two cells” or “small drilling machines which dissolve clots.”

Viruses, which are natural nanomachines, could be fought more effectively, as the body’s own immune system has some handicaps: it tends to forget the shape of its enemies, cannot always successfully identify malignant cells, and suffers from a certain delay until the immune reaction is fully developed. Therefore, nanomachines could support the immune system. Nanomachines could rout bacteria, excise tumors, reconstruct damaged tissue, and even make a huge contribution to treating the process of aging.

Along with the obvious manufacturing benefits, there are many potential medical and environmental benefits. With nanomachines, we could better design and synthesize pharmaceuticals, directly treat such diseased cells as cancer, better monitor a patient’s life signs, and make microscopic repairs in hard-to-operate-on bodily areas. With regard to the environment, we could use nanomachines to clean up toxins or oil spills, recycle garbage, and eliminate landfills, thus reducing our natural resource consumption.

Potential dangers

The downside to these benefits is the possibility of using assemblers and disassemblers to create weapons, to be used as weapons themselves, or the possibility that they may run wild and wreak havoc. Other less invasive but equally perilous uses would be in electronic surveillance.

However, with nanotechnology, armies could develop disassemblers to attack physical structures or biological organisms at the molecular level. A similar hazard would be if general-purpose disassemblers escaped into the environment and started disassembling every molecule they encountered, the so-called “gray goo scenario.” Furthermore, if nanomachines were created to be self-replicating and, for some reason, had a problem with their limiting mechanism, they would multiply endlessly, like viruses.

Even without considering such extreme disaster scenarios, we can find plenty of potentially harmful uses for nanotechnology, such as the erosion of our freedom and privacy. For example, people could use molecular-sized microphones, cameras, and homing beacons to monitor and track others.

Ethical issues and analysis

Given the awesome potential dangers inherent in nanotechnology, we must analyze its potential consequences. Nanotechnology may never become as powerful and prolific as envisioned by its evangelists, but as with any potential near-horizon technology, we should formulate solutions to potential ethical issues before the technology is irreversibly adopted. We must examine the ethics of developing nanotechnology and create policies designed to assist its development while eliminating, or at least minimizing, its damaging effects.

Nanosensors(5)

A nanosensor is defined as a chemical or physical sensor constructed by using nanoscale components, usually microscopic or submicroscopic in size.

Nanotechnology brings science fiction into everyday life6 Nanotechnology’s more immediate future lies in its application in such sensors as electronic “noses” that can detect, for example, the presence of individual protein molecules in a blood sample. This involves a fingernail-sized chip with thousands of sensors, each set to detect a specific substance. It might even be possible to make these noses so small that they could fit on a needle. Then, there would be no need for a blood test, for a finger prick would be sufficient to allow a full blood analysis.

Nanosensors also will be of great value in producing new medicines, for they can effectively find active substances. So far, it has been possible to build this type of sensor one by one; the difficulty lies in integrating perhaps 100,000 of them on one chip.

Aging can be delayed by repairing human cells one by one. Unlimited computer power can be obtained by improved microchip performance. Global warming can be reduced by cleaning greenhouse gases out of the atmosphere with nanoparticles, and pesticides could kill insects without harmful byproducts. Creating artificial muscles and sensors, as well as nanocoating for metal, could increase power plant efficiency and potentially save millions of dollars a year for electricity generators. For example, we now have self-washing windows that repel dirt, thanks to their nanostructured surface.

Nanofluids (7)

On the medical front, researchers at Virginia Polytechnic Institute are developing magnetic nanofluids. They posit that magnetic particles attached to medicines, like those used in chemotherapy, can be concentrated on one part of the body by using external magnets on patients. 

Always clean clothing (8,9)

Imagine textiles that cannot be stained or wrinkled, that always maintain the look and feel of fabrics made from natural fibers. Imagine materials that are 100 times stronger than steel, but weigh only one-sixth as much. Nanofibers could be used in astronauts’ suits, moving with them as they work to give them greater flexibility in space, or to allow the disabled greater mobility by acting as extra muscles.

Imagine batteries that take up less than one cubic millimeter, but supply a medical implant with power. Imagine sensors, smaller than a pinpoint, that detect anything in extremely low concentrations, from specific antibodies to toxic chemicals.

A big splash of coffee leaves an unmistakable stain on an ordinary pair of trousers; on a pair of nanotextile trousers, it can be brushed off without leaving a trace. A titanium frying pan and the laser in a fairly modern CD player are both based on nanotechnology. By using nanotechnology, wall paint could automatically sterilize an operating theatre, filters could be used in water purifiers to automatically kill undesirable bacteria, and roofing tiles that convert solar light into household electricity could give way to reinforced self-repairing houses immune to all natural disasters “short of a large incoming meteor.(10)

Hence nano-technology is and will continue to become part of our everyday lives … sometimes without us even noticing.

Michael Crichton (11)

Crichton says “These organisms [self-reproducing tiny computers] will be created by nanotechnology, perhaps the most radical technology in human history: the quest to build man-made machines of extremely small size, on the order of 100 nanometers, or 100/billionths of a meter. Such machines would be 1,000 times smaller than the diameter of a human hair. Experts predict that these tiny machines will provide everything from miniaturized computer components to new medical treatments to new military weapons. In the 21st century, they will change our world totally.

“The potential benefits are spectacular: Tiny robots may crawl through your arteries, cutting away atherosclerotic plaque; powerful drugs will be delivered to individual cancer cells, leaving other cells undamaged; teeth will be self-repairing. Cosmetically, you will change your hair color with an injection of nanomachines that circulate through the body, moving melanocytes in hair follicles. Other nanomachines will lighten or darken skin color at will, removing blemishes, birthmarks and liver spots in the process; still others could cleanse the mouth and eliminate bad breath. Nonsurgical nanoprocesses could even perform liposuction and body reshaping. They will also repair knees and spines.

Living spaces will be transformed with self-cleaning dishes and carpets and permanently clean bathrooms. Windows will lighten or darken at will; programmable paint will change color. You can walk through the walls of your house, since they are composed of particle clouds. Your personal computer and your watch will be painted on your arm. Temperature-sensitive clothing will loosen when it gets hot, insulate when it gets cold.”

In the future, roving nanomachines will convert trash dumps to energy, solar nanomachines will be coated on the houses to generate electricity, and flexible nanomachines will provide earthquake protection. It may even be possible to move a house across the lawn on the backs of millions of nanomachines.

In 2003, nanotechnology is still very much in its infancy. However, such major corporations as IBM, Fujitsu, and Intel are funding this research. U.S. government investment has gone from virtually nothing only a few years ago to well over $600,000,000 per year in 2003.

At present, nonotechniques are being used to make sunscreens, stain-resistant fabrics, and composite materials for cars; soon, they will be used to make extremely small computers and storage devices. Pittsburgh based PPG Industries, Inc. is making self-cleaning window glass; the Westaim Corporation of Toronto is making nanocrystal wound dressings with antibiotic and anti-inflammatory properties. Currently, nanotechnology is principally a material technology.

Most experts predict that self-reproducing machines are only a decade away. Man-made, self-reproducing entities already have been released into the environment. The first of these, of course, were computer viruses. The first viruses were created as a game (“core wars”), a 1960s battle between mainframe programmers, each releasing a program into the other’s mainframe computer. Originally limited to specialists, hackers soon joined in. The growth of computer networking made rapid worldwide transmission possible. Computer viruses, worms on the Internet, have become an international threat to information and global business.

Scientists are witnessing some of the problems of self-replicating biotechnology agents. For example, a recent report indicates that modified maize genes are appearing in native maize in Mexico, despite laws against it and efforts to prevent it. This is only the start of probably a long journey to control this new technology. Laws have been passed to put hackers in jail; delinquent biotechnologists will soon join them. We need international controls to deal with self-reproducing technologies right now, whereas now there are essentially none.

Footnotes

(1) www.zdnet.com.au/newstech/enterprise/story/0,2000048640,20267134-2,00.htm

(2)www.rice.edu/projects/reno/Newsrel/2001/20010402_nanotechnology.shtml.

(3) www.smalltimes.com/document_display.cfm?document_id=5481.

(4) http://cseserv.engr.scu.edu/StudentWebPages/AChen/ResearchPaper.htm.

(5) www.nansosensors.com.

(6) Nino Simic, “Nano into Everyday Life.” www.oresundit.com/composite(1610).htm.

(7) Ryan Randazzo, Reno Gazette-Journal, 15 June 2002.

(8) www.agg.com/Practice/Nanotechnology_main.html.

(9) www.oresundit.com/composite(1610).htm.

(10) www.foresight.org.

(11) Michael Crichton, “Could Tiny Machines Rule the World?” Parade Magazine, 24 November 2002, pgs. 6-8.

Some nanotechnology links:

• www.about.com/nanotechnology (A search engine that compiles various sources and articles).
• www.jmtour.com (Professor Jim Tour’s research home page).
• www-ece.rice.edu/~halas (Professor Naomi Halas’ research home page).
• www.nano.gov (The National Science and Technology Council’s site for nanoscale technology, including information on federal initiatives).