The human body is built from the elements found on earth. There are approximately 44 kg of oxygen, 14 kg of carbon, 7 kg of hydrogen, 2.1 kg of nitrogen, 1 kg of calcium, and lesser amount of other elements existing in a 70 kg human body. In fact, many of the 92 naturally occurring elements can be found in the human body, which resembles a small universe. Surely, these elements cannot act chaotically and only fulfill their duties in the organs that are assigned to them in the great mechanism of the human body.

Oxygen is one of these natural elements; under normal natural conditions, it exists in gas and molecular form (O2 and O3). It is abundant throughout the world: nearly 65% of the human body, 88% of the waters on earth, and 46.7% of the earth’s crust are made from oxygen atoms (in terms of their mass). Since it is an active element, which makes compounds with many other elements, it is found generally in compound form.

When we say oxygen, the first thing that comes to mind is the oxygen we breathe in the air. The volumetric ratio of atmospheric gases are 78% nitrogen (N2), 20.9% oxygen (O2), 0.93% argon (Ar), 0.04% carbon dioxide (CO2), and lesser amounts of water vapor and other gases.

Oxygen is the most vital requirement for organisms that carry out aerobic respiration. To sustain life, nutrients must be converted into energy in our cells. Therefore, oxygen obtained via respiration must be carried to the cells. The amount of oxygen intake and tolerance time without oxygen varies among living things. Studies have shown that humans can live around 3 to 4 minutes without oxygen; the brain begins to shut down after 5 minutes without oxygen.

The jobs of gases during respiration

Respiration is a wonderful mechanism which is dependent on the nervous system; it is autonomous and usually takes place with ease. The respiration rate for adults is 10-15 times per minute; for children, 20-30; and for infants, 30-40. Respiration can simply be defined as the replacement of carbon dioxide gas in the blood with oxygen. Approximately 400 million alveoli in the lungs are where the oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange takes place. The oxygen that passes into the blood here is transported to cells when it binds to the hemoglobin of the red blood cells. The oxygen, which is captured by the iron (Fe) in the hemoglobin (Hb), is then released for the cells.

Roughly 4/5th of the air inhaled during respiration is nitrogen; 1/5th is oxygen. If we only need oxygen, why do we inhale other gases? It is because the integrity of air plays a critical role in breathing (the oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange). The gas ratio of air before and after respiration is given below.

As seen, while nitrogen and other gases remain constant, oxygen levels decrease, whereas carbon dioxide increases. Only 5% of the inhaled air, or oxygen, is consumed. For our cells to receive the sufficient amount of oxygen they need, the total gas pressure, composition, and oxygen concentration in the air must fit these variables. In addition, water vapor that mixes into gases inside the respiratory track assists with the regulation of gas pressure in our lungs.

The rate of gases in the air is finely tuned. If there is less oxygen in the atmosphere, aside from its many negative effects in nature, it would be insufficient for respiration; the amount of oxygen that passes into the blood to bind with hemoglobin would not be enough for our cells, and the excessive oxygen would also be toxic. For example, mountain climbers use oxygen tanks; as elevation increases, air pressure and oxygen decrease. Excessive oxygen, however, may cause loss of consciousness (coma), nausea, cramps, and visual impairment. Concentrated oxygen can be fatal for cells. According to Australian biologist Michael Denton, each extra 1% above the current 21% ratio of oxygen in the atmosphere would increase the possibility of a lighting based forest fire up to 70%.

The vital role of nitrogen

Under normal conditions, nitrogen is found in nature in its gas form as an inert element. In other words, it is created so that it only reacts under rare and special circumstances. It does not react with many substances, such as water, air, acids, and bases. Is there any function for nitrogen gas in our respiratory system?

When nitrogen gas enters our body via the air passage, it is exhaled back without getting into any reactions in our lungs, blood, or with oxygen. It does not affect the oxygen we breathe in; however, it plays a role for adjusting oxygen’s rate. Its presence is necessary for the respiration of oxygen under certain concentrations, flows, and pressure.

What would happen if any of the inert gases – like helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), or krypton (Kr) – replaced nitrogen? Not only could these gases not substitute for nitrogen with their physical and chemical features, but they could also not carry out its other functions. For instance, their solubility in blood under pressure is different. Therefore, vital problems such as decompression sickness because of different air and water pressure conditions would be seen more often, especially for pilots and divers. Also, because of different absorption and reflection rates in sunlight, our climate and other species would be affected. Furthermore, the nitrogen cycle takes part in terms of the maintenance of life on earth as outlined by natural laws.

It’s plain to see that the balance of elements and gases on our planet, and in the whole universe, have been perfectly balanced to sustain life. It seems remarkable that our planet could be created in such a way as to support so many creatures, who require such a specific balance to survive.

There are lots of interesting examples of how plants communicate with insects. For instance, in self-defense against insects eating its leaves, a plant emits a volatile chemical that signals other insects, who are predators of those insects eating the plant. A byproduct of such insect communication may allow plants to signal danger to other extremely close, downwind plants. Professor of Entomology, Richard Karban and other researchers from the University of California showed that a cut sagebrush “told” nearby, downwind wild tobacco plants about its injury, and the tobacco plants apparently responded to protect themselves from damage. Over three seasons, researchers clipped leaves of sagebrush plants to mimic insects eating their leaves. The cut sagebrush released volatile chemicals (methyl jasmonate), which the wind carried to nearby downwind plants. The tobacco plants apparently sensed the chemicals-at least the tobacco plants increased production of a defensive agent-that caused their leaves to taste bad to insects. These downwind tobacco plants experienced less than half the leaf damage from grasshoppers and cutworms than control plants (Anon.). In one case study an acacia tree responded to browsing, or being beaten with a stick, by increasing the levels of tannin in its leaves within minutes. Amazingly, the tannin levels then rise in neighboring trees, and, due to its bitter taste, repel the browsers before they can do any further damage (Jacob 2001; Anon.).

What’s more is that plants can also talk to mammals. A study done by Professor Steven Johnson and his research team from the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, demonstrated how ground-dwelling mammal pollinators are attracted by a rare parasitic plant’s unique “perfume.” This specific floral aroma is comprised of over 30 compounds, especially ketones, fatty-acid derivatives, mono- and sesquiterpenoids. The three most abundant scent chemicals were 1-hexen-3-one, 3-hexanone, and ethyl butyrate. When the impact of these chemicals was tested on mice, it turned out that mice, like humans, find 3-hexanone to have a pleasant smell. The molecule is routinely used in artificial flavoring to produce a sweet fruity grape-like flavor. In addition, 3-hexanone has also been found in some bat-pollinated flowers, so it may be a general mammal attractant. Remarkably, scent cues are particularly important to plants pollinated by small ground-dwelling mammals because these animals are usually around at night when visual cues are less effective (Johnson et al. 2011; Anon.).

In addition to pests, plants have to deal with numerous microbial pathogens such as bacteria, fungi and oomycetes, and viruses in the natural environment. A proper response to pathogens can lead to resistance mechanisms that enable plants to survive. Plants can recognize potential pathogens by detecting pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). This recognition activates a defense mechanism. A well-organized communication between the pathogen-invaded plant tissues and non-invaded ones is essential for the timely manifestation of defense mechanisms that limit the systemic spread of pathogens (Shah 2009). Salicylic acid, an important mobile signal, is transported from infected tissue to the rest of the plant body. It activates the systemic acquired resistance, which is a “whole-plant” resistance response that occurs following an earlier localized exposure to a pathogen. Plants not only communicate within themselves about a microbial invasion, they also talk to one another. For example, Tobacco plants warn each other against tobacco mosaic virus attack by releasing methyl salicylate, which is then converted to the protective salicylic acid in uninfected plants (Jacob 2001).

In contrast to harmful pathogenic interactions, there are also symbiotic, advantageous interactions between some microorganisms and plants. Establishment of such a beneficial symbiosis (which literally means “living together” in Greek) is complex. For successful infections, a molecular dialogue between partners is essential (Vadassery and Oelmüller 2009). Among these kinds of interactions, legume-Rhizobium symbiosis is of particular importance in agriculture, because by forming the symbiosis, atmospheric nitrogen can be used to sustain the growth of legume crops, such as soybean, pea, and bean, which occupy 12% to 15% of the land that can be used for growing crops throughout the world (Sugiyama, Shitan, and Yazaki 2007). Rhizobia are soil bacteria that fix nitrogen (diazotrophs) after becoming established inside root nodules of legumes such as alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, lentils, lupins, mesquite, carob, soy, and peanut.

Rhizobia require a plant host, since they cannot independently fix nitrogen (Anon.). Plant roots secrete signaling molecules (e.g. flavonoids) to attract Rhizobia. When Rhizobia sense these chemicals, they colonize around root tissues of the host legume plant. So, the rhizobial infection in legumes is an invasion by invitation (Murray 2011). The attached rhizobia secrete Nod factors, which are perceived by the plant. This initiates a series of events that leads to the formation of nodule, where Rhizobia fix nitrogen. Thus, Rhizobia make legume independent of soil nitrogen and the legume supplies nutrients to the bacteria. In addition, the legume plant supplies one critical component of nitrogenase, which is the key enzyme for fixing nitrogen. It all happens because the plant can talk to the bacteria.

The plant has many interests in being colonized by mycorrhizal fungi. Apart from providing nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen, the fungi protect plants from diseases, parasites, and other stresses. Plants even grow as much as 40% more when colonized. In laboratory experiments, carrots that were colonized grew 20 times more than the carrots that were not! In fact, they are such close “friends” that the fungus cannot live without a plant, and between 80-90% of all plants on earth are somehow associated with mycorrhizal fungi. The origin of this incredible friendship is communication (Montréal 2012).

As a result, plants can talk to microorganisms, pests, and mammals, but do they communicate with people? Are they intelligent creatures who can communicate with us? In 1848, Dr. Gustav Theodor Fechner, a German professor, suggested that plants are capable of emotions and that one could promote healthy growth with talk, attention, and affection. An Indian scientist, Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose, conducted experiments on plants in 1900. Bose found that plants grew more quickly amidst pleasant music and more slowly amidst loud noise or harsh sounds (Sir Patrick Geddes and Geddes 1920).

Moreover, according to Royal Horticultural Society, talking to plants helps them grow, especially if the one talking to the plant is a woman. Even though there are lots of divisive experiments done with plants to understand if they can talk to human beings, there is no serious finding about this subject yet. Even if, plant biologists do not currently know how to talk to plants, they strive to comprehend how plants communicate with other organisms in order to use this new and exciting language for improving the resistance of plants against pests or pathogens. Instead of using chemical pesticides, genetically engineered plant defense and communication pathways in crops are a preferred avenue.

Communication of plants with other organisms is such a complex problem. Plants can have a network with so many different creatures. They pass on information to each other or to other organisms that speak other languages. How did they obtain these amazing communication skills? Even the most advanced creatures, human beings, experience problems in communication, how can plants have robust communication systems in a heterogeneous environment?

The next time you hear a strange rustling among your garden plants, maintain distance. They might be having an argument. Plants also talk and they respond to attacks like we do. So, be careful and do not hurt plants as they might even curse or scream to you (Anon.).

Safiye Arslan is a research fellow in the area of molecular biology in Nevada.

References

• Adler, Frederick R. 2011. Plant signalling: the opportunities and dangers of chemical communication. Biology Letters. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=3061173tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract.
• Anon. Do plants talk? What are the chances it’s a boy? – USATODAY.com. http://www.usatoday.com/tech/columnist/aprilholladay/2006-07-24-plant-talk-baby-boys_x.htm.
• Anon. jacobson’s organ and the remarkable nature of smell. http://books.google.com/books/about/Jacobson_s_Organ_and_the_Remarkable_Natu.html?id=liKKQgAACAAJ.
• Anon. BBC – Earth News – “Perfumed” parasitic plant lures in pollinating mammals. http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_9376000/9376474.stm.
• Anon. What is Rhizobia. http://www.bionewsonline.com/y/what_is_rhizobia.htm.
• Anon. Biotechnology: Plantlinguistic: – “Plants Communicate With Each Other.” http://bioinformations4all.blogspot.com/2009/08/plantlinguistic-plants-communicate-with.html.
• Jacob, Tim. 2001. “The science and myths of smell.” EMBO Reports 2 (10): 880. http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v2/n10/full/embor301.html.
• Johnson, Steven D, Priscilla M Burgoyne, Lawrence D Harder, Stefan Dötterl, and Proc R Soc. 2011. “Mammal pollinators lured by the scent of a parasitic plant Subject collections Mammal pollinators lured by the scent of a parasitic plant.” Society 278 (January): 2303-10. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.2175. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=3119003&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract.
• Montréal, Jardin botanique de. 2012. “Chatting with a plant’s best friend – Science +” (June 3). http://www.aucoeurdelarbre.ca/en/thematics-texts/thematics-texts-details.php?id=8.
• Murray, Jeremy D. 2011. “Invasion by invitation: rhizobial infection in legumes.” Molecular plantmicrobe interactions MPMI 24 (6): 631-639. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21542766.
• Shah, Jyoti. 2009. “Plants under attack: systemic signals in defence.” Current Opinion in Plant Biology 12 (4): 459-464. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19608451.
• Sir Patrick Geddes, and Sir Patrick Geddes. 1920. The life and work of Sir Jagadis C. Bose. Longmans, Green. http://books.google.com/books?id=EPtCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA97&q=”continuous”#v=twopage.
• Sugiyama, Akifumi, Nobukazu Shitan, and Kazufumi Yazaki. 2007. “Involvement of a soybean ATP-binding cassette-type transporter in the secretion of genistein, a signal flavonoid in legume-Rhizobium symbiosis.” Plant physiology 144 (4) (August): 2000-8. doi:10.1104/pp.107.096727. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1949875&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract.
• Vadassery, Jyothilakshmi, and Ralf Oelmüller. 2009. “Calcium signaling in pathogenic and beneficial plant microbe interactions: what can we learn from the interaction between Piriformospora indica and Arabidopsis thaliana.” Plant signaling & behavior 4 (11) (November): 1024-7. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2819509&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract.

And surely in the cattle (feeding on the pastures of the revived earth) there is a lesson for you: We give you from that which is within their bodies, (marvelously distinguished from) between the waste and blood, milk that is pure and palatable to those who drink. (Nahl 16:66)

Ruminants, probably the most abundant of the herbivores such as cattle, sheep and goats, are foregut fermenters with a four-chambered stomach (rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum) and are an essential component of utilizing marginal land in the world in a sustainable way.

In the verse above from the Qur’an, the Creator and the Sustainer of the universe draws our attention to many of the benefits we get from domestic animals. While the main message of the verse is easily understandable to the general reader, it also contains some concise hints, even descriptions about the physiological details of milk production in ruminants that would be fully understood and explained by science only centuries after the Qur’an was revealed. The purpose of this article is to explain this process in a general sense and milk production in some detail.

Mammals are generally categorized according to the dietary habits into three classes-flesh-eating (carnivore), plant-eating (herbivore) and both flesh and plant-eating (omnivore). In a sense, humans (omnivores) and carnivores depend on herbivores for their nutrition. Generally speaking, all humans and animals in the world have directly or indirectly benefited from the plants. The ability of herbivores to utilize plants as their main energy source is dependent on symbiotic microorganisms which live at various sites within their gastrointestinal tract. The animal provides the microorganisms with food and habitat for growth and the microorganisms provide the animal with fermentation acids and microbial protein.

Herbivores are divided into two types, those with post-gastric (hindgut) fermentation and those with pre-gastric (foregut) fermentation. Fermentation is a chemical process during which microorganisms obtain energy from organic products. Ruminants, probably the most abundant of the herbivores such as cattle, sheep and goats, are foregut fermenters with a four-chambered stomach (rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum) and are an essential component of utilizing marginal land in the world in a sustainable way. Rumen and reticulum contain millions of microorganisms, which form about 3 to 10 percent of rumen fluid.

A major reason why human beings keep ruminants is their ability to convert food which humans find inedible-or at least unpalatable-to food (meat, milk) which humans can eat. They play an important role in the livelihood of farmers throughout the world, providing sustenance such as milk and meat, manure for crop production, cash income from sales of their products and a safety net of capital assets to face risks and misfortune in harsh environments. Currently, humans obtain about fifty percent of the meat and most of the milk they consume from ruminants. Scientists who have conducted studied on ruminants have developed cow breeds, which have higher milk and meat production than traditional cow breeds, and thus supplied an important development to meet the nutritional requirements of humans.

Pre-gastric fermentation provides three important nutritional advantages to the host animal.

First, cellulose and other plant polysaccharides are brought into solution and become available as energy sources. Cellulose is the most abundant natural carbohydrate polymer in nature, but mammals do not produce enzymes that can degrade it. Ruminant animals utilize cellulose via a symbiotic relationship with ruminal cellulolytic microorganisms. During ruminal fermentation, microorganisms ferment the carbohydrates to produce energy, gases (methane and carbon dioxide), heat, and volatile fatty acids (VFA) in the rumen. Effective digestion of plants requires a means of dealing with cellulose, the most important structural material of plants, which is extremely insoluble and remarkably resistant to a chemical attack. Cellulose digesting enzymes that are called cellulases and produced by microorganisms are also present in the intestinal tract of several invertebrates that feed on wood and similar plant products. Rumen harbors the different functional groups of the microbial population, which is responsible for about seventy percent of total digestion in ruminants, and the ability to digest cellulose has been ascribed to a large number of bacterial, fungal and protozoal species isolated from the rumen.

The energy content of plants is low, and the herbivore must consume a large quantity in order to satisfy its energy requirements. Therefore, herbivores spend a lot of time eating; eight or more hours per day may be spent eating.

Secondly, the rumen microorganisms can utilize non-protein nitrogen for growth, converting it into microbial protein which becomes available to the host. Proteins provide the amino acids needed for maintenance of vital functions, reproduction, growth and lactation. Non-ruminant animals need pre-formed amino acids in their diets, but ruminants can utilize many other nitrogen sources because of their rare ability to synthesize amino acids and protein from non-protein nitrogen sources via a symbiotic relationship with ruminal microflora.

Ruminants possess a rumeno-hepatic nitrogen circulation mechanism, which does not exist in non-ruminant animals, in order to save nitrogen. By this mechanism, ruminants can be fed non-protein nitrogen sources such as urea and nitrate when nutrients are in short supply to obtain high quality milk protein. Feed proteins are degraded by microorganisms in the rumen via amino acids into ammonia. Ammonia is used by bacteria to build their proteins and any excess of it is absorbed through the rumen wall into the blood and then converted to urea in the liver. When a diet is low in nitrogen, large amounts of urea (which is normally excreted in the urine) return to the rumen where it can be used by the microbes. In non-ruminants, urea is always entirely lost in the urine. If ammonia levels in the rumen are too low there will be a nitrogen shortage for bacteria and feed digestibility will be reduced. Too much ammonia in the rumen leads to wastage, ammonia toxicity, and in extreme cases, death of the animal.

Thirdly, vitamin synthesis by the microbial population makes the ruminant animal virtually independent of dietary sources of all vitamins, except for vitamins A and D.

However, rumen fermentation also brings some disadvantages. First of all, rumen metabolism causes environmental pollution. Methane is produced as a natural consequence of the anaerobic fermentation; it is a potent greenhouse gas. Dairy farming is the largest agricultural source of methane, one of the greenhouse gases. Furthermore, the major environmental concern associated with the animal industry is ammonia volatilization, which increases atmospheric acid deposition because of the impact of nitrogen-rich excreta on the environment. Therefore, worldwide, scientific research projects have been carried out to find sustainable strategies for reducing emissions of the greenhouse gas methane and ammonia volatilization from domestic ruminants to the environment.

In conclusion, the symbiotic relationship between ruminants and ruminal microorganisms plays an important role in the recycling of nutrients between humans and plants. This relationship also contributes to human life by converting low quality nutrients (grass and hay) to high quality food (meat and milk). Humans will benefit more from ruminants as scientific knowledge about relationships between ruminants and rumen microorganisms advances.

Zubeyir Altuntas has a PhD in Molecular Medicine. He is a research associate in Immunology Department of The Cleveland Clinic.

Thus, the nitrogen molecule is inert and stable. However, in spite of this fact, nitrogen molecules undergo oxidization in the presence of water; in other words, nitrogen molecules are unstable in the presence of H2O and more easily form other compounds. This is expressed in the following equation:

This reaction occurs quite slowly. If this reaction did not occur so slowly, all of the nitrogen and oxygen molecules in the atmosphere would immediately combine with ocean water to form nitric acid. If this were to occur, an extraordinarily terrifying scenario that would lead to a global catastrophe would occur: The earth’s oceans would change into nitric acid, the most powerful and harmful acid in both its oxidizing and its acidizing effects! Such an event would entirely consume the nitrogen and oxygen of the atmosphere. The only more devastating global calamity imaginable is the apocalypse and the end of time itself! Of course, this chemical reaction cannot be entirely eliminated, even if its rapid occurrence would result in a terrifying global catastrophe. On the contrary, this chemical reaction must continue to occur slowly, as it has in the past, in order to ensure the proper formation of nitrogen compounds in the chemistry of the ocean; this is crucial to the continuation of life on earth. It is interesting that this phenomenon can show us how misguided some philosophers and philosophical movements, who have not based their thinking on religious principles, are in their attempts to demonstrate that humankind is God-like.

Although humankind is the most perfect creation in the universe, we are nonetheless almost entirely helpless in the face of the dangers that threaten us. The chemical reaction, summarized briefly above, has been taken from a basic chemistry textbook. The rate of the chemical reaction we described-in which nitrogen molecules in the presence of water can result in oxidation and the formation of nitric acid-in fact occurs in such a measured way that it is beneficial rather than harmful. This fact, along with the regularity at which the rate of this reaction occurs, clearly demonstrates the helplessness of the human condition.

Fortunately, the slow rate at which this reaction occurs ensures that the terrifying global catastrophe described above does not occur. Entire oceans do not turn into nitric acid, and the oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere, which is so crucial to our survival, is not consumed in this apocalyptic fashion. Should we not, therefore, learn the chemistry behind this good fortune? Even more importantly, should not we wonder Who calibrates the rate of this reaction, and continues to ensure that this careful calibration is not disturbed?

It is only with the thought of Paradise that children, who form a great deal of humanity, can endure all the deaths around them, which appear to them to be grievous and frightening, and strengthen the morale of their weak and delicate beings. . . . It is only through the life of the hereafter that the elderly, who form another considerable part of humanity, can endure the proximity of the grave, and be consoled at the thought that their lives, to which they are firmly attached, will soon be extinguished and their fine world will come to an end. . . . It is only the thought of Hell-fire that checks the turbulent emotions of youths, the most vigorous element in the life of society, and their violent excesses, restraining them from aggression, oppression, and destruction, and ensuring that the life of society continues tranquilly. (The Ninth Ray, First Point)

If a society is deprived from the above benefits of belief in the Hereafter, people will try to find other ways to satisfy this search for immortality, as in the example of ancient Egypt. The fear of death and the desire for immortality are symbolized by the ancient Egyptian practice of mummification. The word “mummification” is derived from the Latin word mumia, meaning black bitumen. Bituminous materials were used extensively in the preservation of the body from the twenty-sixth dynasty of the Pharaohs onwards.

The ancient Egyptians believed that the body of a person was to live in the afterlife, therefore, mummification was developed; the total process took seventy days. Due to the expense of the materials involved in mummification, the pharaohs of Egypt, members of the nobility, and officials were the only people to be mummified, and they were usually buried in elaborate tombs. For religious reasons, some animals, such as baboons, cats, birds, and crocodiles were also mummified.

Mummies were placed in tombs that were designed to help the deceased live in the afterworld. The tombs were filled with all the necessities of life, such as food, tools, and treasures to ensure that the soul would return to the body, enabling the mummy to live happily.

The mummification process was used by many societies in an effort to cheat death and to achieve immortality. Modern society is no different from these ancient societies with respect to the desire to reach immortality. The only difference is the modern technology that is used to achieve immortality. Cryonics, a modern mummification technique, is a term that stems from cryogenic, the more general term given to the branch of physics that deals with extremely low temperatures. Cryonics is the practice of freezing the body of a recently deceased person to preserve it for possible resuscitation in the future. The body, which is in a state of “cryonic suspension,” is cooled to the point where molecular physical decay completely ceases. When a cure for the disease that caused the death has been found, the person may be revived and restored to good health later on.

This is not a new idea. In early 1967, a California psychology professor named James H. Bedford decided to try it. When he died of cancer, he was frozen in liquid nitrogen at 321 degrees below zero Fahrenheit. After Bedford, over a period of a few years, several dozen people were frozen in liquid nitrogen. After a while, the relatives stopped the flow of money to the cemetery crypt in Chatsworth, California. By 1987, the frozen bodies, one of those being the body of Bedford, kept in liquid nitrogen had dropped to only three in the United States, due to financial reasons. By 1994, the number of frozen bodies once again had risen, climbing to about a dozen. Another two dozen had chosen the cheaper alternative of having only their heads frozen after death. They believed that future technology would be able to provide a new body by using their DNA. Cryonics organizations have been growing rapidly, with several hundred people now being legally signed up to be frozen after death.

The type of death is very important for cryonics. Real death and legal death are not the same things. When it is no longer feasible to restore the blood circulation (i.e. restart the heart), legal death occurs. Real death occurs after the cells have irreversibly deteriorated in the minutes and hours that follow. Due to the fact that so much cellular information is lost after real death, cryonics begins after legal death has been declared.

After legal death, the body is hooked to a heart-lung machine to supply oxygen to the still living tissues. At the same time the blood is drained and some chemicals are circulated to minimize the damage caused by freezing. To protect the body, all chemical reactions are stopped by hindering translational molecular motion. This motion is stopped at 130 degrees below zero Celsius, that is “glass transition” temperature. The human body is cooled to the temperature of liquid nitrogen, -196 degrees Celsius (-320 degree Fahrenheit). The bodies are then placed in a vacuum-insulated flask, head down, so that in the event of a problem it would be the feet that would thaw first. While to date no human being in cryonic suspension has been revived, it has been proven that the bones, the skin, some tissues, the red and white blood cells, the bone marrow, human embryos, and sperm survive under deep freezing and thawing.

Some special techniques are used to reduce the damage caused by freezing. Using a procedure called vitrification, a mixture of cryoprotectant (antifreeze) compounds replaces more than 60% of the water inside the cells to prevent the tissue from freezing during cooling; the tissue becomes rigid like glass, with no ice crystal damage. On the other hand, high concentrations of cryoprotectant are toxic to cell metabolism. It is hoped that this problem will be solved and reversed in the future by nanotechnology. Nanotechnology is the technology that has been developed in order to work with atoms and molecules in the future. By using this technology, the damage in the cells caused by freezing will be able to be repaired. In addition to nanotechnology, therapeutic cloning developments and stem cell research discoveries will be important in making cryonics successful. Taking into account the speed of the development of these technologies, some experts have estimated that it will take 20-100 years before humans can be successfully thawed out.

Such a process requires a great deal of money; it is not cheap to freeze oneself for future life. Prices range between a fee of $28,000 to $120,000 annually. By freezing merely the head, this price can be reduced by half.

Be it the ancient mummification methods, be it the latest expensive techniques, all these point to the unchanging human nature. Cryonics try to reach immortality in “this life”; however, this is an impossibility with today’s technology and is merely speculative with future technology. But there is a way that is possible now, and does not require great expenditure or mind-boggling technology. Bediuzzaman, in his book, The Rays, explains how we can achieve such immortality:

For example, human beings have an intense desire for immortality. Only One Who has disposal over the whole universe as though it was a palace can answer this wish; only One Who can close the door of this world and open that of the hereafter, like closing the door of one room and opening that of another can do so. Humans have thousands of desires, both negative and positive, which like the desire for immortality spread throughout the world and stretch to eternity. It is only the Single One, Who through the mystery of unity holds the whole universe in His grasp, Who, by answering these desires of human beings, can cure the two gaping wounds of impotence and want.

In other words, the ability to find immortality is something that has always been with us; it resides within us. The ancient Egyptians and modern science both spent large sums of money and much time trying to attain immortality; if only they were aware that every human has the same chance. All we need to do is to just look within ourselves

References

• Iskander, Zaky, An X-Ray Atlas of the Royal Mummies, University of Chicago Press, 1980.
• Harris, Steven B., “Many are cold but few are frozen.” Available online at http://www.cryonet.org
• Ettinger, Robert C.W., The Prospect of Immortality, Ria University Press, 2005.
• Nursi, Said (Bediuzzaman), The Rays, Sozler Publications, Istanbul: 2002.
• http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk
• www.levity.com/alchemy/islam25.html
• http://www.alcor.org/
• http://www.cryonics.org/ 

Sura ‘Fussilat, which may be translated as the chapter of ‘Detailed Explanations’, is the second chapter in the Qur’an beginning with the letters ‘Haa’ and ‘Mim’ and was frequently recited by our beloved Prophet.

The eleventh verse quoted above follows a verse explaining the creation or genesis of the world. As with the other verses in the Qur’an, this verse has many profound meanings but I shall try to explain it from the point of view of geophysics.

On reading the verse several times over, we must note with care the subtle meanings which lie beyond the ordinary in the declarations of God Almighty. I would like to draw the attention of the reader to these points in what follows:

a) ‘Then He turned to the heaven which was yet but smoke.’

This expression discloses a special secret. For when God Almighty wishes something, He simply says ‘Be’ and it is. Why does the verse specifically indicate that ‘He turned to the sky’? It is drawing our attention to the fact that an important scientific insight is about to be revealed.

b) He sends out a call for cooperation to the earth and the heaven. He orders them to ‘come (and cooperate with each other) whether you like it or not. Again, in the power of God Almighty and the certainty of His commands, there can be no such thing as the insubordination of the created. The command ‘come, even if unwillingly indicates that there is difficulty in the cooperation of the earth and its heaven. Further, it is indicated that the heaven which harmonizes with the earth is the one closest to the earth.

Let us now investigate the relationship between the earth and its ‘closest heaven’ in terms of the precepts of contemporary geophysics. Until quite recently, it used to be assumed that life would originate on any planet having the proper temperature. In recent years, however, space explorations have revealed that the possession of an atmosphere is one of the most difficult things for a planet to achieve. In other words, there is a baffling opposition between a planet and its atmosphere (which might be called its ‘nearest heaven’). For the atmosphere consists of gaseous atoms in the ‘near sky’. In all large planets these atoms are assimilated to the surface of the planet, while in small planets the gravitational force is insufficient to bind the atoms. These gases then escape, leaving the planet barren.

Now let us reread the sacred verse in the light of this very brief information, and in particular the second sentence:

‘Come, both of you, (come together) willingly or unwillingly.’

The molecules and atoms in the atmosphere try to escape into space, while the earth tries to attract and captivate them. In other words, their partnership is unwilling; it is forced.

The scientific magnificence of this sacred verse consists in the fact that it is telling us this secret fourteen centuries ago. Fifty years ago no one was aware of this fact.

In order to ascertain the inner meaning of the sacred verse, let us expand our knowledge of geophysics a little further. What are the conditions for the formation of an atmosphere on a planet and so, by implication, on earth?

For the formation of an atmosphere, the motions leading to the escape of molecules have to be counterbalanced by the gravitational attraction of the earth. This is an almost impossibly difficult condition to fulfil. For all planets throughout the universe, the odds may be less than a billion to one. This is the fact that the chapter ‘Detailed Explanations’ expresses.

‘And then He turned to the heaven.’

This statement contains the secret of how God Almighty renders all things possible. From the standpoint of geophysics, these extremely difficult conditions require the preservation of three important balances:

1. Atmospheric temperature,

2. Proportionate gravitational attraction on the part of the earth,

3. The non-violation of this balance by various radiant energies arriving from space.

1. Atmospheric Heat

The ability of molecules to escape is dependent on heat. Environmental heat should obey the following characteristics:

a) The distance of the earth to the sun. If the earth were closer to the sun, the heat produced in the environment of the atmosphere would cause all the molecules to ‘boil off and escape. On the other hand, if the earth were farther away from the sun, the molecular movements would slow down, the molecules would condense and be assimilated by the earth.

b) The heat the earth receives from the sun must be evenly distributed over the earth’s atmosphere. For this the earth has to rotate on its axis with a definite velocity. If it rotated too slowly, sudden cooling would be absorbed by the surface in that region. If it were to rotate too fast, the various regions would not get the chance to be heated evenly.

The earth, therefore, must rotate at its present speed. However, this balanced rotation is likewise insufficient to dispose of the question of heating. For next the equator of the earth, which receives a larger portion of the sun’s energy, begins to heat up, while the Poles cool even further leading to the condensation and absorption of the atmosphere at the Poles. So the axis of the earth must remain tilted, balancing the heated regions by continually interchanging them. This is why the axis of the earth is slanted 23.5 degrees.

The declaration ‘They both responded, we come willingly’ at the end of the sacred verse gives expression to this inner meaning, God’s order, ‘come, (cooperate, come together)’ points simultaneously to the automatic inclination of the earth and its possession of a moderate rotation. For the earth, too, takes the appropriate physical measures demanded of it by the command.

c) The earth has to retain the heat it gains, to store it for a certain period. In other words, the earth needs a ‘blanket’. This blanket is provided by the gaseous carbon dioxide in the air. But before the atmosphere had formed, where was the carbon dioxide to regulate the heating process? We know from geophysics that the initial atmosphere of the earth was composed primarily of carbon dioxide.

The sacred verse reveals this secret as well. What does ‘which was yet but smoke (dukhan) mean?’ It is known that in its initial period, the earth possessed an atmosphere consisting mostly of smoke (carbon dioxide). It was thanks to this primordial gas that the earth retained its heat and was able to form the atmosphere of today.

2. The Properly Proportioned Gravitation Of The Earth

Modern physics defines terrestrial gravitation as follows: The sum of the active gravitational forces of the atoms comprising the earth. This means that if the escape of the atmosphere is to be prevented by gravitation and its absorption avoided, the earth gas is to possess a definite volume and density. It can easily be seen that when the earth possesses a specific density and volume, the atmosphere can be constituted without difficulty. Unbelievable subtleties, however, underlie this event. We may list these as follows:

a) The earth has to contain certain materials in a definite proportion. It has to have sufficient metals in reserve to support the existence of life and civilization, and gas to comprise large amounts of non-metals. This means that the density of the earth is not a crude but rather a very difficult calculation, involving the simultaneous consideration of many essentials.

b) The gravitational balance of the earth has to be constituted in such a way that while the atmospheric molecules are being balanced physically, they must also be chemically inert. The surface of the earth’s crust, the soil, the mountains and oceans should not have a structure that would react with the atmospheric gases, which is equivalent to saying that it should not be absorptive of the atmosphere. For instance, if the earth, or more specifically the earth’s crust were made of carbon, it would both exhaust the oxygen through chemical reactions and would absorb the nitrogen, whereas in fact the earth’s crust is comprised of silicon compounds with structures that leave them inert when brought into contact with the inner shell of the atmosphere.

c) Two other significant points regarding the earth‘s gravity relate to mailers of physical structure. Firstly, within the material density of the earth, the balanced distribution of magnetic materials such as iron has to be achieved. Further, the molten core at the centre of the earth and the semimolten metals surrounding it must maintain equilibrium with the earth’s crust.

We thus see that the gravitational balance of the earth requires many calculations; calculations of such magnitude and finesse that they could only be evaluated by the vast program of a giant computer.

3. Immolability Of Atmospheric Equilibrium By Various Radiant Energies In Space

No matter how harmonized it may be, there is such a torrential rain of particles from space that can always after the atmospheric equilibrium. It imparts violent velocities to molecules, yet an equilibrium is upheld through the presence of:

a) A magnetic field (the ‘magnetosphere’) which surrounds the earth, with a diameter equal to a hundred earth diameters. This field acts as a vast screen towards all particles and energies coming from space. This insight will be explained in detail in the interpretation of a separate verse.

b) Black holes are thought to be located at various distances to the earth. All excess energies emitted from within the Milky Way galaxy are absorbed by these centres of intense gravitation.

c) Further, the atmosphere protects itself within its own structure from the upper regions towards the lower. The filtering of particles in this protective screen is performed by the ozone layer. Isotopes of nitrogen also contribute to this protection.

It will ready be conceded that there are many things about the atmosphere that we don’t yet know. What is important is that science discovers and bears witness to a fresh miracle of our great Creator each new day.

Such are the facts we find when we set out by interpretation the word ‘heaven’ in Verse 11 as the sky of the earth in Verse 12.

It is also possible to take the word ‘heaven’ in a general sense, and to approach its interpretation from a different angle. It is known that the Glorious Qur’an declares the existence of seven different heavens. We know very little about the spatial physics of these heavens; at present, we know nothing whatsoever about the dimensions and spaces involved.

As for the man characteristics of the atmosphere, the escape velocity for any object or molecule is 11.3 kilometres per second. Normal atmospheric conditions are balanced with care as outlined above, so that atmospheric molecules cannot attain this speed.

According to Prof. De Lymak Spitser, the earth absorbs part of the atmosphere it requires, especially nitrogen. The active and violent nature of the oxygen in the atmosphere is counterbalanced by nitrogen. Furthermore, the gases we call ‘noble gases’ (helium, argon, neon, krypton, xenon, radon), which prevent the combination of nitrogen and oxygen in the course of time and particularly during lightning strokes, are also present in the atmosphere in trace but optimal amounts. The atmosphere always maintains its nitrogen/oxygen balance in the proportion 5/1.

All these magnificent geophysical systems find their origin in the secrets revealed to us in this verse by God. If we now re-read the verse in the light of all these scientific facts, we are in a much better position to appreciate what a wonderful marvel of science it embodies.