Countless studies, books, and articles have explored the taste, swallowing, and speech capabilities of the human tongue, often regarded as merely a small piece of flesh. One significant distinction between humans and animals lies in our ability to utilize the tongue for language, a capacity not shared by animals. However, what other roles might animal tongues serve?

Suitable for nutrition

The tongue, found in the vast majority of vertebrate animals (with the exception of a small group of frogs), possesses a remarkable flexibility owing to the arrangement of its muscle fibers in a multidirectional web. The variety of tongue structures across animal species reflects differences in their habitats, dietary habits, and lifestyles. It is crucial to note that for most terrestrial vertebrates, survival would be severely compromised without their tongues. In aquatic environments, where food tends to be softer and readily digestible, tongues aid in biting and mixing food with digestive enzymes. Conversely, the multitude of solid and dry foods found on land, including fruits, vegetables, and animal source foods, require soaking and softening for digestion. Animals thus necessitate tongues created in the best convenient form for their body structures and dietary needs to effectively consume such diverse foods. The remarkable diversity in animal tongue morphology underscores the intricate design and adaptation evident in all of creation, suggesting a divine understanding of each creature’s unique characteristics and the provision of suitable organs to match their needs.

Fish species like carp and catfish lack a mobile and extensible tongue, instead possessing a muscular bundle known as the palate. Unlike humans, fish don’t require mobile tongues for swallowing food. They open their jaws wide to expand their throats and pump water through their gill slits forming a bellows-shaped mechanism that generates a powerful suction force, enabling them to swallow food effortlessly without the need for a moving tongue to assist in biting.

In contrast, land animals lack a bellows-like mechanism such as gills to facilitate food swallowing. While they could potentially use air instead of water for suction, air lacks the density to generate a comparable swallowing force. Instead, they are given the tongue, an organ equipped with robust muscles. However, some birds, due to the slender structure of their mouth and neck regions, cannot accommodate a thick tongue. Instead, they have been taught to swallow by utilizing gravity, keeping their heads raised.

The need for food is one explanation among many as to why tongues are in so many different forms, structures, and functions. Some species of salamanders have a sticky tongue which is longer than their body; they catch insects by snapping their tongue at its prey like a whip. Webbed salamanders (Hydromantes) protrude their attached throat skeleton from their mouths, along with their tongues, which is covered with a sticky secretion, to catch insects or spiders. The tongue is then refolded in its former place in the throat with a special mechanism, where it stores energy for a while to be ready to catch the next prey.

Nearly eight thousand species of salamanders and frogs, chameleons and many lizards quickly pull their prey into their mouths by throwing their tongues like ballistic missiles to hunt. Chameleons, for example, catch crickets in less than a tenth of a second by propelling their tongues at a speed close to five meters per second. These tongues are covered, of course not coincidentally, with very small lumps called papillae, which produce a sticky secretion. The secreted saliva is so sticky that the prey, even if it is 50% heavier than the hunter, cannot save itself from it [1].

Horned lizards (Phrynosoma) use their sticky saliva-covered tongues not only to catch prey, but also to protect themselves from the possible danger of their prey. Ants, which are the prey of these lizards, have poisonous and strong bites. However, despite this, horned lizards swallow them alive. In a 2008 study, it was discovered that the dense and sticky slimy substance secreted from the blister-shaped glands on the tongues and throat walls of lizards protects the lizard from the venom of ants [2].

Some animals, such as the mace-headed giant gecko (Rhacodactylus auriculatus) that lives on the island of New Caledonia, use their tongues to clean their eyes. Snakes sniff their surroundings with their forked tongues, that is, the tongue of snakes is the organ of smell, not the organ of taste. The vibrational frequency of their tongues, which are created to locate their distant or hidden prey, varies according to the intensity and distance of the smell. In order to understand the nature of the odor molecules that stick to their tongues from the air, snakes insert their forked tongues into the Jacobson’s organ in their upper palate so that the smell is perceived in their brains. It is amazing that they are created with this mechanism and taught to follow this procedure.

Bird tongues are like surgical instruments of specialist doctors so that they can benefit from different food sources. An important factor in the diversity of tongues in birds is related to the shape of the flowers, which carry the sweet nectar of the plants. The tongue of most birds is made of very little muscle and connective tissue and is covered with a keratin cover. Attached to the root of the tongue is a system of levers made of bone which is tasked to function like a production line, moving the tongue back and forth so the food is transported from front to back. The woodpecker, for instance, inserts its bill into tree cavities and use their specially structured tongue to pull insect larvae into their mouths.

The tongue is the most vital organ for animals which feed on nectar, such as hummingbirds. Their tongues are created to suck high-energy nectar from the depths of the flowers, like a straw. Nectar is easy to find, but the tongue needs to be suitable for the unique structure of the flower. This is of vital importance so the birds can get a drop of nectar at the bottom of these flowers, which are usually long and narrow-throated.

Previously, it was thought that the nectar passively rose up the round and thin straw-like bills with a capillary mechanism. However, research has shown that, contrary to previous understanding, nectar is collected into the grooves on the tongue through the broom-like end, as observed in the Pied Honeyeater (Certhionyx variegatus). It’s been found that the physical capillarity is not fast enough to drink the nectar of flowers, so hummingbirds move their tongues 15 times per second while hovering, running their tongues back and forth like the piston of a pump [3].

We see that not all nectar-feeding birds are like hummingbirds, and that each bird is equipped with a bill and tongue structure suitable for its food. The tongues of the lorikeet (Trichoglossus moluccanus), who are members of the parrot family, are similar to those of humans, but with their fleshy-looking tongues with brush-like tips, they collect nectar from long-necked flowers by turning it into paste. Unlike the lorikeet, which has a brush-like tongue tip, other species of parrots have a grooved tongue tip to collect nectar; their tongues vibrate very quickly to pump nectar into the esophagus [4].

The tongue and hand skills in humans

Xu An, a neurobiologist at Duke University, and his colleagues have discovered an area in the monkeys’ cerebral cortex called the “oromanuel” region that exerts control over both hands and tongue. There are observations suggesting that a similar brain region exists in humans. For example, as the fingers of children who learn to write move, so does their tongue with similar curves. When they focus too much on what they are doing with their hands, we can see that some people unconsciously open their mouths and move their tongues left and right with a certain rhythm. Some scientists do not see this as an oddity and say that these tongue-twisting movements can increase the accuracy of movements in delicate manual work. However, it is difficult to observe this situation because most people have their mouths closed.

By examining the neural activity records in monkeys, information was obtained about how the complex tongue movements involved in feeding, drinking, and perhaps even vocalizations are coordinated in the brain. It has been determined that in a region the size of a penny in the cortex, there are both sensory neurons coming from the tongue and mouth, as well as movement (motor) neurons that are instrumental in controlling tongue movement. In addition, while it was once thought that chewing movement was under the control of the brain stem just as, for instance, walking is, it has been shown that this center occupies a lot of space in the cerebral cortex, and that the curving of the tongue in complex and asymmetrical ways according to the type of food at the time of chewing is controlled very quickly from here.

Tongue saved from teeth

The most important function of the tongue in mammals is to position food so it is properly chewed and swallowed. Have you ever thought about how agile our tongue must be to stay between our teeth and not get bitten when we talk or chew food? Depending on the species, it takes great timing to shift the food from one side of the mouth to the other with each bite, or to limit it to just one side, keeping the tongue itself safely away from the teeth so that it can’t be bitten. Then, with the addition of secreted, slippery, and softening saliva, the tongue, with appropriate movements, forms the food into a round bite that can easily pass through the throat. Finally, when pushing this bite into the esophagus to be swallowed, a precise adjustment is observed so that not even a small piece escapes into the airways.

Shape and volume ratio

The human tongue, like a water balloon, is a muscular hydrostat whose total volume of mass must remain the same, no matter how much its shape changes. Therefore, when we stick out our tongue, it becomes thinner and longer compared to its bulk shape in the mouth. Similar movements apply when the giraffe’s purple-colored tongue which extends 45–50 cm outward to collect leaves from a thorny tree branch.

In addition to functions such as assisting in eating and distinguishing between thousands of different tastes, the human tongue is unique in helping us speak our complex languages. This is possible because of our tongue’s ability to change shape easily. For the tongue to instantly convolute according to the thousands of words formed in the mind and send food to the pharynx without being bitten, there must be centers in the brain with very different and complex neuron units. The brain is responsible for adjusting all body behaviors by informing other parts of the brain about the processes in these centers. For example, the management of hundreds of functions, such as grimacing because of a sour taste or the immediate reflection of a sudden change in our thinking while speaking and in our choice of words seem to be under the control of neurons in these centers. Looking at these amazing activities, one surely seeks a source of power and wisdom beyond biological structures – neurons or otherwise – that can command all the nerves and atoms in our body.

In all species, the tongue is equipped with taste buds in order to be able to “gate” in directing nutrition and to understand the nature of food. All these special skills given to the tongue enable mammals to eat more food faster and in greater quantities than other vertebrates and to digest this food efficiently. Thanks to this feature given to their tongues, mammals can have their high metabolic rate and activity, both the mother and offspring can be nourished during long-term pregnancies, and the energy needs of large brains are met.

The tongue, which is braided by a complex network of muscle fibers that can move in complex ways, contributes to sucking in most species, but in others, such as dogs, it helps thermoregulation (heat regulation). The excess heat of their bodies, which get very hot by running, is cooled by sticking their tongues out. Bats, on the other hand, click their tongues to produce sounds that are used for echolocation (locating and locating by sound).

A home for microbes

Our tongue is also home to a complex community of bacteria that can affect our health. According to Jessica Mark Welch, a microbial ecologist at the Forsyth Institute, the tongue is an unknown and very important part of the human microbiome as an important source of bacteria. Welch says that the proportions of these microbes vary from person to person, but each bacterial community may have a specific function. For example, the bacterium called Veillonella on our tongue contributes to the regulation of blood pressure by performing the function of converting nitrate to nitrite, which the human body cannot do without. Other bacteria are also thought to possibly play a role in regulating the immune system [5].

We started with a tiny piece of meat, but as we finished it, I hope we understood that our tongue, which is a miracle of creation, is not a small and simple piece of meat.

References

1. C. A. Noel, D. L. Hu, “The tongue as a gripper”, Journal of Experimental Biology, 2018, 221/7, s. 1–10.
2. W. C. Sherbrooke, K. Schwenk, “Horned lizards (Phrynosoma) incapacitate dangerous ant prey with mucus”, Jez-A Ecological and Integrative Physiology, 2008, 309A/8, s. 447–459.
3. A. E. Hewes et al. “Variable evidence for convergence in morphology and function across avian nectarivores”, Journal of Morphology, 2022, 283/12, s. 1483–1504.
4. A. Rico-Guevara et al. “Nectar feeding beyond the tongue: hummingbirds drink using phase-shifted bill opening, flexible tongue flaps and wringing at the tips”, Journal of Experimental Biology, 2023, 226 (Suppl. 1), s. 9356–9360.
5. S. A. Wilbert et al. “Spatial ecology of the human tongue dorsum microbiome”, Cell Rep, 24 Mar 2020, 30/12, s. 4003–4015.

At the 26th United Nations Climate Change Conference in Glasgow, Scotland, countries signed an agreement on a series of measures to address climate change. The agreement includes key decisions such as a commitment to phase out coal, regular reviews of emission reduction plans and more financial support for developing countries. Climate change, which can be defined as “changes in the average state and variability of the climate over decades or longer, regardless of cause,” is in fact the scream that resonates off the walls of the ecosystem. Unless addressed in tandem with population growth, migration, rapid and unplanned urbanization, surging scarcity in resources and food, extreme poverty, socioeconomic inequality, infectious diseases, and pandemics, climate change will cause erratic and insurmountable problems facing humanity and, as during the recent COVID-19 pandemic, it can upset established social behavior patterns.

The greatest danger knocking at our door

In 2021, the World Health Organization declared climate change “the greatest health threat facing humanity.” Climate change and increasing carbon dioxide emissions cause extreme heat, environmental destruction, and difficulties in the water and food supplies. Using fossil fuels, the main source of greenhouse gases, leads to air pollution and associated premature deaths. Increases in carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, ozone, and respirable particulate matter smaller than 2.5 microns are the main drivers of air pollution. The vicious cycle between climate change and air pollution is associated with reproductive, respiratory, and cardiovascular diseases, as well as public health problems such as diabetes, cancer, premature aging, and psychiatric diseases. Climate change causes an increase in air pollution through extreme temperature and weather events (hurricanes, floods, droughts), natural (wildfire smoke, dust storms), and human and animal factors (air conditioning, litter). It also contributes to infectious diseases through expanded habitats for disease vectors such as mosquitoes and ticks, and to non-communicable diseases through increasing food shortages, malnutrition, and longer and more intense pollen seasons.

Temperatures and Drought

Although humankind is not fully aware of the impending catastrophe, the gravity of the situation is highlighted by reports on Europe experiencing its driest spell in 500 years, with more than half of the continent facing the threat of drought. Drought threatens not only Europe but the whole world, leading to water and food shortages as well as an increase in forest fires. It is noted that around 2.3 billion people live in areas at risk of drought, that drought has directly caused the deaths of 650,000 people in the last 50 years, and that millions of children are still affected by severe and prolonged drought. It is also estimated that as many as 3.5 billion people could face “unlivable” temperatures in the next 50 years because of human-induced climate change. As more people are impacted by drought, chronic poverty, war, or chaos, they will continue to migrate to “milder” locales.

Impact on marine ecosystems and ocean pollution

The quality of marine environments is also essential for protecting public health. Environmental pollution, contamination by chemicals, and pathogenic microbes hurt marine ecosystems; marine pollution also threatens marine animals and human health. Ocean pollution, exacerbated by global climate change, also negatively affects these ecosystems, with petroleum-based pollutants causing a decrease in photosynthesis in oxygen-producing organisms. Increased carbon dioxide absorption in the seas causes acidification, negatively affecting coral reefs, disrupting shellfish growth, dissolving calcium-containing microorganisms at the base of the marine food web, and increasing toxic effects from pollutants. Meanwhile, plastic pollution, which accumulates in large mid-ocean gyres and threatens marine mammals, fish, and seabirds, decomposes into chemical micro- and nano-plastic particles that enter the tissues of many marine organisms, including those consumed by humans. Industrial sewage increases the frequency and impact of harmful algal blooms, bacterial pollution, and anti-microbial resistance, while dangerous pathogens such as Vibrio species and other factors result in global declines in fish stocks.

Effects of air pollution

Climate change puts the three pillars of health—nutrition, shelter, and access to water—at risk. For instance, natural disasters destroy crops and people’s homes and contaminate safe water sources. This leads to malnutrition and water-borne diseases and contributes to 12.6 million preventable deaths in the world each year due to climate change. Since more than half of these deaths are caused by exposure to air pollution, it is clear that there is an association between climate change and air pollution and other environmental exposures. Longer wildfire seasons lead to more smoke exposure; climate change affects ozone and particulate matter formation by increasing the rate of chemical reactions in the atmosphere and increases the amount of pollen by extending the pollen season. The direct effect of each event is airway inflammation and lung damage due to the production of reactive oxidants. Ambient ozone and chronic accumulation of particulate matter in alveolar macrophages, impaired phagocytosis, oxidative stress, and poor mucociliary clearance jointly trigger airway inflammation. In addition to weakened antioxidant defenses, immunological and epigenetic (environmentally induced) changes play a role in the pathogenesis of lung diseases such as asthma and chronic bronchitis. Toxic effects in the respiratory tract and lungs eventually impact the cardiovascular system, causing autonomic disorders and increased inflammation. Ultimately, climate change-induced air pollution affects nearly every organ system (including the lungs, heart, kidneys, brain, and nervous system) through a complex interplay of increased oxidative stress, systemic inflammation, and immune dysregulation.

What can be done?

Climate change negatively affects several social determinants, such as equity, livelihoods, and access to health and social support services. Its impacts are felt disproportionately by the most vulnerable and disadvantaged, including women, children, ethnic minorities and impoverished communities, migrants or the elderly, and those with disabilities. Due to climate change, health services are in greater demand, while infrastructure is negatively affected. Faced with these challenges, experts recommend climate change adaptation and mitigation actions. Climate change adaptation means preparing society for actions and is known as the ‘secondary prevention.’ This is about improving people’s ability to cope with changes—such as increased cases of asthma and malaria or mental illness caused by forced migration—and giving them ease of access to health services. More importantly, it is also about tackling the causes and putting in place the “primary preventions.”

The earth is a trust on the shoulders of humanity. We humans should act as stewards of God on earth, to respect this trust and protect it meticulously. Measures like afforestation and preventing waste should be emphasized. Since the estimated (2.5 billion) tons of food waste ending up in landfills annually contribute to about 10% of greenhouse gas emissions, we must avoid waste and sort our garbage for recycling.

As a requirement of social responsibility, we should support efforts in finding solutions to problems like the global change. Since this social responsibility imposes on us the mission of “leaving our world and its entire eco-systems clean and problem-free for future generations,” we should contribute to the formation of a more livable world by prioritizing the protection of the environment. Climate change and the deterioration of the ecological balance remind us of this fundamental duty, and we must not hesitate to take responsibility for combating climate change for both individual and public health.

References

• Churruca-Muguruza C. The Changing Context of Humanitarian Action: Key Challenges and Issues. In: International Humanitarian Action, Springer, 2018, pp. 3–18.
• World Health Organization. COP26 special report on climate change and health: the health argument for climate change. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021.
• Keswani A, Akselrod H, Anenberg SC. Health and clinical impacts of air pollution and linkages with climate change. NEJM Evid, 2022;1(7).
• Toreti A, et al. Drought in Europe August 2022, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2022, doi:10.2760/264241, JRC130493. https://edo.jrc.ec.europa.eu/documents/news/GDO-EDODroughtNews202208_Europe.pdf
• Xu C, Kohler TA, Lenton TM, Svenning JC, Scheffer M. Future of the human climate niche. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2020;117(21):11350-11355.
• Landrigan PJ, et al. Human Health and Ocean Pollution. Ann Glob Health 2020;86(1):151.

In our previous issue we briefly mentioned that the date fruit facilitates delivery and can be eaten to help prevent infertility. This article will continue to examine their manyfold health benefits with a specific focus on their protective features against many diseases.

All essential amino acids

Dates contain 18 of the 20 amino acids found in living creatures. We may sort the quantity of amino acids found in dates from highest to lowest as: Glutamic acid, Aspartic acid, Leucine, Proline, Arginine, Phenylalanine, Valine, Alanine, Serine, Glycine, Iso-leucine (800 times more than an apple), Lisin (2000 times more than an apple and banana), Threonine, Histidine, Tyrosine, Methionine, Cysteine and Tryptophan.

Dates contain all of the 8 essential amino acids that should never be neglected in nutrition and are not made in the body. Additionally, the fact that dates offer 10 non-essential substances that can be made in the body means that all the necessary materials for the synthesis of these proteins, which serve as the basic building blocks of the human body, are present in dates. In this sense, date is a very unique fruit, and this is why a human being could survive on only dates and water for years. V. H. W. Dowson, one of the renowned experts on this subject, says that a date and a glass of milk will be enough to meet a person’s daily nutritional needs.

Other fruits are generally poor in protein while dates provide protection of the body against diseases and infections by providing amino acids, proteins, a renewal of cells, and a balance of body fluid. Meat is also useful for the body, but it may not be as useful as dates, especially during pregnancy. As a matter of fact, excessive consumption of meat in such a period may cause poisoning in the body. A diet consisting of light vegetables and fruits, such as dates, is more suitable.

A store of elements and amino acids

Dates contain more than 10 elements that are vital for keeping the human body healthy and fit. A hundred grams of dates contains 65 mg calcium, 521 mg potassium, 20 mg magnesium, 72 mg phosphorus, 2.69 mg iron, 0.06 mg sodium, 0.05 mg copper, 0.06 mg zinc, 0.07 mg manganese, sulfur, chlorine, and selenium as well as other elements that are very important for metabolic processes in the human body. Some studies have reported that the amount of minerals found in dates is three to five times higher than those found in apples, bananas, oranges, and grapes. Sodium and chlorine are effective in the activity of the muscular and nervous systems, in adjusting appetite, and protecting the body from gaining weight. They also take part in regulating the pH level in our blood and the water in the body. Sulfur is part of the amino acids cystine and methionine and is involved in the synthesis of many proteins.

In addition, potassium helps transport oxygen to the brain as a result of which we have clarity of thought. Moreover, it provides alkaline (basic) features that are suitable for body fluids. It stimulates the kidneys to remove toxic body waste, and additionally helps to lower high blood pressure and ensure the formation of healthy skin. Calcium and phosphate are essential minerals for muscles and healthy bone development, whereas magnesium is required for the kidneys and energy metabolism. Iron is necessary for the production of hemoglobin in the red blood cells. A person can meet the need for magnesium by eating 2-3 dates a day, and iron by eating 15 dates a day. These amounts will also prevent anemia.

Having been wisely created as a host of so many substances, dates surely have healing features. Numerous studies have been carried out on its feature of terminating harmful “free radical” molecules as well as its antioxidant, antimutagenic, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, antihyperlipidemic (anti-greasing) effects. Many studies have been done on the protective immune stimulating effects of dates against the stomach, liver, kidney diseases, and cancer. There are also other studies on the benefits of the seeds, pollen, leaves, and syrups of dates.

Antioxidant activity

In studies of its antioxidant effects, the date fruit has been shown to reduce oxidative stress that damages cells. The protective effect of high levels of vitamin C, A, E, and phenolic substances acts as a powerful antioxidant by accelerating the activity of enzymes such as catalase, glutathione reductase and glutathione S-transferase [1].

Anticancer effect

The components of a date have been found to initiate an antitumor activity. Research found that date juice stops the melanoma cell that causes epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma, which is a type of intestinal cancer and a type of skin cancer [2].

Effects on diabetes, raising of glucose and fat in blood

The glycemic indices of the sugars in dates are as follows: Maltose (105), Glucose (100), Sucrose (68), Lactose (46), and Fructose (23). Their absorption rate by the body is also different. Glucose is absorbed fastest while fructose is absorbed later. These absorption and glycemic index differences show that dates do not raise blood sugar fast and provide an increased feeling of fullness and are a food that can be used easily for diabetics. They do not raise blood sugar rapidly thanks to the fact that the total glycemic index of a date is 39. This may be due to its minerals, phenolic, and phytoestrogen components. Magnesium plays an important role in regulating and secreting the effect of insulin. Zinc, on the other hand, stimulates the production and release of insulin while strengthening the effect of chromium insulin. Selenium has also been shown to promote glucose uptake.

Phenolic compounds delay the absorption of carbohydrates, preventing the rapid rise of sugar in blood. In scientific literature, the antidiabetic effect of dates have been proven. Lab studies have shown that a-glucosidase and a-amylase were suppressed, thereby delaying digestion and absorption of carbohydrates and normalizing glucose levels in plasma. The effect of date leaves, hydro-alcoholic extract and aqueous solution of seeds are also shown. In another study,[3] scientists treated diabetic rats by giving each rat 10 ml of reconstituted date seed powder per day. It was then observed that the serum glucose, cholesterol and triacylglycerol levels of rats returned to normal values.

Anti-inflammatory activity

There is a great deal of research on the anti-inflammatory effects of dates, expediting wound healing processes, and protecting the heart. Al-Qarawi et al. found that the juice obtained from dates is effective in improving the severity of gastric ulceration and reducing histamine and gastrin concentrations. According to the authors, the anti-inflammatory properties of date extract can be explained by its antioxidant effect [4]. In another study conducted on dates grown in Algeria, it was shown that the extract given orally produced a significant reduction in wound edema in Swiss albino mice. Presumably, this effect is due to the suppression of inflammatory cytokine enzymes that can interfere with prostaglandin synthesis of some active substances in date sap.

Antimicrobial activity

There are a lot of studies about cold pressed date juice. A study found that the juice decreased the reproduction of Streptococcus causing febrile disease by 88.5%. Another study found that sap extracts dissolved in water and ethanol have a strong antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Salmonella enterica, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella abec and Enterococ. This germicidal effect is thought to be caused by tannic acid, gallic acid, itaconic acid and ferulic acids that are present in dates [5]. In another study, different degrees of influence were observed between different types of dates. It has been reported to be more efficient against Gram-negative bacteria due to the presence of an outer membrane in Gram-positive bacteria. This effect against microbes is due to phenolic compounds that enable the production of hydrogen peroxide, which stops the growth of bacteria.

Antitoxic activities

There are many studies about the protective effects of dates on the liver, kidney, and nervous system in neutralizing the oxidative stress and poisonous compounds that are obtained from food. It has been shown that p-Sitosterol, a bioactive compound often found in dates, is beneficial for liver injury when date seed powder is added to drinking water [6]. Another study showed the anti-damage effect of the succulent extract of dates on damaged liver cells related to oxidative stress [7].

Kidney-protective role

It is known that toxic substances that enter our body from the environment in various ways can cause great damage to us, especially to our kidneys. An extract prepared from date seeds has been shown to provide significant protection in the kidneys and remove harmful free radicals. This is thought to be due to the proanthocyanidin it contains. Another study showed improvements in mice with impaired renal function.

Scientists concluded that dates show significant improvements in the damage done to the kidneys by aflatoxin, a dangerous fungus that reproduces in foods, which can also be attributed to its antioxidant properties. Scientists believe that the effect here is due to the common effect of melatonin, vitamin E, and ascorbic acid in the extract [8].

Its influence against nerve poisoning

Free radicals have been extensively proven to cause aging and a multitude of age-associated diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and dementia due to circulatory system failure [9]. Antioxidants obtained from plants have long been used to help prevent neurons from weakening and dying [10]. Studies are concentrated on the effectiveness of joint protection by polyphenolic compounds (resembling flavonoids and plant sterols) and the ascorbic acid that is found in date extract.

Its effect on the cardiovascular system

Dates have been used against high blood pressure for centuries. In one study, an enzyme in dates has been shown to suppress a specific blood pressure hormone called angiotensin [11]. High sodium and low potassium intakes increase blood pressure, whereas dates help maintain electrolyte balances and keep blood pressure in control. Magnesium and calcium in dates play a key role in this control [12]. It has been reported that cholesterol absorption and metabolism can be regulated by the suppression of cholesterol production in the liver due to the fermentation of phytoestrogens in dates [13].

In another study, a Pakistani date variety has been shown to be very effective in lowering compounds such as preprandial blood sugar, cholesterol, triacylglycerol, LDL, and VLDL. In another study, some chemical components such as P-sitosterol, proanthocyanidin, catechin, quercetin, anthocyanins, and selenium have been shown to both protect the heart and lower blood fats [14].

Each and every day, scientific studies are teaching us more about dates and how they have been equipped with more features than any other fruit as we strive to unveil the wisdom and mercy among the bounties offered to us in the shape of food.

References

1. Biglari, F., Al Karkhi A.F.M., Easa, A.M. (2008): Antioxidant activity and phenolic content of various date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) fruits from Iran. Food Chem 2008; 107(4): 1636-41.
2. Eid, N., Enani, S., Walton G., Corona G., Costabile, A., Gibson, G., Rowland, I., Spencer, J.P.E. (2014): The impact of date palm fruits and their component polyphenols, on gut microbial ecology, bacterial metabolites and colon cancer cell proliferation. J Nutr Sci 3: e46.
3. Hasan, M., Mohieldein, A. (2016): In Vivo Evaluation of anti-diabetic, hypolipidemic, antioxidative activities of saudi date seed extract on streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. J. Clin. Diagn Res. 10(3): FF06-12.
4. Al-Qarawi A.A., Abdel-Rahman H., Ali B.H., Mousa H.M., El-Mougy S.A. (2005): The ameliorative effect of dates (Phoenix dactylifera L.) on ethanol-induced gastric ulcer in rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 98(3): 313-7.
5. El Sohaimy S., Abdelwahab A., Brennan C., Aboul-enein A. (2015): Phenolic content, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Egyptian date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) fruits. Aust. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 9(1): 141-7.T
6. Al-Qarawi A.A., Mousa H.M., Ali B.H., Abdel-Rahman H., El-Mougy S.A.(2004): Protective effect of extracts from dates (Phoenix dactylifera L.) on carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Int. J. Appl. Res. Vet. Med. 2(3): 176-80.
7. Saafi E.B., Louedi M., Elfeki A., Zakhama A., Najjar M.F., Hammami M., Achour L. (2011): Protective effect of date palm fruit extract (Phoenix dactylifera L.) on dimethoate induced-oxidative stress in rat liver. Exp. Toxicol. Pathol. 63(5): 433-41.
8. Al-Qarawi A.A., Abdel-Rahman H., Mousa H.M., Ali B.H., El-Mougy S.A.(2008): Nephroprotective Action of Phoenix dactylifera. in Gentamicin-Induced Nephrotoxicity. Pharm. Biol. 46(4): 22730.
9. Uttara, B.; Singh, A.; Zamboni, P.; Mahajan, R.(2009): Oxidative Stress and Neurodegenerative Diseases: A Review of Upstream and Downstream Antioxidant Therapeutic Options. Curr. Neuropharmacol. 7(1): 65-74.
10. Pujari R.R., Vyawahare N.S., Kagathara V.G. (2011): Evaluation of antioxidant and neuroprotective effect of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) against bilateral common carotid artery occlusion in rats. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 49(8): 627-33.
11. Braga F.C., Serra C.P., Junior N.S.V., Oliveira A.B., Cortes S.F., Lombardi J.A.(2007): Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition by Brazilian plants. Fitoterapia 78(5): 353-8.
12. Tang Z-X, Shi L-E, Aleid S.M. (2013): Date fruit: chemical composition, nutritional and medicinal values, products. J. Sci. Food Agric. 93(10): 2351-61.
13. Alsaif M.A., Khan L.K., Alhamdan A.A.H., Alorf S.M., Harfi S.H., Al- Othman A.M., Arif Z.(2007): Effect of dates and gahwa (Arabian coffee) supplementation on lipids in hypercholesterolemic hamsters. Int. J. Pharmacol. 3(2): 123-9.
14. Auger C., Teissedre P.-L,. Gerain P., Lequeux N., Bornet A., Serisier S., Besancon P., Caporiccio B., Cristol J.-P., Rouanet J.-M.(2005): Dietary wine phenolics catechin, quercetin, and resveratrol efficiently protect hypercholesterolemic hamsters against aortic fatty streak accumulation. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53(6): 2015-21.

In addition to protecting the infant from life-threatening enemies, the nutrition of a newborn should be suitable for their development and appropriate for their digestive system and sensitive kidneys, which are not ready to accept any ordinary food. If it was up to the parents to design and create the necessary nutrition for babies, what would they do? Would they be able to come up with a formula that would provide the necessary nutrition, protect them from bacteria and viruses, and also be fit for their digestive system? Millions of dollars are spent on infant nutrition, but no one has come up with anything better than mother’s milk.

A diet for a newborn should include the following elements in certain proportions: water, proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, fats, fatty acids, minerals and vitamins (A, and B with all its subgroups, C, D, E and K).

Water is a major necessity for the human body, being composed of mostly liquid. In the 10th week of pregnancy, 94% of an embryo is liquid, whereas 79% of a newborn is liquid. As the baby reaches its 3rd month, the total liquid in its body is 70%, while at age 1 this amount is reduced to 60%. The amount of total liquid in an adult body is about 55% of the total body-weight, and while the amount of liquid that passes through an adult body daily is about 6% of its total weight, this amount is 4 times higher (25%) in infants. Dehydration can occur very fast in babies. This is why infant nutrition should be high in water. Not surprisingly, breast milk, which pours from the fountain of compassion of the Almighty, is 90% water. Breast milk also contains solid (casein) and soluble (whey) proteins, which are essential for the growth and repair of the body. Casein in breast milk forms much softer clogs and is easier to digest compared to the casein in cow’s milk. Moreover, the whey in breast milk plays an important role in protecting the babies from infections, since it has an anti-infective property. Cow’s milk, for example, does not contain the anti-infective proteins that are essential for human babies. Since their immune system is not yet fully developed, babies are not able to fight off infections, and their defense is provided by breast milk, which acts not only as nutrition, but also as a live fluid that protects babies against infections. There is no formula or food that can replace breast milk, as it contains live macrophage and lymphocytes. (WHO-1993, UNICEF, 1993 – Nutrition–H-1OF)

In sura al-Qasas in the Qur’an we are told of the Pharaoh’s unimaginable cruelty, and how he was punished by God as an admonition. The Pharaoh had been told by a fortuneteller that a baby, a successor of the sons of Ishmael, would be born, and would bring his kingdom to an end. Frightened by this prediction, the Pharaoh commanded that all newborns in the country be killed. At the time, Moses’ mother was pregnant with him. As she gave birth to Moses, her only worry was to protect him from the Pharaoh’s soldiers. At this moment she was guided by divine inspiration: 

Suckle (your child), but when you fear for him, cast him into the river and do not fear nor grieve; surely We will bring him back to you and make him one of Our Messengers. (Qasas 28:7)

“Suckle (your child),” or in other words, “breastfeed him,” were God’s words to a mother whose only worry was saving her baby’s life. If one reads the verses preceding and following the above verse carefully, it is clear that the main idea in the verse is to protect the baby. Now, why would such a verse advise the mother to breastfeed? It is because the Pharaoh’s soldiers were not the only threat to the baby. After years of medical research, we now know that an infant’s immune system has not yet developed, and therefore they need to be protected against bacteria and viruses, which in Moses’ story were a more immediate threat to the baby than the Pharaoh. It is certain that the baby would be exposed to bacteria and viruses before the Pharaoh’s soldiers found him. Being under such a great anxiety, a mother might not be able to take good care of cleaning and feeding her baby, which would increase the risk of infection to the baby. For this very reason, God advised Moses’ mother to breastfeed the baby first. It is God Who creates and provides breast milk through the mothers’ body, and He certainly knows that not only is it a source of food and nutrition, but that it also helps to protect the baby against infections. God may, of course, choose to provide direct protection, without requiring breast milk, but then, living in a world of cause and effect, we are reminded of the perfect balance of this universe.

A breastfeeding mother should be free of anxiety and stress, as these will negatively affect the mother’s milk production. (WHO-1993, UNICEF, 1993 – Nutrition–H-1OF) The Qur’an, after advising breastfeeding, continues to comfort the mother “. . . when you fear for him, cast him into the river and do not fear nor grieve; surely We will bring him back to you and make him one of Our Messengers.” Breastfeeding mothers have high levels of prolactin in their boies. As well as stimulating milk production, this hormone also functions as an anti-depressant for the mother. In this context, it is very significant that the mother is advised to breastfeed. It is incredible that a verse that is nearly 1400 years old is perfectly in accordance with the results of 30-years of research on breast milk.

Lactose-another ingredient in breast milk-is a kind of carbohydrate that is suitable for the digestive system of babies. Its slow digestion balances the sugar levels in the baby’s body. Lactose also increases the absorption of calcium. Together with some fat molecules, galactose-a type of molecule found in lactose-forms compounds that are essential for the development of the brain in infants. It also plays a role in the increase of a bacterium called “lactobacillius bifidus” found in the infant’s intestine. These harmless bacteria form the intestinal flora, which eventually protects them from diarrhea. In premature babies, more than 90% of lactose in breast milk is transmitted to the blood through mucous in the intestines after breast feeding. This preventive care can neither be provided by the mother nor is it initiated through the desire or ability of the baby. In addition to having so many benefits for babies, another positive aspect of lactose is that the amount found in breast milk is not affected by the mother’s diet.

There are more than 100 types of sugar, known as Oligosaccharides, found in breast milk. Oligosaccharides and other anti-infective elements in the intestines prevent harmful microorganisms from holding on to the intestines by clinging to them.

Babies get most of the energy they need from the fats found in breast milk, which are easily absorbed in the baby’s intestines. The fat ratio in the breast milk increases at the end of the breast feeding session; this gives the baby a feeling of fullness and prevents overfeeding. In this way, babies are also protected against obesity and other connected health risks that may occur in the future, including heart and vessel diseases, hypertension, diabetes, etc.

The mother’s diet does not affect the quantity or quality of minerals found in breast milk. Breast milk provides as much minerals as the baby needs, using the mineral stocks of the mother. It also contains all the necessary vitamins for the baby’s first month, as well as growth factors, enzymes, and ten other hormones, whose benefits are still unknown.

Breast milk in mothers who give birth to a premature baby is different than regular breast milk; this helps to satisfy the unique needs of a premature baby. In the first few weeks after the birth of a premature baby, the amount of protein in the mother’s breast milk is higher in comparison to that of a mother who delivered full term. A premature baby needs 2 grams of protein per one kilogram of its body weight daily, twice the amount needed by a full term baby. Also the protein quality (casein/whey ratio) of breast milk for a mother who gave birth to an underweight baby is adjusted accordingly: 30% of casein and 70% of whey protein. The fat in breast milk provides 50% of the total calories, which is the ideal combination for underweight babies. The digestion and absorption of this fat, the types of fatty acids, and the distribution of these acids over the triglyceride molecules are perfect.

It is well known that breastfed premature babies have better visual ability, and that long-chained fatty acids, carotene, taurine and vitamin E-all of which are contained in breast milk in perfect ratios-play an important role in visual ability.

The First Two Years of Life and Breastfeeding

One liter of breast milk alone provides 2/3 of all the protein and all of the vitamin A and C an infant needs up to the second year. If a baby can get 1.5 liters of breast milk daily, they will be provided with most of the nutrition they need. This is why breast feeding should continue through to the end of the second year, if possible.

The true value of breast milk has only recently been discovered. In the 1960s, a massive advertising campaign for baby formula was able to “discover” almost every day another element that existed in formula, but was lacking in breast milk. This was broadcast via television, especially in the US. As a result of these scientific (!) findings, mothers were alienated from breast feeding and a formula generation was born, all in the name of “science.”

In 1980, breast milk was recommended for only the first four months of life. It was claimed that after four months, breast milk did not have any nutritional value and was just like water for the baby. In 1986, breast milk was recommended for the first six months. And finally, starting from 1993, breast milk was recommended for the first two years, after it was discovered that even during the second year, breast milk still provides most of the necessary nutrition for infants. A verse from the Qur’an says: 

And the mothers should suckle their children for two whole years for him who desires to make complete the time of suckling; and their maintenance and their clothing must be borne by the father on equitable terms. No soul shall have imposed upon it a duty but to the extent of its capacity; neither shall a mother be made to suffer harm on account of her child, nor a father on account of his child, and a similar duty (devolves) on the (father’s) heir, but if both desire weaning by mutual consent and counsel, there is no blame on them. (Baqara 2:233)

Medical researches have just discovered within the last 10 years that breast feeding should continue for two years, yet the Qur’an has been giving us the same advice for 14 centuries. If one is rational, one must agree that no one else but God could have known this so many years ago. And who else could possibly have provided us with such information, information that it would have been impossible to discover with the limited science and medical research of the 7th century?