Sea sheep is a cute and cuddly animal, which could have been appropriately called “leaf sheep,” for it really looks like a sheep among lush green leaves. It is also called the solar periwinkle. What is unique with it is that photosynthesis, an event unique to the plant kingdom, takes place in this its body.

This tiny inhabitant of the seas (Costasiella kuroshimae) is a type of sea slug that runs in its body a process called kleptoplasty, by which it utilizes the energy of light and obtains food—a process normally reserved for plants. This is not a usual way for an animal to survive. It is an exception that does not only show the variety within creation but also lifts the veil of what could be perceived as monotonous in the universal order and regularity within the universe [1].

A marvelous phenomenon: Kleptoplasty

Kleptoplasty is the process by which a creature that cannot photosynthesize feeds on another photosynthesizing creature and moves some chloroplasts from that creature into its body for storage [2]. This unusual phenomenon occurs in some creatures that feed on algae, usually microscopic or macroscopic algae.

Some sea slugs, like the sea sheep, also feed on macroscopic algae. They retain only the chloroplasts of the seaweed Avrainvillea and store them in specialized cells in their digestive tract. The rest they digest completely [3]. They can keep these chloroplasts in their bodies for 10 months or much longer. The chloroplasts retained are used for photosynthesis to meet the sea sheep’s energy needs, as well as for food production and storage.

While we cannot claim that sea sheep and sea snails photosynthesize themselves, we can say photosynthesis takes place in their bodies. Through the chloroplasts hosted in their bodies, they photosynthesize through the phenomenon of kleptoplasty. With such a marvelous mechanism, light is transformed into nutrients and provides the tiny sea sheep with sustenance.

Several key experiments were carried out on the functional dimension of kleptoplasty, and the contributions of kleptoplasts—i.e., chloroplasts—to the living host [4]. The experiments suggest that chloroplasts function as a “pantry” that helps organisms survive periods of starvation, even when their photosynthetic activity is blocked. In addition, these studies revealed that kleptoplasts from algae remain functional in the cytosol of an animal cell for a long time.

A closer look at the sea sheep

Sea sheep belong to the Costasiellidae family of mollusks, a class of gastropods. After arthropods, mollusks are the second most diverse branch of the animal kingdom, with about 93,000 known species [5].

These creatures are rather tiny, ranging in size from five millimeters to one centimeter. First discovered in 1993 near the coast of the Japanese island of Kuroshima, the sea sheep (Costasiella kuroshimae) are prevalent in the waters of Japan, the Philippines, and Indonesia [6].

As is common in other mollusks, their bodies comprise three main parts: the muscular foot, the internal mass—which contains the viscera—and the mantle, which covers the internal mass. The organs called radula are vital in transporting food. Like a grater with small teeth on it, this organ is designed for scraping, and it allows them to rasp their food into their bodies.

Sea sheep have fascinated ocean researchers and divers since they were first discovered. Researcher Ara Juan said that when he first saw the creature in the Philippines, he was surprised by how tiny it was. Later, on his second encounter, he saw five of them perched on a leaf and likened them to sheep grazing on a field of algae [7]. These creatures have a world of their own, which they build on the algae leaves and in which they spend their entire lives. Occasionally you can even see their eggs laid in an impressively neat, measured spiral on the seaweed. The eggs, arranged as if drawn with a ruler, are a magnificent sign that the world is created with inimitably precise and delicate measurements.

Sea sheep are remarkable for their close-set, black, beady eyes, horn-like appendages resembling sheep’s ears, and dotted green cerata protruding from the upper surface of their bodies. Cerata are leaf-like structures with pink, purple, or white tips, similar to those of the aloe vera plant, and contain branches of the digestive gland. The guest chloroplasts involved in photosynthesis are also held in the cerata.

Besides these specific organs, the two tentacles on the back of the head, acting as chemosensors, have also been exclusively created and equipped. These act as the olfactory sensors of this sea slug, enabling the animal to find food sources by picking up and analyzing chemical signals in the water.

Several comparative studies have also been carried out on various species of Costasiella living on algae of the genus Avrainvillea [8]. It was observed that the eyes of the sea sheep were larger than those of the other species and were between two large tentacles extending like horns. When the ceratas were examined, it was found that they were orange and iridescent blue spotted, tapering from two ends, and containing albumin glands. For each species, all these organs are individually engraved and decorated with different colors and patterns.

What a precious grace it is for us to observe such astonishing works of creation, which are paraded before our eyes in the depths of the sea. Just as the sea sheep is provided with sustenance from the chloroplasts, we are provided with the sustenance of knowledge of the One who creates all of it for us, perhaps wrapped in concentric layers of meanings in one of which is the sea sheep found.

Notes

1. Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, Addendum to the Sixteenth Word, The Words, Risale-i Nur Collection
2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3949400/
3. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aaw4337
4. Gregor Christa, Sven B. Gould, Johanna Franken, Manjavleugels, Dario Karmeinski, Katharina Handeler, Wiliam F. Martin And Heike Wagele, Functional Kleptoplasty In A Limapontioidean Genus: Phylogeny, Food Preferences And Photosynthesis In Costasiella With A Focus On C. Ocellifera (Gastropoda: Sacoglossa), Journal of Molluscan Studies (2014) 1–9. doi:10.1093/mollus/eyu026
5. https://ekog.org/2020/12/26/yaprak-koyunu-costasiella/
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costasiella_kuroshimae
7. https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20210324-the-odd-sea-creature-powered-by-the-sun
8. Kathe R. Jensen, Patrick J. Krug, Anne Dupont, Masayoshi Nishina, A review of taxonomy and phylogenetic relationships in the genus Costasiella (Heterobranchia: Sacoglossa), with a description of a new species, Journal of Molluscan Studies, Volume 80, Issue 5, December 2014, Pages 562-574,  https://doi.org/10.1093/mollus/eyu048

Artificial photosynthesis transforms CO₂ into liquefiable fuels

Yu and Jain. Plasmonic photosynthesis of C1–C3 hydrocarbons from carbon dioxide assisted by an ionic liquid. Nature Communications, May 2019.

Scientists have recently established a reliable “artificial photosynthesis” paradigm to produce fuels from water, carbon dioxide, and visible light. With the help of sunlight, chemical reactions between water and CO₂ are catalyzed in plants to generate and store solar energy in the form of glucose. This process is called photosynthesis. In the new study, the researchers developed an artificial process that uses the same mechanisms of natural photosynthesis to convert CO₂ and water into liquid fuel by using electron-rich gold nanoparticles as a catalyst. Gold nanoparticles function in the same role as chlorophyll in natural photosynthesis in the absorbing of light and transferring electrons and protons to catalyze the chemical reactions between CO₂ and water. They are known to be efficient at absorbing light and do not break down or degrade like other metals. The energy stored in the bonds of the hydrocarbon fuel can be freed by the conventional method of combustion or by new-generation, environmentally-friendly power fuel cells, thus producing electrical current. By converting CO₂ into more complex molecules like propane, green-energy technology is now one step closer to using excess CO₂ to store solar energy for use when the sun is not shining and in times of peak demand. While the development of this CO₂-to-liquid fuel may be exciting for proponents of green-energy technology, the artificial photosynthesis process is nowhere near as efficient as it is in plants. New methods should be developed to increase the efficiency of the catalysts and downstream chemical reactions at much higher scales.

Brain area that watches for walls identified

Henriksson et al. Rapid Invariant Encoding of Scene Layout in Human OPA. Neuron, May 2019.

Neuroscientists have identified the part of the human brain whose duty is to help us perceive the barriers which define the navigable space around us, such as walls or ceilings, so that so we can avoid bumping into things and navigate safely through our environment. By way of vision we have an almost instant sense of where we are in space. Although this process feels effortless, it requires the coordinated activity of multiple brain regions and neurons working together to give us this sense of our surroundings. This process has remained unknown. But thanks to a new study, we are a step closer to solving the puzzle. Using cutting-edge brain-imaging technologies, researchers examined the mental responses of volunteers as they were shown images of various three-dimensional scenes. The images depicted a typical room with three walls, a ceiling, and a floor, but then were abruptly changed by the removal of a wall or a ceiling. By doing this repeatedly, the team could pinpoint how the participant’s brain encoded every scene. In the brain scans of the volunteers, one brain area called the occipital place area (OPA) clearly stood out. OPA activity represented the geometry of the scenes and activity patterns, reflected the presence or absence of each component, such as a ceiling or a wall, and projected a detailed picture of the overall configuration. Interestingly, OPA seemed to ignore the surface appearance of the various components such as colors or textures in order to focus only on the geometric patterns. The OPA managed to perform all the necessary computations needed to get a sense of a room’s layout extremely fast – in just 100 milliseconds. In the future, the research team plans to incorporate virtual reality technology to create more realistic 3D environments for participants to experience, hopefully achieving much deeper insights into how our brains process and makes sense of the visual information.

Gut segments are organized by function

Esterházy D. et al. Compartmentalized gut lymph node drainage dictates adaptive immune responses. Nature, April 2019.

As food enters our intestine, it goes through a windy and lengthy journey. A new study provides new insights into how our intestines maximize nutrient uptake while protecting the body from potentially dangerous invading microbes. At first glance, the intestines appear to have a uniform tissue structure. But when scientists looked at them closer, they found that our food-processing canal seems to consist of multiple compartments that pace the immune system’s reactions to the food passing through. Scientists uncovered these functional intestine segments in mice when they examined the intestinal structures called gut draining lymph nodes, which orchestrate immune responses. The researchers found that nodes in different parts of the intestines had different cell composition, and they saw different immune responses between segments when they challenged the mice with a pathogen. They observed less aggressive defenses in the first segments where nutrients are absorbed, and more forceful responses at the end, where pathogens are eliminated. Researchers plan to exploit these immunological differences between the gut segments for treating gastrointestinal disorders. For example, by targeting immune-suppressing drugs to the specific gut segment where they’ll have the most effect, it might be possible to dampen their side-effects. The spectrum of immune responses along the intestines could also be used to make new and better oral vaccines. Thus far, scientists’ efforts to design oral vaccines have been hampered by the difficulty of generating a robust immune response; it is possible that the muted immune response at the beginning of the intestines might be part of the reason why oral vaccines tend to be less effective than injections. Thus, targeting the distant end of the intestine might be much more efficient way of inducing the immune response required.

For hundreds of years, people believed that the sun rotated around the Earth. Similarly, people have misbelieved that the reason for photosynthesis was to convert carbon dioxide to oxygen for humans to use.

This is a common misinterpretation. So, have your teachers been wrongly teaching that photosynthesis produces oxygen? No, but there is a much greater function for the miraculous reaction we call photosynthesis (Campbell 2008).

Plants are under the constant strain of performing photosynthesis. It’s how they survive. The inputs of the reaction are carbon dioxide, water, and light energy. The outcomes are primarily glucose, then oxygen and water (Fig. 1). Both glucose and oxygen are necessary for human life.

6 CO₂ + 12 H₂0 + light energy—>C₆H₁₂0₆ + 6 O₂ + 6H₂0

Photosynthesis is a set of two integrated reactions: light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions (the Calvin cycle) (Fig. 2). Light dependent reactions consist of photosystem II and I. Each of these separate reactions processes the inputs of the reaction one by one, generating the products. We will only focus on one part of this very complex system: photosystem II (Freeman 2011).

To understand this complex system, we must first understand the anatomy of a plant cell. There are many specialized organelles inside each plant cell including a nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondrion, and many more (Fig. 3). Each of these organelles has a different function and photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplast of the plant cell. The chloroplast alone consists of an outer and inner membrane, granum, stroma, and thylakoids (Fig. 3) (Freeman 2011).

The plant’s leaves contain several mesophyll cells, which contain more chloroplast (Fig 4). Each chloroplast has many granum, which are stacks of thylakoids. All of these are floating in stroma, a type of connective tissue. These three structures are enclosed within the two membranes. Products and reactants enter and leave the cell through the stomata, which are at the leaf surface. Light reactions take place in the granum, while the Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma. Light that hits the granum is absorbed (Freeman 2011).

“the cleanliness, purity, and luminosity in this palace of the world arise from a continuous, wise, and diligent cleaning.” Bediuzzaman Said Nursi

The light that hits the granum is part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Photosynthetically active radiation is also identified as visible light. Visible light consists of wavelengths from 400 – 710 nm, in the colors indigo, violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red, respectively. Longer wavelengths contain lower energy, while shorter wavelengths contain higher energy. The granum absorbs all of this light, while reflecting the middle of the spectrum: green. This is why we see plants as green, unless a different color is reflected (Campbell 2005).

The first step in this intricate reaction results from photosystem II, a transmembrane protein complex located in the thylakoid membrane. At this location water splitting occurs, which produces hydrogen (protons), oxygen, and electrons (Fig. 5). This is crucial, because the energy needed for the rest of the reaction to occur is obtained from these electrons. In addition, the waste product of oxygen is released for humans to use (Pushkar et. al. 2008).

2 H₂O—>4H⁺ + e^– + O₂

It is ironic that one “waste” matter, which is called so by looking at the chemical reaction, can actually be the most important component for our survival.

The details of photosynthetic oxygen evolution via light-dependent reactions are still unclear, but research shows that at some point electrons from the oxidized water molecules replace the electrons present in the antenna complex. First, a photon, or a particle of light, hits the antenna complex (P680) in the thylakoid membrane. Here, the energy is transferred to nearby pigments until it reaches the appropriate compound – pheophytin. Next, this energy is used to transfer the electron isolated from water to pheophytin, where it will be transferred again to the cytochrome complex via the electron carrier plastoquinone. The cytochrome complex acts as an electron transport chain, connecting photosystem I to photosystem II, by using a proton gradient to produce more energy in the form of ATP, as well as releasing oxygen molecules as a byproduct (Govindjee 2000).

Although people assume photosystem II to be a chemical reaction, it is actually a solid-state process. In a solid-state process the usual rules of chemistry such as random collisions and energy distributions do not apply. The process occurs within picoseconds in a crystalline environment, constructed from the macromolecular structure of photosystem II. Due to these differences and the precise positioning of P680 the process of photosystem II is 100% efficient (Ruban et al. 2011).

Hydrogen-fueled cars

If engineers could utilize the electrolysis of water as seen in photosystem II, they would be able to produce enough hydrogen to fuel vehicles without it being inefficient or dangerous. The two biggest issues during the development of hydrogen-fueled cars include problems with the fuel cell and production and storage of the hydrogen (Bossel 2006). A fuel cell is used to convert chemical energy to electrical energy by oxidizing the fuel. Although this device would be extremely environmentally friendly – since the products are only heat and water – it is very expensive to manufacture and very sensitive. For example, temperatures must be kept at very high heat, sometimes up to 1000° C, which is very ineffective for many consumers around the world (Smithsonian Institution 2012). The second biggest problem is finding a way to safely produce and store the hydrogen required. Since hydrogen molecules do not float by themselves in the environment, they must be produced by removing them from a pre-existing source (Suplee 2009). In addition to removing hydrogen via electrolysis, it can be removed from fossil fuel via thermolysis or from biological wastes producing biohydrogen. Storage is also a very vital concern, because if hydrogen molecules are compressed they will essentially turn into a hydrogen bomb. What is surprising is that in plants the hydrogen ions are compressed in order to construct a proton gradient, yet they don’t explode (Bossel 2006).

As nanotechnology advances we can better understand and apply the mechanism of photosystem II. Learning the details of how the light energy activates the electrons from water-splitting is extremely important for future green technologies, such as hydro cars. Hydro cars have been invented, but the efficiency is less than 25% (Bossel 2006).

McGill University, based in Montreal, conducted research this year on artificial photosynthesis in order to increase the efficiency of hydrogen based fuel cells. Their research resulted in the creation of “direct solar water splitting”, which aims to store solar energy as a chemical fuel in the same way that photosynthesis does. An industry-ready design that operates solely on sunlight and seawater has been finished (Newman 2018).

The Device is able to turn a little more than 3% of the solar energy that it absorbs into hydrogen. There is still more work to be done taking into account that 5% conversion is the required threshold in order to reach commercialization. But, it is still a sizable improvement considering previous devices reached only 1% conversion.

Tesla CEO and entrepreneur Elon Musk has made his disdain for hydrogen fuel cells known publicly on many occasions. He has called them “mind-bogglingly stupid”, “incredibly dumb”, and “fool cells”. Musk argues that it more efficient to simply use electricity to charge batteries instead of using hydrogen.

Tesla has been busy with its own innovations. They unveiled their new Tesla Semi and Tesla Roadster on November 16th of last year to the surprise of many. Tesla made some bold claims around its new cars by arguing that the Roadster will be the fastest-accelerating production car in the world and that the Semi will deliver more range for an even lower price. However, a report by Bloomberg argues that Tesla will not be able to fulfill these claims with the batteries that currently exist on the market and that Tesla will need to develop better ones in order to do so.

Unlike Tesla, international auto companies such as Hyundai and Audi are making their own big advancements in hydrogen. The two firms made a deal in June of this year to allow the sharing of all of their intellectual property and components within each other. The goal is to boost advancements and research in order to catch up with electrical EVs, the likes of which Tesla is excelling with (Locklear 2018).

One small startup in Wales is doing its best to make a difference as well. Riversimple, led by inventor and famous car aficionado Hugo Spowers, claims to be “the only independent hydrogen car startup in the world.” They currently have one model, the Rasa, that is still in its prototype phase. But the car’s statistics can compete with that of Ford’s Fiesta, Toyota’s Mirai, and Tesla’s Model S. Spowers believes heavily in the potential of hydrogen: perhaps Riveredge’s Rasa will make a dent in the market once the Rasa is released for production.

Advancements continue to be made in hydrogen research by popular universities on a consistent basis. On June 16th, the University of Maryland discovered a way to increase the max capacity of hydrogen fuel cells by utilizing aggressive electrodes. Hydrogen cars are currently rare to find and difficult to produce, but it could be entirely possible that within the next years that they become much more commonplace on our roads (ScienceDaily).

Compared to the 100%-efficient photosystem II, created in the universe, mankind lags far behind (Ruban et al., 2011). Hopefully, as technology advances we will make better cars, as well as understand the universe deeply in every respect.

References

Bossel, U. “Does a Hydrogen Economy Make Sense?” Proceedings of the IEEE 94.10
        (2006): 1826-837. Print.

Campbell, Neil A. Biology: Concepts & Connections. San Francisco, Ca.:
          Pearson/Benjamin Cummings, 2008. Print.

Campbell, Neil A. Biology. [S.l.]: Benjamin-Cummings, 2005. Print.

Freeman, Scott. Biological Science. San Fransicso, CA: Benjamin Cummings, 2011. Print.

“Fuel Cell Technologies Program: Accomplishments and Progress.” EERE: EERE
          Server Maintenance. Ed. U.S. Department of Energy. U.S. Department of Energy,
          16 Nov. 2011. Web. 03 Jan. 2012.
          <http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/accomplishments.html>.

Godvinjee, Rajni. “The Z-Scheme Diagram of Photosynthesis.” 2000. http://www.life.illinois.edu/govindjee/ZSchemeG.html

Locklear, Mallory. Hyundai and Audi team up on hydrogen fuel cell technology. June 20, 2018. www.engadget.com

National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. (2012). Fuel cell basics.

Newman, Dan, Harvesting clean hydrogen fuel through artificial photosynthesis. The Michigan Engineer News Center. https://news.engin.umich.edu/

Pushkar, Y., J. Yano, K. Sauer, A. Boussac, and V. K. Yachandra. “Structural Changes in
          the Mn4Ca Cluster and the Mechanism of Photosynthetic Water Splitting.”
          Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105.6 (2008): 1879-884. Print.

Ruban V; Johnson MP; Duffy CDP. 2011. Natural light harvesting: principles and environmental trends. Energy and Environmental Science. 4(5): 1643-1650.

Suplee, Curt. “Hydrogen-powered Car Still Seems Improbable.” Washington Post:
          Breaking News, World, US, DC News & Analysis. 17 Nov. 2009. Web. 03 Jan.
          2012. <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2009/11/16/AR2009111602668.html>.

University of Maryland. “Electric car batteries souped-up with fluorinated electrolytes for longer-range driving: Chemical engineers pack more energy in same space for reliable battery.” ScienceDaily.

Some insight for leaves

Leaves are in charge of respiration in plants. They consist of the main mechanism producing food for plants, using sunlight via photosynthesis through which food for many more organisms, animals, and humans are provided. Having been assigned to convert solar energy to food, which they’ve been doing for millions, perhaps billions, of years, plants have been a significant instrument for sustaining life on or planet. It is as if plants turn their leaves upward in prayer to ask for food on behalf of all living things.

Morphology of a leaf

Leaves are composed of three sections: the base, blade, and petiole. The blade is the most important part of the leaf; it is wide and flat. The exact shape of leaves vary according to climate, geographical conditions, life span and risk of consumption by other organisms. In tropical climates, the blade is often very wide. In drier climates, it is usually smaller, in order to reduce water loss.

Leaves of some plants undergo a transformation called “metamorphosis” to fulfill different tasks. For example, some leaves have a thorny shape and protect the plant form herbivorous animals. Some leaves are designed to store water, and some are converted into a trap in order to capture insects to nourish the plant.

On the cross section of a leaf, one can observe that four layers constitute the inner part. The first one is the epidermis, which covers the leaf from top to bottom. This layer protects the leaf against external elements and is lined with a waterproof, waxy substance.

The palisade parenchyma is located on the upper side of the inner tissue and it houses chloroplast rich cells, which are lined up densely and carry out photosynthesis. The spongy layer under the palisade tissue forms the intercellular air spaces and this layer is responsible for the respiration of the plant.

For photosynthesis to occur, the leaf needs to receive the maximum amount of sunlight. The sun must hit the leaf at a perpendicular angle; thus, the leaf must be amply wide and must sit level. Because the sun hits different latitudes at different angles, plants have branches of different lengths facing different directions, and leaves have different curvatures. Furthermore, leaves are also lined up in a way so as not to block the sun’s rays. For this to happen, it is required for the leaf base to be thin and the leaves to be lined up in a spiral fashion that enables both lower and higher ones to harvest sunlight in the most efficient way. This type of arrangement exemplifies the golden ratio, which is observed among many structures in nature.

Each leaf sprouts at an angle of either 222.5 or 137.5, derived from division of 360 degrees, from the previous leaf under. This spiral leaf growth provides them with the most suitable place to harvest sunlight maximally. This way the gaps around branches are minimized and a maximum number of leaves is positioned without reducing the light capture capacity of the plant.

Seasons and leaves

Plants work like factories during spring and summer, producing a great deal of food through photosynthesis. Some of these foods help the plant grow and some are stored as starch for winter. With the onset of autumn, a majority of plants outside tropical zones go through hibernation, like many organisms do, and enter a dormant period. In order for plants, like trees and bushes, to survive the cold, their leaves are shed to minimize their surface area and conserve energy. Perennial green plants lose their aerial parts, too, including stems and leaves, and hibernate underground as roots, bulbs, and tubers. They sprout back from their roots once spring brings warmer weather.

Many leaves begin to fade and fall once autumn arrives. The leaves of some hardy plants – like cypress, pine, and spruce trees – continue to function through winter. In some of these trees, like the bay tree and the Indian sandalwood, there are protective layers covering the leaves against the cold. Other leaves, like pine needles, are created in a spiny shape to resist the cold.

Colors of autumn

Leaves seem green during the spring and summer months because the chlorophyll found in them absorbs all wavelengths other than green. The other major pigments found in leaves are carotene (orange) and xanthophylls (yellow). These two pigments are the most common pigments in nature.

As autumn approaches, and photosynthesis begins to end, chlorophyll starts to degrade and the other pigments begin to show. Thus, leaves turn yellow and bright red.

As the weather gets colder, the chloroplasts that are near the leaf’s bottom are broken apart, and sugar levels begin to elevate. The sugars produced during this season accumulate in the leaves day by day due to lower photosynthetic speed and reduced transportation to other parts of the plant. These sugars are converted into anthocyanins. At first, leaves appear yellow. A couple weeks before they fall, most leaves shift from yellow to red. Under abundant sunlight, due to concentrated anthocyanins, leaves seem brighter and more colorful – and thus red. Once the live tissues die completely, all leaves turn brown. This is due to the high concentration of tannin.

Leaf color varies not only because of plant genetics and external factors, but also because of climate. Temperature, humidity, soil composition, and levels of sun exposure all affect color. There is a higher degree of color change in the leaves of trees that grow in lower temperatures.

The composition of soil plays a major role in the color of leaves. Leaves that turn yellow early indicate a nitrogen shortage; on the other hand, the presence of a strong red color indicates very acidic soil. A high alkaline ratio is present in places where leaves are purple.

Walking among fallen leaves and the colorful scenery in a forest in autumn can trigger unique emotions. Depending on the psychological state of a person, the colors of autumn sometimes remind us about the briefness of this world, but they can also hint at the infinite life to come.

The motifs and patterns of leaves

Receiving sufficient sunlight is a significant matter for leaves. Therefore, they are created differently. No two plant leaves are the same.

Some of the leaves are simple and some are compounds. According to their arrangements, opposite, alternate, whorled, and rowed forms exist. Leaf blades can be ovals, kidneys, triangles, or even hearts. Edges can be smooth, serrated, toothed, or lobed. Leaf veins can also have many different motifs.

Each plant species has its own leaf motif. The alfalfa leaf has a triple pattern of specific angles; walnut leaves have an opposite arrangement of eight to ten. A hand-like motif, like the fingers of a praying hand, formed of seven leaves, can be observed on chestnut trees.

The human eye can identify colors within a 360-760 mm distance. The limits of a curved sight cover the yellow-green field. Every leaf and blade of grass reflects light in this field (540-560 mm), and the human eye can detect thus detect green more clearly than any other color. In other words, God, the All-Knowing, made our eyes see the peaceful and lively color green more easily than other colors, and He granted us the ability to distinct over fifty hues of green – more hues than any other color.

In addition to green, the human eye also perceives the color red, the color of of begonia and barberries, which are colored with antocyan. But there is a chlorophyll layer with its distinctive green under the red layer on top of the leaves. Only a human can see a begonia like this – for example, a bee sees it in black.

Biologists found out that greenblue seaweed, which is really spread all over the world, used to provide our planet with oxygen billions of years ago, contains not only “A”- type chlorophyll, but also other pigments. The human eye, however, is “determined” to see only the green seaweed component created in order to saturate the environment with vital oxygen.

Claiming that “mother nature” has executed such a complicated selection, for the sake of Charles Darwin’s principles, is impossible – it would be more realistic to expect a typewriter to write the encyclopedia Britannica by chance.

We must, however, concede a very important detail. Energy absorption of phototrophic organisms, which is dependant the Sun, is adaptively connected with continuously changing levels of solar radiation. As it is known, the latter comes into soil, which then nourishes plants by facilitating the absorption of energy in a selectively narrow diapason (400-900 to 400- 700 nm). It is impossible to modulate an optimal situation for a plant to be nourished through evolution. A blind evolution would not achieve that in a time span much more time than the multibillion age of our Universe. This leads to the conclusion that the Creator made the specific system of energy absorption in plants via rays projected to the Earth by the Sun.

Aside from the fact that green is created and chosen by God, one more detail deserves listing. Objectively a plant’s leaf and its pigment are connected with selective spectral energy absorption. Emanation with different quanta outside of this precise and narrow “adjustment” could have any influence – negative or positive. Pigment of another kind would not function to fulfill its purpose to be vivifying. Is not turning the ruthless solar radiation into a life-giving flow a manifestation of His wisdom and of the love He has for His creations?

In our everyday life, we engage in amateur garden work or we just admire trees and bushes in bloom. This wonderful event, this miracle, appears to us as something routine. Pigments are highly organized; they are “adjusted” to radiation, which means that their spectrums permit them to absorb radiation in the diapasons at their limit intensity. Moreover, a plant’s organism is always able to increase/decrease this intensity.

For sure, there is one more obvious thing – the issue of the maximum solar radiation is relative. The problem is that according to every scale of wave length, maximum radiation is registered at 578 nm., and at 1015 nm. It would be even more, 1804 nm, if read according to the quantum quantity scale.

From the point of view of basic quantum physics, the most prominent authority on understanding of the role of God in the act of creation, the green color of a leaf is understood to be connected with the features of the pigment itself, the most suitable for the function of absorption and transformation of ray energy.

Another issue is also very important – what determines the diapason of a ray’s energy is its FAR and its photosynthesis diapason accordingly. If we do not accept God as Creator, it is hard to imagine how nature, through all its stages of development led the only source of inner energy, the ATF molecule – through anaerobic, then aerobic breathing and ultimately to all the forms of photosynthesis. This molecule with the energy of its chemical compound in the living system of some 10 Kcal/mole remained in the green plant, but it was not only the breath that was the source of its creation.

I would like to share my observations of over fifty years. As the solar ray energy has become the most important source of energy for plants, simplifying a number of arguments, I can say that the plants are granted a mechanism able to form universal inner quanta divisible to ATF in energy as well as to a photosynthetically important compound named NADP.H (50 kcal/mole each). This is based on the features and spectrum of chlorophyll. The quanta are one of the strongest donors of “his majesty the electron!” Please tell me who will speak of blind evolution after considering these “coincidences”…

I would like to share my observations of over fifty years. As the solar ray energy has become the most important source of energy for plants, simplifying a number of arguments, I can say that the plants are granted a mechanism able to form universal inner quanta divisible to ATF in energy as well as to a photosynthetically important compound named NADP.H (50 kcal/mole each). This is based on the features and spectrum of chlorophyll. The quanta are one of the strongest donors of “his majesty the electron!” Please tell me who will speak of blind evolution after considering these “coincidences”…

“Let all the breathing praise the Lord!”

There is a simple conclusion that could be made from all the above. If such “portions,” or quanta, are formed from solar energy absorbed by plants, then means the primary products of the same type can be also formed. “The quality of light” is of no metabolic importance for the process of synthesis in the limits of ray energy. The Word of God, once spoken out, is realized in a determined way, far distant from Darwinian theory.

Long years of experiments, research, and consultations with colleagues from around the world persuaded this author to change his opinion from vulgar materialism to a deeper understanding. Properties in plants are not the result of “calculabilitive” photosynthesis “touched” by science; like all things, these properties are of a manifestation of His, just as are the lives of humans.

This is the irrational choice of my soul. Nonetheless, as it was admitted in the works on the general problems of science and historic knowledge by the Chief of Department of Civilization Problems at the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences by Prof. V.I. Sheremet -the real breakthrough can be reached with faith in God and exploring the undiscovered. So I offer a second conclusion devoid of materialist explanation. The pigment apparatus of a plant is a complicated chlorophyll-protein complex that functions jointly with its intended object. Who determined this program of compatibility? The plant – the main hero of this article – is given the ability to form a physiological quantum of 50 kcal by itself. Moreover, a high intensity green quantum from outside cannot be used by a separate chlorophyll- protein compound.

The conclusion is obvious and simple: a plant’s life cycle is realized only according to His will and in the regime determined by Him. “Monochromatic” sources of ray energy are not suitable, nor welcomed, by God for the full-fledged artificial raising of plants, but it can be of use for the photosynthesis regulation. So, hotbeds are useful and necessary. The generalized summary is as follows. The green color of leaves and, the blue of the cloudless sky, are not random, they are the work of intelligent design.

So let the green color – the color of plants, of nephrite, malachite, and beryl – beloved and honored both in the East and in the West. Let the mysterious “green ray” of a seaside sunset, let the green stripe of the rainbow, the bridge to Heaven for the righteous, remain the symbol of His Will, His Life, His Awakening of spring in the peace of the heart.

May peace be with all of you, dear readers! 

There are many identified species of phytoplanktons. Phytoplanktons live for a day or two under normal conditions, and when they die they sink to the bottom. As a single-celled organism, phytoplankton is not only one of the main components of marine food chain, it is also assigned with an important role in carbon cycle which keeps atmospheric temperature in balance and the level of oxygen under control. Because of their significance, scientists have always showed considerable attention to phytoplanktons.

Photosynthesis in phytoplanktons

All living things need energy and organic building blocks in order to grow and maintain their lives. Plants transform sunlight into chemical energy and inorganic materials to organic materials. This process is called photosynthesis. Other living organisms consume plants to meet their food and energy needs. Like terrestrial plants, phytoplanktons also have chlorophyll pigments to process photosynthesis. This is how fish and other animals in the oceans obtain their food.

Global effects

The larger the world’s phytoplankton population, the more carbon dioxide gets pulled from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is responsible for as much as 50% of the total greenhouse effect. There is a divine wisdom behind existence of phytoplanktons in big populations which help with the adjustment of carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere and thereby the greenhouse effect.

Phytoplanktons have an interactive relationship with their environment. This interactive relationship either increases or decreases the population of phytoplanktons in accordance with environmental changes. Scientists have found that a given population of phytoplankton can double once per day. Large populations of this organism, sustained over long periods of time, could significantly lower atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and, in turn, lower average temperatures. Populations of this marine plant will grow or diminish rapidly in response to changes in its environment. Changes in the trends for a given phytoplankton population-such as its density, spatial distribution, and rate of population growth or diminishment-will alert scientists that environmental conditions are changing there.

Phytoplanktons and sulfur cycle

Dimethylsulfide (DMS) is a sulfuric compound which is synthesized by phytoplanktons. This compound has an important role in softening climate and cloud formation. It has a peculiar odor and although it is frequently perceived as a harmfully polluting chemical, it fulfills a very important task within the bio-geo-chemical cycle on Earth. In order to better recognize climate changes on a global scale and to develop smarter environmental politics, we need to know more about this gas compound.

The production of DMS is dependent upon co-existence of various organisms. Some species of phytoplanktons synthesize the dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) molecule, from which DMS is broken down. Bacteria and phytoplanktons participate in this break down which assimilates DMSP into DMS or other compounds. Some of the produced DMS vaporizes into the atmosphere from the salty sea water and become tropospheric sulfate gas after oxidization. Consequently, this gas plays a direct role in the global radiation balance by the upward scatter of solar radiation, and an indirect role as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN). Clouds affect the Earth’s radiation balance and thereby greatly influence its temperature and climate. DMS represents 95% of the natural marine flux of sulfur gases to the atmosphere, and scientists estimate that the flux of marine DMS supplies about 50% of the global biogenic source of sulfur to the atmosphere.

In order for the sulfuric cycle in nature to continue, it is necessary that sulfuric compounds are transferred from the ocean to land through the atmosphere. DMS, the source for 95% of natural sulfuric gas coming from the oceans, served as cloud condensation nuclei and helps carry sulfuric compounds move to the land with rain.

DMS emissions that originate from phytoplanktons play a significant role in climate formations. One third of the radiation coming from the sun reflects back into the space from the clouds, ice, and snow. The remaining two thirds is absorbed to some extent by the atmosphere, and to a greater extent by oceans and rocks. This energy is converted to heat some of which is later reflected by land and ocean as ultraviolet rays towards the space warming the atmosphere. If the Earth intakes more energy than it loses, the end result is global warming; the opposite is global cooling.

The size of clouds and water driblets indicate global climate changes. The more cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), the smaller the water droplets and the denser a cloud. This, in turn, influences the cloud’s radioactivity.

DMS containing chemical reactions from poles to tropical waters are important for us to estimate man-based and natural effects on the chemistry of atmosphere and the climate more accurately. It sounds somewhat weird for us that we first destroy the environmental balance God has established before we try to discover what we have done using the natural laws He has enjoined.

References

• Norris, K.B., 2003. “Dimethylsulfide emission: Climate control by marine algae?” ASFA: Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts, http://www.csa. com/discoveryguides/dimethyl/overview.php
• http://www.oceansonline.com/phytoplankton.htm
• http://www.sciencephotolibrary.com
• http://www.cedareden.com/phyto.html