During a serene Californian summer retreat, I overheard a captivating conversation between two physicists. In the calm of the setting, their words, filled with passion, seemed to transcend the usual concerns of the world. Unable to resist, I found myself making a “quantum” leap, much like an electron excited to a higher state. Dr. Serdar was enthusiastically discussing proton therapy in cancer treatment, explaining how the proton beam’s properties are carefully coordinated between physicians and physicists during treatment. His words resonated deeply as he reflected on the progress humanity has made in science and the importance of their work. He even joked that if cancer were cured, he would happily switch careers and become a chef.

I enjoyed the conversation and later reflected on how important protons are, despite their small size, and the significant roles they play in serving humanity. In our daily lives, we seldom think of them and “confine” them to the “borders” of a nucleus. Yet, they offer so much more. The more we understand their nature and get to know them, the more they reveal their secrets. Interestingly, to coax them into whispering the codes of their mysterious world, they must be smashed, banged, and subjected to high and low potentials. Harsh as it may sound, aren’t we humans a lot like them? What we do to them, we also face in life. We carry innate positivity within us, yet it often lies dormant, like a seed. Life challenges us with its ups and downs, leading to plenty of “oops” moments. Through these experiences, we uncover new depths, subtle details, and greater discoveries, exploring more of ourselves and the world around us.

Inspired by the discussion, I wanted to dedicate this essay to protons as a tribute to their service, obedience to the laws of their Creator, and the rigor they demonstrate before our eyes. While our tiny titans, protons, constantly make history, let’s take a brief look at their discovery. How they are continually created is, of course, a much larger question – one that goes beyond the scope of this article. The discovery of protons itself spanned over a century. In 1917, Ernest Rutherford discovered the proton by bombarding nitrogen gas with alpha particles. The ejected hydrogen nuclei confirmed the presence of the proton, a fundamental particle in all atomic nuclei. In 1920, he officially named it the “proton,” solidifying its place in atomic theory.

While protons continue to guard their secrets and draw countless researchers with their allure, I was reminded of Said Nursi’s words about creation. In his book The Words, he says, “For sure, ‘to make one thing everything, and everything one thing’ is a sign, a mark, peculiar to the Creator of all things, the One Powerful over all things” (Eighth Word). This “one thing” could refer to anything—an entity or even a particle. Yet, the fact that hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, with its nucleus consisting of a single proton, sparked my thoughts once again. It is awe-inspiring to reflect on how the All-Mighty Creator uses the smallest things to bring about indescribable and incomprehensible complexity—complexity that allows us to perceive order amidst the layers of chaos that weave through creation.

Yes, it is small—tiny, even—yet we still have much to learn about protons, as they carry information about the entire creation. I recently watched a fascinating documentary about an artist collaborating with physicists to produce a visual rendering of a proton. The challenges they faced were narrated with remarkable precision and astonishment, highlighting how delicate and complex the structure of a proton is. The work of visualizing such a fundamental particle speaks to the depth of its mystery, and how much more there is to discover. It underscores the power of collaboration between art and

science in shedding light on the unseen world of subatomic particles, revealing the intricate connections that hold protons together in a stable structure.

The proton: Unveiling the mystery of matter

The proton, an electrically positively charged particle at the heart of the atom, is far more complex than it first appears, resisting simple characterization. Its behavior and structure change depending on how it is probed, revealing a layer of complexity that challenges our understanding at every turn.

In 1967, experiments at SLAC (the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center) revealed that protons are composed of point-like particles known as quarks—two “up” quarks and one “down” quark—each with distinct electrical charges. Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) advanced our understanding further, revealing that the proton is not just made of quarks but also hosts a “sea” of transient quarks, antiquarks, and gluons. These fleeting particles interact continuously, contributing to the proton’s mass, spin, and stability. This makes the proton’s internal structure one of the most enigmatic puzzles in modern physics. While it would be fascinating to elaborate more on these features, let’s keep our focus and continue exploring their significance. Despite decades of study, the proton continues to surprise us. It’s not just a fundamental building block of matter, but a window into deeper truths about the universe.

The many roles of protons: From medicine to technology

Protons are not just essential in medicine; they are the essence of an element’s identity. Think of them as an ID, SSN, or passport number—defining the diversity of materials and elements in the universe. The number of protons in an atom’s nucleus, or atomic number, uniquely identifies an element on the periodic table. This fundamental role underscores their significance, extending beyond applications like proton therapy, where their unique properties are utilized for precise cancer treatments.

First of all, protons are positively charged particles with significant mass compared to electrons. This allows precise control over their path in a magnetic or electric field. Medical physicists can more easily control their path, direct them to the targeted tissues, and obtain more effective results in their use. Protons deliver the majority of their energy at a specific depth in tissue, known as the “Bragg peak.” This characteristic allows protons to release their maximum energy at the tumor site while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissue. This property makes them safer to use compared to gamma or X-rays. Protons scatter less as they travel through tissues, which enhances their precision and reduces the dose to non-targeted areas. Protons ionize atoms in their path, effectively damaging cancer cell DNA and inhibiting replication, which is crucial for stopping tumor growth.

Protons were first employed in medical treatment in 1946 (Wilson, 1946), and today, proton therapy is a widely recognized method for cancer treatment. Compared to traditional x-ray radiotherapy, proton therapy offers a significant advantage by reducing the risk of secondary cancers. This is due to its ability to precisely deliver radiation to the tumor site while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissue. The proton beam’s interactions with matter allow for a concentration of radiation in areas where it is most needed, either in the tumor or healthy tissues, depending on the depth of the proton path (Newhauser and Zhang, 2015). Protons, though small in scale, are powerful tools in treating humans, demonstrating how even the tiniest elements can have a profound impact on healing. Indeed, the Creator, The Healer, has made the universe akin to a vast pharmacy, full of treatments, medicines, and chemicals—inviting us to explore, fueled by curiosity, and to deepen our understanding of His creation.

Expanding frontiers: Protons in everyday life

Protons have a wide range of important uses beyond their role in medicine. In electronics, proton implantation in silicon carbide semiconductors enhances the reliability and efficiency of devices, benefiting sectors like transportation and renewable energy. They are also crucial in space missions, testing electronics for reliability in harsh radiation environments, and in self-driving cars and medical devices. Protons are key in energy production through proton exchange membrane fuel cells, scientific research in particle accelerators, and even in food preservation by sterilization. Their versatile applications continue to advance both cutting-edge technologies and everyday innovations.

Despite their smallness, protons shoulder immense responsibilities, obeying the laws set by their Creator. They pave the way for new discoveries, sparking human curiosity and unlocking pathways to a deeper understanding of ever-smaller particles and their interactions with the universe. From the tiniest particles to the vastest structures, everything in creation is crafted with meticulous planning, calculation, and preordained precision. Though we cannot perceive it all with our naked eye, the Creator has bestowed upon us the mind, eyes, and tools to glimpse His infinite power—shaping boundless complexity from the smallest things. As stated in the Quran, “Not ‘even’ an atom’s weight is hidden from Him in the heavens or the earth; nor anything smaller or larger than that, but is ‘written’ in a perfect record.” (Al-Saba 34:3) Indeed, “We have created everything, perfectly preordained.” (Al-Qamar 54:49).

References and Resources Used

National Institutes of Health. Proton Therapy: A Summary of Current Research and Clinical Applications. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4407514/

EurekaAlert. Proton Implantation and Its Role in Enhancing Semiconductor Reliability. Retrieved from https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/972656#

NASA Technical Report on Proton Uses in Instrument Calibration:

NASA. Proton Uses in Instrument Calibration for Space Exploration. Retrieved from https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20170011270/downloads/20170011270.pdf

GeeksforGeeks Article on Everyday Uses of Protons: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/uses-of-protons-in-everyday-life/

Documentary on the Visualization of Protons. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e2FrALuacZ4

Witnessing the solar eclipse on April 8th, 2024, at Niagara Falls was an unforgettable experience. Our school’s field trip, a chance for both my students and me to marvel at this extraordinary natural spectacle, was met with palpable excitement. As we arrived, we found Niagara Falls bustling with even more activity than usual, transformed into a hub for eclipse chasers from around the globe.

Despite the brief total eclipse lasting just one to three minutes, the anticipation built over two enchanting hours in the afternoon, transforming this renowned tourist destination into a focal point of celestial wonder. The convergence of the majestic falls and the cosmic event created a breathtakingly surreal backdrop for an already momentous occasion.

Toronto was just outside the path of totality and set to experience a partial eclipse peaking at 3:19 PM ET. This made the Toronto District School Board reschedule a professional development day for teachers from April 19th to April 8th. The decision was made due to concerns that the eclipse would coincide with school dismissal, increasing the risk that children might be outside and look directly at the sun without proper protection, potentially leading to serious eye damage, including partial or total vision loss.

The cloudy weather added a mystical atmosphere to the event. Watching a solar eclipse under a clear sky might have felt ordinary, but here, we could only catch fleeting glimpses when the clouds allowed, heightening the excitement of the crowd. Niagara Falls took on a festival-like energy, with a cheerful crowd donning special eclipse glasses and eagerly scanning the sky. Each time the sun briefly emerged from behind the clouds, the excitement surged. There were shouts, exaggerated noises, and enthusiastic calls. At that moment, I didn’t fully understand, but it seemed that many people—perhaps the majority—considered being there and showing enthusiasm more like a form of worship rather than just witnessing a remarkable natural event.

It was a total solar eclipse. For three minutes, the moon completely covered the sun, plunging us into darkness. It felt like midnight, even though it was the middle of the day. The atmosphere became eerily silent; for about thirty seconds, no one made a sound. It was as if we had been transported to an abandoned, desolate place. Then, a few cheers broke the silence.

During those three minutes of total eclipse, it felt as though life had paused. We couldn’t hear or see any living creatures, especially birds, during this time. It’s worth mentioning that before the eclipse began, all the animals, especially the birds, seemed to be greeting it in their own way. The birds flew around wildly and noisily, announcing the upcoming event. Their chirping and excitement spread to all living creatures, filling the forests and parks around Niagara Falls with a sense of joy. But during those three minutes, all of that vanished. I found this as fascinating as the eclipse itself.

After about three hours, the solar eclipse ended, and on the way home in the school bus, I discussed the day’s events with my students. I started with a question: “If our school bus could travel to the sun nonstop at a speed of 60 mph (96 km/h), how long would it take?” The Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of 150 million km (93 million miles), which we call 1 Astronomical Unit.

Depending on your preferred method of transport, it would take you 19 years to reach the Sun on a plane traveling at 885 km/h (550 mph) or 177 years to drive at 96 km/h (60 mph) or 3,536 years to walk there at 4.8 km/h (3 mph). A photon of light makes the journey from the Sun to Earth in just 8 minutes and 20 seconds.

I continued, “How long would it take to reach the moon if we could travel there in the same bus?” It would take about 165 days. At this point, I explained how the two celestial bodies, separated by about 400 times that distance, align so perfectly to cause a solar eclipse. If such an alignment happened less frequently, life on Earth would be significantly affected.

The sun, the star of our galaxy, is assigned a key role in the creation of life in our world by sending its light across 150 million kilometers in just eight minutes. Just think—our bodies rely on the sun to produce vitamin D, a crucial nutrient for bone development. That light, traveling across the vastness of space, reaches us and plays an essential role in our health and survival.

The health benefits of sunlight are well-documented, particularly its role in vitamin D production when UVB rays interact with the skin. While people can obtain vitamin D through diet and supplements, sunlight remains a crucial natural source of this essential nutrient.

Vitamin D is necessary for key biological processes, supporting healthy bones, managing calcium levels, reducing inflammation, supporting the immune system, and regulating glucose metabolism. Researchers have also found a link between sun exposure and lower blood pressure, with reduced death rates from cardiovascular issues. They suggest that exposure to sunlight triggers the skin to release stores of nitrogen oxides, which cause arteries to dilate, lowering blood pressure and potentially reducing the impact of metabolic syndrome. Increased sun exposure may also protect people from diseases like type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis (MS), and several forms of cancer, including colon, breast, prostate cancer, and non-Hodgkin lymphoma.

Sunlight also supports better sleep and sets people’s circadian rhythms by regulating serotonin and melatonin levels. Being in the sun generally makes people feel good, and there are many scientific reasons for this effect. Exposure to UVB rays causes human skin to produce beta-endorphins, which are hormones that reduce pain and promote a sensation of well-being, improve mood, boost the immune system, relieve pain, promote relaxation, help wounds heal, make people feel more alert, increase job satisfaction, and reduce depression.

The sun is the closest star to Earth. Despite the huge distance in between, the sun’s gravitational pull holds the planet in orbit. It radiates light and heat, or solar energy, which makes life possible on Earth. Plants need sunlight to grow. Animals, including humans, need plants for food and the oxygen they produce. Without heat from the sun, Earth would freeze. There would be no winds, ocean currents, or clouds to transport water.

Solar energy has existed as long as the sun—about five billion years. While people have not been around that long, they have been using solar energy in various ways for thousands of years.

As I explained the importance of the sun to us, one student turned to another and said, “The teacher is one of us.” I didn’t understand what he meant, so I asked a colleague next to me. My colleague explained that the student thought I worshipped the sun, just like he did.

At that moment, I could not help but ran a theory in my head: “If the sun is a god, then, so must be the moon, for it can block it.” If he had heard my thoughts, the student would probably warn me for blasphemy.

I realized that some people there were present due to their religious beliefs. We, on the other hand, were there to appreciate the magnificent creations of the Creator. In the back of my mind, I thought of the words of Prophet Abraham, who said, “I love not the things that set” (An’am 6:76).

The spectacle of the solar eclipse at Niagara Falls highlighted a fascinating intersection between science and spirituality. Throughout history, humans have often turned to spiritual or religious explanations to make sense of natural phenomena they could not otherwise explain. The sun and the moon, due to their profound influence on our lives and their mysterious, awe-inspiring appearances in the sky, have frequently been deified. Various cultures have worshipped these celestial bodies, attributing to them godly powers and constructing elaborate myths around their movements.

This dualism—where natural phenomena are seen through both scientific and spiritual lenses—was evident among the crowd at Niagara Falls. For some, the eclipse was a mere alignment of celestial bodies, a predictable event explained by the principles of astronomy. For others, it held deeper, spiritual significance. The temporary darkening of the sun by the moon was not just an astronomical occurrence but a moment of divine interplay between celestial gods. This view posits that the sun and the moon, embodying powerful deities, engage in a cosmic dance that directly impacts human life.

In the past, such interpretations were necessary due to the lack of scientific understanding. The unexplained needed a framework, and spirituality provided that. The sun, with its life-giving rays, was seen as a benevolent god, while the moon, with its control over tides and mysterious phases, was often perceived as a powerful and sometimes enigmatic deity. This spiritual dualism gave people a sense of control and understanding over the natural world, offering comfort in the face of the unknown.

Even today, despite our advanced scientific knowledge, these ancient beliefs persist. They coexist with scientific explanations, showing that human beings seek meaning beyond what can be quantified and explained. The eclipse at Niagara Falls was a perfect example of this duality. While we marveled at the precise calculations that allowed us to predict the event, the emotional and spiritual reactions of many in the crowd reminded us of the enduring power of myth and religion.

The solar eclipse at Niagara Falls was more than just a spectacular natural event; it was a profound reminder of our place in the universe. As we watched the moon obscure the sun, plunging us into an eerie midday darkness, it underscored the delicate balance that sustains life on Earth. This extraordinary phenomenon not only captivated our senses but also prompted deep reflections on the significance of the sun’s role in our lives. From its vital contribution to our health and well-being to its essential function in maintaining the ecological balance, the sun is a powerful force given to us as an important to be appreciative of.

This trip was a unique blend of scientific wonder and cultural insight, teaching us to appreciate the natural world and the diverse ways people find meaning in it. As we returned home, the shared experience of witnessing the eclipse left us with a renewed sense of awe and gratitude for the intricate beauty of the cosmos.

Among His Sings are the Night and the Day, and the Sun and the Moon. Adore not the sun and the moon, but adore God, Who created them, if it is Him you wish to serve. (Fussilat 41:37)

References

• https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0155614&mod=article_inline
• https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminD-HealthProfessional/
• Sunlight Has Cardiovascular Benefits Independently of Vitamin D | Blood Purification | Karger Publishers
• https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07315724.2015.1039866

Springs are among fundamental mechanical devices, and they are engineered to store and release energy through the absorption and subsequent release of force as they return to their original position. Crafted from materials like chrome silicon steel, nickel alloys, or titanium, springs come in various types, such as coil, leaf, torsion, compression, and extension springs, each tailored to specific applications. Their significance extends across numerous industries, including automotive, construction, power generation, and agriculture, emphasizing their omnipresence and crucial role in modern engineering. Even the comfort of our sleep is indebted to the arrangement of springs in our mattresses, ensuring a restful night’s sleep.

Beyond their practical utility, springs exhibit intriguing physical behavior influenced by factors such as shape, dimensions, material composition, and environmental interaction. For example, altering the shape of a piece of copper wire can lead to different physical laws, behaviors, and applications, as seen in systems ranging from electrical wiring to the mechanisms in mechanical watches. While some systems, like electrical wiring or suspension bridges, may not require springs, cyclic systems like mechanical watches rely on springs to achieve rotational motion. A famous physics law that governs the behavior of metals, especially springs, when a force is applied is known as Hooke’s Law. Discovered in 1660 by the English scientist Robert Hooke while designing balance springs for clocks, this law is quite simple yet fundamental. It states that the force (?) needed to extend or compress a spring by a distance (?) is proportional to that distance:

F=kx

where ? is the spring constant, a measure of the stiffness of the spring. Its meaning is straightforward: to extend a spring further, more force is required. Naturally, the amount of force needed to stretch or compress a spring depends on factors such as the material, length, and thickness of the spring, all of which are captured in the spring constant.

Springs have a limit of proportionality, meaning they can withstand a force and obey Hooke’s Law up to a certain point. Beyond this limit, they deform and cannot return to their original shape. Hooke’s Law provides a mathematical representation of this behavior, illustrating the spring’s ability to return to its original position or shape—within this limit. This invites a deeper reflection: even a simple device like a spring operates under precise laws, reminding us that every blessing we use in life, no matter how ordinary, originates from the One who governs the universe with order, laws, and wisdom. Just as a spring follows predictable patterns, the entire universe is crafted with systems and rules that provide stability and reliability. The laws of physics mirror the divine intention for order and predictability, guiding us toward a life of purpose, structure, and harmony. Through these laws, we recognize the hand of the Creator in everything—from the simplest mechanical device to the grandest cosmic phenomena.

In an intriguing parallel, we, as humans, are also created in a way that resembles springs. Each of us has a limit where our responses remain proportional, with predictable patterns that model our behaviors under manageable circumstances. The mental “springs” in our consciousness have limits, too—beyond which outcomes no longer follow a linear path and require advanced insight to understand. In our journey as social beings, we are seldom completely alone, much like springs in many applications. We undergo countless changes daily, with our emotional and spiritual states fluctuating. Emotions rise and fall, yet a healthy individual is defined by the ability to return to a balanced state, much like a spring. These changes help us adapt to new circumstances, store knowledge and experience, and prepare for various situations. We can always build resilience by connecting with others, resonating with them, offering support, and maintaining meaningful connections. Shifting gears to some essential technical terms, cars have springs in all their wheels to absorb energy and ensure a safe drive. Mechanical watches contain numerous springs to achieve the shared goal of keeping time. Mattresses are packed with springs to provide orthopedic support and cozy comfort. How we connect springs affects the stiffness and functionality they deliver. For instance, connecting two springs in series, end-to-end, creates a longer spring array, reducing overall stiffness and making it easier to stretch, though more flexible.

When we connect two non-identical springs in parallel, their individual stiffnesses add together. They deform by the same amount, even though they may bear different forces. Returning to the human-spring analogy, I use the term “non-identical” because we, as humans, are unique, with our own differences and diversity. By standing side by side, we can increase our collective strength, carry greater burdens, and resist deformation with less strain. Like springs, when humans cooperate, our combined resilience to life’s challenges is amplified.

Although springs demonstrate their behavior and utility in daily life, they also model interactions at the subatomic level. Springs can help explain atomic interactions and the elasticity of solids. When atoms are close together, electrical forces cause them to attract, but if pushed too close, they repel each other. If they are separated too far, the “electron glue” holding them together pulls them back.

The spring model applies to biology as well. Biologists use spring models to understand human tissues. When tissues are subjected to stress within their elastic region, they generate a restoring force proportional to the displacement, as described by Hooke’s Law. Once the force causing deformation is removed, they return to their original size and shape. This behavior mirrors that of springs, allowing us to model tissues or other materials within their elastic region as a collection of springs.

The rules governing spring systems also apply to electrical circuits. For example, capacitors—crucial components in most electronic devices—store and release energy similarly to springs. A larger capacitance is analogous to a weaker spring. This shows how the principles of springs extend into various fields, underscoring their pervasive and fundamental role in our understanding of nature.

The versatile use of springs as metal products brings to mind the example of Prophet David (Peace be Upon Him) in a profound Quranic verse: “Indeed, We granted David a ˹great˺ privilege from Us,

˹commanding:˺ ‘O mountains! Echo his hymns! And the birds as well.’ We made iron moldable for him” (Quran 34:10). With the divine gift of molding iron, Prophet David used this pliable metal to strengthen his kingdom, crafting armor and weapons that provided protection and justice. This mastery over metal symbolizes human ingenuity and our ability to shape nature’s raw materials to serve higher purposes. In much the same way, the discovery and manipulation of metals—springs being a prime example—have allowed humanity to engineer solutions that harness the laws of physics, unveiling countless innovations. Through these developments, we have deepened our understanding of the natural world, finding in metals a reflection of our ability to adapt, create, and evolve.

To conclude our ‘spring’ journey, we, as humans, embody the characteristics of springs. Life compresses and stretches us through challenges, hardships, and growth. These experiences, like the deformation of springs, allow us to store valuable energy and wisdom, equipping us for future demands. We bend under pressure, yet our resilience—our ability to return to form—gives us strength. Much like springs connected in parallel, we can amplify our capacity to bear life’s burdens by standing side by side with others, reinforcing each other through cooperation and empathy. Our goal, like that of a finely tuned spring, is to maintain our integrity and restore our original form, staying true to our nature while adapting to external forces. By connecting with and supporting our fellow ‘springs,’ we elevate ourselves, fulfilling a higher purpose. In doing so, we reaffirm our place among creation, striving to serve not just ourselves but the greater good, as integral parts of the larger system of life.

Throughout the history of humanity, one of the things we have found difficult to comprehend and unravel is undoubtedly the concept of time. On one hand, it appears to flow inexorably and irreversibly, intertwined with everything, exhibiting a certain continuity that encompasses life itself, and connecting to all things. Thus, time is the most comprehensive thing in the entirety of the universe, bearing witness to all changes in the cosmos, currently witnessing, and destined to witness, and touching everything, playing a role in their existence. On the other hand, being an abstract concept, we cannot physically touch it; we can only grasp its effects. It remains at the center of debates concerning the entire existence, the origin of everything, and the course of events. In this article, we will embark on a journey into our perception of time and attempt to explain the concept of time from various perspectives and within the framework of questions we pose about it.

Humanity has been fascinated by the concept of time for centuries, and various questions about time have been dwelled on by philosophers, scientists, and individuals from different disciplines and across different cultures. Its definition varies across different subjects, where it serves as a key factor in understanding the concept itself. Some of the questions under various categories include the following:

• What is (the nature of) time?
• Is it a fundamental property of the universe, or is it a human construct?
• What is the beginning of time?
• Does it have an end?
• Did time exist before the universe, and will it continue to exist after the universe?
• Is time an illusion or a subjective experience?
• How does our perception of time relate to its objective nature?
• What is the definition of time in classic physics and quantum physics?
• How does time flow?
• Does it have a consistent direction, or can it flow backward or in multiple directions?
• How does time relate to causality and the arrow of time?
• Why do events unfold in a particular sequence?

These questions reflect the complex and multifaceted nature of our curiosity about time. They have sparked philosophical debates, inspired scientific investigations, and fueled artistic and cultural expressions throughout history. Discussing and offering effective answers to all these questions is not possible in a single article, so we cover only some of them in this article.

How did time begin?

The question of how time began or whether it had a specific start is still an area of active research and speculation in cosmology and theoretical physics. In the context of the universe, the scientific discussions on the start of time are closely related to the concept of the origin of the universe itself. The widespread scientific model, known as the Big Bang Theory, suggests that the universe began with a singularity – a point of infinite density and temperature – approximately 13.8 billion years ago. According to this theory, time as we know it began with the expansion of the universe from this singularity. However, the exact nature of the singularity and what happened prior to the Big Bang remains uncertain. The question of what caused the Big Bang or what existed before it is still a mystery. As we will explain below, some scientific discussions and theories propose alternative models, such as the idea of a cyclic universe or the concept of a multiverse, where time may have different properties or may not have a distinct beginning in the traditional sense.

We follow a way to explain the concept of time by answering some of the questions stated above on five different levels.

Level 1

The concept of time refers to the measurement of the progression of events, durations, or intervals between two or more points. Thus, time is often divided into smaller units such as seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, and years to facilitate its measurement and organization. Currently, with the help of the technology we achieved, it is possible to measure time with precision up to approximately 10-15 seconds, equivalent to an error of around 1 second in roughly 30 million years (NIST website).

Level 2

In Physics, time is one of the most interesting quantities (or concepts), maybe the most interesting one, having very different aspects and perceptions. It is a fundamental dimension in which events occur and can be described as a continuous forward flow from the past through the present to the future. It is considered one of the four dimensions in the fabric of spacetime, along with three spatial dimensions. We believe that it is important to mention a few of them to help the readers enhance their understanding of time. In general, there are three main concepts of time that are still used and defined separately: the time concept in Newtonian mechanics (non-relativistic time in classical physics), the time concept in Einstein’s special theory of relativity, and the time concept in his general theory of spacetime and gravitation.

In classical physics, time is considered as an absolute and invariable concept as a fundamental quantity. This implies that all clocks tick at the same rate and that everyone’s experience of time is the same. Another important point is that classical physics does not define an arrow of time (we will discuss the concept of the arrow of time in detail later). On the other hand, the modern understanding of time, as introduced by Einstein’s theory of relativity, shows that time passes at different rates depending on relative motion or gravitational field strength, introducing the concept of time dilation (Einstein, 1905), which means that time is relativistic, like distance, and both may change with the speed of a moving reference frame.

In quantum physics, time is not a central concept as it is in classical physics. Unlike most other aspects of reality, time is not quantized. However, quantum mechanics incorporates the concept of time in describing the evolution of quantum systems and the measurement of physical quantities. Overall, the theories and models within these areas of physics provide frameworks for exploring and describing time. However, there are still many questions that remain unanswered within areas of active research, such as the nature of time itself, the quantum behavior of spacetime, and the possibility of a unified theory that encompasses all fundamental aspects of reality (Smolin, 2001).   

Level 3

We can say that Physics is the only branch of science that explicitly studies time. However, even physicists agree that time is one of the most difficult properties of our universe to understand. The main question they study is whether time is a reality or an illusion. Time is commonly regarded as a fundamental concept, existing independently and not composed of or reliant on anything else. Regarding the fundamental concept of time, the “arrow of time” has gained a comprehensive framework. It encompasses various aspects of time-related phenomena, including the asymmetry of physical processes, our subjective experience of time, and the fundamental laws of physics. As discussed by Stephen Hawking (Hawking, 1998), the principles of science make no distinction between time moving forward or backward. Nonetheless, there exist at least three distinct arrows of time that differentiate between the past and the future. These arrows include the thermodynamic arrow, indicating the direction in which disorder increases; the psychological arrow, marking the direction in which we retain memories of the past but not the future; and the cosmological arrow, signifying the direction in which the universe expands as opposed to contracting. Research has demonstrated that the psychological arrow essentially aligns with the thermodynamic arrow, ensuring they consistently point in the same direction. In this context, profound philosophical and cosmological questions remain, such as whether there could be a reversal of the arrow of time, whether there are regions of the universe where time behaves differently, and whether time itself has a fundamental structure.

Level 4

The religious perspective: the concept of time in the religious perspective varies across different religions and belief systems. Time usually carries significant meaning and symbolism in religious traditions and is often intertwined with theological, spiritual, and cosmological concepts. We will address a few general aspects here.

(a) Linear or cyclical time: Many religions view time as either linear or cyclical. Linear time suggests a progression from beginning to an end, often associated with a divine plan or purpose unfolding over time. For instance, in monotheistic religions like Christianity, time is seen as moving from creation to a final judgement and the establishment of an eternal afterlife. Cyclical time, on the other hand, involves the repetition of events or cycles, symbolizing concepts like reincarnation or eternal recurrence as in some Eastern religions, such as Hinduism and Buddhism.

(b) Sacred time: Certain religious traditions consider specific periods of time to be sacred or marked by special events. Examples include holy days, festivals, or specific times for prayer, fasting or pilgrimage. These designated times hold religious significance and are observed with specific rituals or practices.

(c) Timelessness: Some mystical or transcendental perspectives view time as an illusion or an incomplete understanding of reality. This coincides with the discussion in physics mentioned above in level 3. In these beliefs, there may be concepts of an eternal, timeless realm beyond the limitations of ordinary time and space. These notions can be found in various mystical branches of different religions.

(d) Divine intervention: Some religious traditions believe in divine intervention, where time is seen as influenced or even manipulated by a higher power. Miracles or prophecies are seen as instances where the normal flow of time is altered or suspended.

Level 5

The Qur’anic (Islamic) perspective of time: The concept of time is mentioned in various contexts in the Qur’an, reflecting its significance in Islamic theology and guidance for believers. Here we will speak of a few concepts.

(a) The Qur’an emphasizes that time is created, and that God is the Creator of time and the universe, highlighting God’s control over time (7:54). It mentions the creation of the heavens and the earth, the alternation of night and day, and the celestial bodies as signs of God’s power and wisdom. The concept of the Day of Judgement is also prominent, highlighting the belief in a future event where all beings will be held accountable for their actions in the temporal world.

(b) Limited time and the purpose of life (103: 1-3): The Qur’an emphasizes the fleeting nature of human life and the importance of utilizing time wisely. It encourages believers to reflect on the brevity of life and to make the most of their time in pursuing righteous deeds and seeking closeness to Allah. It urges believers not to be distracted by worldly matters but to focus on their ultimate purpose and the eternal life to come.

(c) Seasonal changes and natural signs: The Qur’an mentions the changing seasons, agricultural cycles, and natural phenomena as signs of God’s existence and power. These references highlight the temporal nature of these phenomena and serve as reminders of the Creator’s mastery over time and the universe.

(d) Patience and perseverance: The Qur’an emphasizes the virtue of patience and perseverance in facing life’s challenges and trials. It teaches believers to endure hardship with patience and trust in God’s plan, recognizing that time brings about changes and tests, and that steadfastness during difficult times is rewarded.

(e) Relativity of time: In exploring the sacred texts and grappling with our perception of time as human beings, it becomes imperative to consider the concept of God’s transcendence from time. This notion, emphasized particularly in the Qur’an, underscores the relativity of time. What may seem like extensive periods for us are but fleeting moments in the sight of God. The following Qur’anic verses highlight this temporal relativity, such as the reference in Surah Al-Ma’arij (70:4) where it is stated, “The angels and the Spirit ascend to Him during a Day the extent of which is fifty thousand years,” and in Surah As-Sajda (32:5) where it is mentioned, “He arranges [each] matter from the heaven to the earth; then it will ascend to Him in a Day, the extent of which is a thousand years of those which you count.” These verses elucidate the profound relativity of time, elucidating its paramount importance in understanding divine discourse.

In conclusion, the exploration of time remains an ongoing odyssey, encompassing both scientific inquiry and religious contemplation. On the one hand, scientific endeavors persistently strive to unravel the complexities of time, building our understanding on the strongest available evidence and theories, which will adapt and evolve over time with the advancement of knowledge. The quest for time’s origin and its intricate relationship with the universe remains an ever-unfolding pursuit. On the other hand, religious texts offer a distinct perspective. Concepts like God’s transcendence of time, emphasized in the Qur’an, remind us of the relativity of our human experience. Vast stretches of time for us are mere moments from God’s perspective. Qur’anic verses illustrate this profound temporal relativity, highlighting its importance in interpreting divine discourse. Both scientific and religious perspectives on time help us gain a richer and more nuanced understanding of this fascinating concept.

References

• The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) website, “How Do You Measure a Second?” (https://www.nist.gov/si-redefinition/second-introduction).
• Einstein, Albert (1905). On the electrodynamics of moving bodies. Annalen der Physik, 17(8), 891-921.
• Smolin, Lee (2001). Three roads to quantum gravity: A new perspective on the physics of the universe. Basic Books.
• Stephen Hawking (1998). A brief history of time.

When we look around us at the world of the living, “protection” appears to be an essential component of survival. Animals are equipped with various mechanisms to protect themselves from the harms of the environment or other predators. Cats have claws and fur to avoid cold, chameleons use camouflage, a skunk gives off an odor for defense, and a turtle has a hard shell to protect its vital organs. The peel of an orange keeps its inside fresh until consumed. While other animals are born with defense mechanisms and quickly learn to use them, humans are the weakest in self-defense for a long time after birth. However, using our intellect, we can make clothing and build shelters to protect ourselves from the cold or heat. Defense mechanisms seem to prevail and vary throughout the universe. Did you know that our planet Earth also has a defense mechanism like a jacket or a windbreaker that keeps us safe from a damaging storm?

It is now well-established that space is not entirely empty or inactive. In fact, there are strong winds of particles, mainly composed of electrons and protons, that fly out from the Sun and travel throughout space. This phenomenon is called “solar wind” and it reaches our planet Earth. This wind of high-energy charged particles travels at very high speeds, such as 500,000 km per second, and can be highly harmful [1]. In fact, when astronauts go to space, a significant factor they need to take into consideration is the “space weather” which is largely dictated by the solar wind. If these particles reach the Earth, they can cause static electricity to build up everywhere, disrupt communications, and interfere with electric power distribution. Over time, these winds are estimated to cause serious health effects on humans, such as cancer or death. Since we have not actually been subjected to this wind directly, we don’t exactly know the level of the harm; but even in the most optimistic scenario, life on Earth would cease to exist in a relatively short amount of time.

So, how come we are never impacted by this high-speed storm and never even feel its existence? Our planet has a defensive tool provided by the Earth’s magnetic field. A magnetic field can be considered like invisible lines of forces surrounding an object, acting like a magnet. For instance, consider the everyday magnets that we hang on the sides of our refrigerators at home. These magnets attract or repel certain metals through a force we call magnetic force. This magnetic force is active even without physical contact between the magnet and the metal.

Physicists explain this force in terms of the concept of a “field”– a field can be thought of as invisible lines surrounding an object. Consider the magnetic field of a regular magnet. If a magnetic material, such as a metal, enters this region of the field, the interaction between the field and the metal produces a force based on the laws of electromagnetism. This force results in the attraction or repulsion of the metal by the magnet, depending on their orientation.

In essence, our Earth is a giant magnet, with a magnetic field running around it from the South pole to the North pole. This is how compasses work: the tiny needle in a compass is pushed by the Earth’s magnetic field until it aligns with the field direction. Since the Earth’s magnetic field always points toward the North pole, so does a compass needle. That is why a compass needle always point towards the geographic direction of North.

A key feature of a magnetic field is that it acts on particles with electrical charge, such as electrons or ions. For example, when an ion gets close to a magnet and enters its magnetic field, the ion is subjected to a force that changes its direction of motion, causing it to follow a different path. This effectively diverts the ion from its original trajectory. This is exactly what happens when the solar wind approaches us, the Earth. The ions that make up the solar wind travel at extremely high speeds and would otherwise have a significant impact. However, when they enter the magnetic field of the Earth, they are pushed away from their original path, preventing the solar wind from reaching the surface of the Earth. Essentially, the magnetic field of the Earth acts like a protective jacket or windbreaker that repels the solar wind and safeguards life on Earth.

Lorentz force equation

Interestingly, as the charged particles are diverted from their initial path by the magnetic field, they mainly enter the atmosphere near the poles. This is an obvious result of what is called the “Lorentz force equation” which forms the foundation of electromagnetism. As part of the solar wind enters through the poles, they ionize the air and free up electrons which in turn recombine with other atoms. This process releases energy in the form of light at different wavelengths (colors) which forms the spectacular aurora borealis sometimes called “northern lights.” The sky is filled with beautiful colors forming an image pleasing to the eye. Basically, the Earth’s magnetic field not only impedes the storm but also transforms it into a colorful image as if it is trying to transform even harmful phenomena to the benefit of humans.

To see how crucial a magnetic field can be, consider our neighboring planet Mars which is believed to have retained a magnetic field similar to that of ours. It is now accepted that Mars lost its magnetic field about 4 billion years ago. Although the exact mechanism leading to the disappearing of Mars’ magnetic field is not evident, there are theories asserting that the loss was mainly due to the changes in the chemical structure of the planet’s core. This loss made Mars vulnerable against solar winds which consequently stripped the planet’s atmosphere and evaporated the oceans and all the water that would be crucial for life. [2,3] This alone proves us how vital the Earth’s magnetic field is as it is one of the many factors that make life possible on our blue planet.

The fact that our Earth has been assigned with such a shield by a “Protector” is a good enough reason to be thankful.

Lord of the heavens and the earth, and everything between them; and Lord of the Easts. We have adorned the lower heaven with the beauty of the planets. And guarded it against every defiant devil. (As-Saffat 37:5-7).

References

• https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/nmp/st5/SCIENCE/solarwind.html
• Nature Communications, Volume 13, Article number: 644 (2022)
• Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 117, No. 50 (December 15, 2020), pp. 31558-31560

A rare, rainy day for drought-stricken San Jose, California, ushered a lot of wet students into my room at lunch time. I like to call my room “Mr. B’s Restaurant” due to the diverse scents, flavors, and the vibrant psyche therein. The microwave lets me inquire about the variety of spilled content on its glass plate. The resonance frequency that initiates its rattling has been so unpredictably arbitrary that I started wondering whether it can operate as a time machine, opening intergalactic portals for the remainder of its life.

To be more realistic though, I once told my hunger-driven students that they can use this microwave as a means to roughly measure the speed of light (when you overburn your hardened lunch in it while the rotating platform does not do its job). Many are shocked to hear this: how can the least demanding culinary tool teach them something scientific? Physics is entirely interesting when we show its living aspects and take it out of the realm of equations and boring lectures. Yet, still, some students got away from it merely because it is a science subject and that they are not self-allegedly science persons. So, could a physics teacher genuinely put physics on a student’s plate as something edible, relatable, or even palatable? Maybe if they see that physics encroaches into every aspect of their lives—even social studies.

It seems worth trying it.

During lunch on that rainy day, I overheard two students talking fervently about many topics, like whether pizza with pineapples is edible, the new sequels to games they’ve been playing, etc. One sentence stood out and reverberated across my physics-molded neuron cells: “I am working on…”. This sentence opens the door to making physics, and especially the concept “work” more approachable, especially for those students lacking a solid foundation of physics in their day-to-day lives. I pursued this opening, struggling to explain it on the board. Looking at my baffled students, I thought about the hidden, dormant, emerging, flowing, oozing, and bursting mental potentials and realized that they have the power to change the flow of things around them. These thoughts trickled out, and Mr. B started his serenade for physics.

In physics, “work” is done when a force causes an object to displace in the applied force’s direction.

I imagined my students’ question: “So, Mr. B! When you were saying the definition of “work,” you were literally pushing the wall as if to break into the biology room next door. So, since the wall did not move, does it mean that you didn’t do any work?”

“Yes, it does, for I could not break into Mr. Q’s room! If I could, I would have to talk about this with Mr. Principal rather than you!”

Work in physics is the way of transferring energy to or from something. As “sharing is caring,” to take care of other systems, you have to move towards them, which is not like mere empathy; no, it’s actually changing your position, be it leaving your comfort zone or walking to help.

Getting more inspired by the baffled looks of my students, I felt like I had the upper hand. I targeted my words to the receivers in their hearts: “Though of different and similar types, all of you have huge potentials and energies in you. You have levels of forces you can apply to various hobbies, goals, or destinations. These treasures of skills, potentialities, abilities, and talents only surface when they do ‘work’ and transfer ‘energy’ to other beings or entities. Life is going on with its glorious energy transfers. The Sun takes care of plants; plants have appointments with animals, and humans have links with all, and all with each other. While this is the scene, why don’t we get out of our comfort zones, displace, move, and approach our destinations? Nature calls for motion, the joy of movement, and constantly using energy to grow. This notion is embodied in the formula Work Done = Force Applied x Displacement. Yes, ‘may the Force be with you!’ But this is not a sufficient invocation—albeit a nice one that misses the ‘motion’ part.

“Force has to be lucky enough to be accompanied by the directed motion; then, it can gracefully transfer energy and act in the way it is meant to. You might need to use your force in the correct direction. While your skills, aptitudes, and preferences lead you to a direction, stumbling over a temporary force field and choosing an incorrect direction will likely end with you losing your energy to your surroundings in the form of heat, frustration, waste, and desperation as you recalibrate with hopes that it is not late. A scalar is what we call a quantity with no direction, size, or amount. If you want to be practical and go to a grocery store, asking ‘I want 2 pounds of potatoes in the east direction,’ violates the boundaries of the use of scalars; you might receive a bag of potatoes with a considerable amount of velocity in a given direction—that is to say, to your face. So, we have to know where to use proper scalars in physics, just like we have to show proper and appropriate manners, skills, and powers at correct places and times.”

Thus, Mr. B ends his speech by saying, “Know your potentials; do not compare them with others’. The work done in physics is known by the product of the force you exert with the distance taken along the force. Calibrate your goals and do ‘work.’ If you mistakenly think that you are not smart, think about the fact that you can still do more work than those who are allegedly ‘smarter’ yet do not move.”

All human beings have similar organs, but each organ has qualities unique to itself and to the person it belongs to. Research has revealed that even some of the genes of monozygotic twins are different [1]. As opposed to the previous assumption that “when it comes to DNA, every cell in the body is essentially identical to every other cell,” it has been found that each cell has a DNA of its own [2]. This uniqueness originates from the fact that the order and number of molecules and proteins are different, which is valid for atoms and sub-atom particles as well. Having spent countless hours on microscopes and spectroscopes, a university professor of mine once said, “I witnessed different structures of iron atom each time I observed one. We even need to produce a separate periodic table for the iron element alone.”

We also witness that particles have been created uniquely, just like human beings are. From the micro universe (one millionth of a meter) down to femto universe (one quadrillionth of a meter), each particle is called a boson or fermion. When particles are examined to find out in what conditions they resemble each other in the femto universe, doors of a new world will be opened in terms of knowledge and contemplation. According to this new perspective, while the things and events are sometimes explained through mathematical equations and formulations, they are sometimes explained through experiments of thought trying to attain the truth behind them. Pauli exclusion principle is one such experiment.

Pauli Principle

There are around 380 sub-atomic particles [3]. In atomic and subatomic dimensions, two fermions (e.g. two electrons) of an atom cannot have the same set of quantum numbers. Wolfgang Pauli first explained this principle in 1925 and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1945 after experiments proved that the theory was correct. This theory has gone down in history as the Pauli Exclusion Principle.

The motion equations of subatomic particles are expressed by their magnetic states. Pauli said that none of the electrons of an atom can share the same quantum state at the same time. In other words, two electrons in the same atom cannot share the physical features such as magnetism, motion, position and velocity in the same state [2].

In addition to the three quantum numbers (principal, subordinate, and magnetic quantum numbers) described so far, Pauli defined a quantum number for the spin of a fermion (e.g. electron). The spin quantum number is related to the rotation of the electron around its axis because an electron rotates around its own axis as it rotates around the atomic nucleus. According to the Pauli Principle, if an orbit has an electron with a spin of 1/2, an electron with a spin of -1/2 can be placed in the same orbit. If we assume that the spin of an electron rotating clockwise is 1/2 the spin of an electron rotating counterclockwise will be -1/2. Thus, with Pauli’s contribution, four quantum numbers were defined for subatomic particles and it was stated that even if the other three quantum numbers were the same, electrons with different spin quantum numbers could circulate in the same orbit.

The Pauli Principle shows that atoms are not identical. This principle also applies to solid crystals, that is, the materials we use daily. The Principle is also able to explain the fact that the ores that make up the element are different, and the fact that there are different elements in the periodic table. With this principle, important properties of superconductors have been discovered.

In 1927, based on the Pauli Principle, German physicist Karl Werner Heisenberg showed that it is not possible to measure the physical properties of a particle, such as the position and momentum, at the same time and that these results can only be expressed with uncertain probability and statistics [5].

This uniqueness also manifests itself in the space we call the macro world. Stars consisting of only neutrons are called neutron stars. A neutron star is very dense: its mass is 2–3 times that of the Sun, but only about 10 km in diameter. A neutron star should theoretically collapse into a black hole, but this does not happen. The reason for this, it has been discovered, is that neutrons that cannot share the same position prevent collapse and that neutron stars remain in balance [6].

The universe has been created with balance, and everything, from the minutest particles to the stars in the outer space, follows their particular courses to maintain the order.

References

1. scientificamerican.com/article/identical-twins-exhibit-d/
2. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/07/090715131449.htm
3. lbl.gov/2017/listings/contents_listings.html
4. wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli
5. phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/uncer.html
6. phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/pauli.html

Indeed, attaching a purpose to everything non-systematically is subjective and seems not to be compatible with the current scientific methodology. For this reason, some people tend to deny religious sources of knowledge, whereas other people tend to accept a dualist viewpoint where they separate the domains of religion and science. Such dualism pushes religion out of people’s lives and restrains it only to particular instances and environments, reframing religion with surrealist subjects.

The path to reviving religious spirituality in daily life, on the same objective domain with science, requires many approaches. One of them is to answer the following question: is it possible to find a systematic way of understanding the purpose of the phenomena that has been observed and discovered by scientific methodology?

Although scientific methodology has evolved throughout history, the common motive that fits all stages is exploring the causal relationship among phenomena and expressing causality with some set of laws and principles. If we traced back to the origins of the scientific approach, we would encounter Aristotle’s definitions. He stated in his book “Metaphysics” that there are four types of causes (Fine, G., 1987):

1. Material cause – i.e. the materials that something is composed of. For example, water, sunshine, soil etc. are necessary to plant a tree. Therefore, these are material causes for the tree that was planted.
2. Formal cause – in his original words, “the form or pattern; that is, the essential formula and the classes which contain it.” For instance, a drug can only be useful if its constituent chemicals are mixed in a certain ratio. Hence the specific ratio is the formal cause of the drug.
3. Efficient (or motive) cause – the prior conditions that lead to the resulting situation. This is what is usually considered as “the cause” in science, especially in physics. An example is the source of new cells, which was unknown until the 19^th century. It was François Raspail (1794–1878) who first stated Omnis cellula e cellula, meaning that every cell is derived from another cell which tells the efficient cause of cell (re)production. (http://www.ohio.edu/chastain/rz/raspail.htm)
4. Final cause – i.e. the purpose or the goal of something. This is also known as telos. In our daily language, we often mean the final cause or telos, when we talk about “whys.” For example, the telos for a seed to germinate is to become a tree.

Considering these different types of causes, which all together become a complete explanation, we can see that the current understanding of science is diverged from this point. These four categories of cause survived in science until the 17^th century. But then, by constraining science on the matter and its motion, as Francis Bacon stated in his Advancement of Learning (1605), only the material and efficient causes are taken into account as the major two subjects of science (Bacon 1605). During those days, Spinoza and Descartes deliberately rejected the final (teleological) cause and claimed that the efficient causes are necessary and sufficient to explain the universe. Thence, Newtonian physics was developed on the basis of the efficient cause. For example, the cause of acceleration is thought of as the force, in a sense that when a force F is applied to a mass m, the acceleration becomes a = F/m.

Causality in science is therefore reduced to the “efficient cause” and effect relationship. However, as we discussed, religions emphasize the purpose of events and accept God as the cause of causes. Therefore, religions use a different language, especially by underlining the telos, in terms of explaining phenomena. For instance, one of the amazing properties of water is that its least absorbing spectrum corresponds to the optical regime (Gedik, N. 2005). To explain this phenomenon, science asserts the efficient cause and searches for the relationship between the absorption spectrum and the natural oscillation frequency of the water molecule. However, disregarding the temporal order, this purpose-based approach says that because it is crucial and vital for living beings to receive sufficient light, and since the atmosphere largely consists of H₂O molecules, then water had to be transparent to the optical frequencies of light to allow creatures that have eyes and photosynthesis systems to get enough light.[1]

We should admit that the latter explanation does not sound strong enough to be generalized and be formulated. Therefore, we usually avoid using the adjective “scientific” for such explanations. But when our subjects or phenomena are chosen in the bio-world, we observe that the “standard” efficient causality does not give a satisfactory explanation, and the teleological causality is necessary. For example, the adaptation concept is teleological, which makes the usage of “final cause” indispensable in biology. Furthermore, in the early 19^th century, in his book The Origin of the Species, Charles Darwin deliberately employed the term “final cause,” as it was noticed by James Lennox (Lennox 1993). Although some people claim the opposite, by carefully investigating Darwin’s works, Asa Gray and James Lennox appreciate Darwin by stating that he is the first scientist who reconciled morphology and teleology. Simply put, every species are equipped with specialized organs so that they can maximally benefit from, or maximally defend against, their environment. The same idea is also valid from the religious point of view and does not necessarily deny natural selection.

We can find more examples of teleological causality in systems biology, which studies biological concepts in a holistic way and therefore utilizes a teleological language. For instance, during mitotic cell division, chromosomes are replicated only once and then separated into two new cells. But note that something, indeed a checkpoint, prevents the cell from replicating its DNA more than once. This situation appeals for attention and can be explained in two ways. First is the teleological, or what biologists sometimes call the “biological explanation.” DNA is replicated once because otherwise it is severely defective or even lethal for the cells. Such a teleological explanation is perfectly compatible with the mechanistic explanation (efficient cause) based on the chemical interactions of some related proteins, which can be modeled by thermodynamic equations. As the system is complex, it is often hard to fully fit into a model using thermodynamic formulations. However, system biology offers another way that mixes the language of teleological and efficient causes by considering the system as a signaling network, on which the signal (or information, as in the information theory) is carried out via specific protein phosphorylations or reactions. If we were to analyze the spectrum of the words used in systems biology, such as commitment, robustness, checkpoint, decision etc., we would see that its language is more similar to our purpose-based daily language. For such irreducibly complex systems, the employment of teleological concepts does not arise as metaphorical; rather, it is indispensable as the whole cannot be purely explained by its parts.

Other sciences also provide teleological examples. Beginning in the early 20^th century, quantum physics emerged, bringing along some very unintuitive experiments. For example, Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen offered a paradox called EPR. This states that measurements on two spatially separate but entangled particles can demonstrate correlations that cannot be simply explained by efficient causes. Later on, this phenomenon, called quantum entanglement, was empirically validated and can be explained by the final causes, introducing a retrocausal relationship.

Theoretical physicist Ken Wharton argues that the process known as frustrated spontaneous emission is naturally explained by such teleological causality. A light-emitting atom stops emitting light when the surrounding atoms are no longer able to absorb light. The decision of the atom whether to decay or not depends on the other atoms’ absorption, which has not happened yet. The idea that “the atom is probing the future” is not only counter intuitive, but also difficult to accept on the basis of the efficient causality, as Wharton states. (G. Musser, 2014).

Although teleological explanations are not always indispensable and can always be accompanied by efficient causality, the urge for the simplest explanation usually brings teleological language to science. Because science has been facing complex systems in various fields, teleological (purpose based) causality has become necessary since the beginning of the 20^th century. As a purpose-orientated understanding of existence is fundamental for almost all religions, it would not be strange to observe the engagement of science and religion in the near future.

Returning back to the initial question, of whether the purpose-oriented view can be reconciled with scientific research, we see that this is already widely evident in the scientific community. But there are still some people who think religions oppose science, owing to their purpose-oriented view. The judgment is left to the reader.

Yusuf Malik holds a PhD in physics. He is a freelance writer based in Boston, USA.

Reference

1. Fine, G.. 1987. “Forms as Causes: Plato and Aristotle,” in A. Graeser (ed.), Mathematics and Metaphysics in Aristotle, Bern: Haupt, pp. 69–112.
2. http://www.ohio.edu/chastain/rz/raspail.htm
3. Bacon, Francis. 1605. “Of the Proficience and Advancement of Learning, Divine and Human.” en.wikisource.org.
4. Gedik, N. 2005. “The Miracles of Water,” The Fountain, Issue 49.
5. Lennox, James G. 1993. “Darwin Was a Teleologist.” Biology and Philosophy 8 (4).
6. George Musser. 2015. “The Quantum Mechanics of Fate,” Nautilus, February.

[1] The difference between this explanation and the anthropic principle may seem subtle here, but there is an enormous conceptual gap which extends beyond the scope of this article.  

However, none of these movies properly – or accurately – explains radiation. Regardless of what you do and where you are on a typical day, you are being exposed to millions of particle showers – another term for radiation – at all times. Radiation is all around us, but we are not turning into monsters, giants, or any other kind of creature. We do not even sense most of the radiation unless the harmful effects reach the detectable level. In fact, radioactive isotopes (the sources of radiation) found in water, air, soil, and most places in the environment have been emitting radiation since the Big Bang ^[1], which occurred approximately 14 billion years ago.

Radiation can be emitted by both natural and man-made sources ^{[2, 3]}. There are generally two main types of natural radiation: radiation from natural sources, such as elements in the ground, is terrestrial, and radiation from outer space, such as charged particles and gamma rays, is cosmic. For example, at this very moment you are being bombarded with cosmic rays every few seconds. On the other hand, the main human-made source of radiation exposure is from medical sources like nuclear medicine, x-rays, computed tomography (CT) scans, etc.

There are various types of radiation emitted by the sun. The most widely recognized forms are visible light, infrared, ultraviolet (UV), x-ray, and gamma radiation. We can only see the visible light, which is defined as having a wavelength on the electromagnetic spectrum between 400-700 nm (a nanometer, or nm, is approximately 10-9 meter). Some of the other kinds of light have greater wavelengths, and some have smaller. In short, visible light’s region is a very narrow part of the wide EM spectrum.

Why can our eyes see only within this limited range? There are several reasons ^[4]: solar emissions, low absorption in the atmosphere, the energy of chemical bonds, the optical properties of matter, black-body emissions, and so on. Unless all these reasons align into a specific rhythm, we cannot see the kind of light. There are many laws determining light, and the fact that we can see even some light is quite remarkable, and a sign of how perfectly calibrated the universe is.

Misfits of the standard model: Neutrinos

Following our discussion of radiation, I would like to focus on one particular type of radiation: neutrinos. Neutrinos are created in certain types of radioactive decay and nuclear reactions, such as those occurring in the sun. They are one of the most abundant particles in the universe; billions of them pass harmlessly through your body, unnoticed. David Griffiths, a physicist at Reed College, describes neutrinos in his book on particle physics ^[5]:

“…neutrinos interact extraordinarily weakly with matter; a neutrino of moderate energy could easily penetrate a thousand light years of lead. That’s a comforting realization when you learn that hundreds of billions of neutrinos per second pass through every square inch of your body, night and day, coming from the sun.”

In total, there are three kinds of neutrino flavors, as they are called. These are electron neutrinos, muon neutrinos, and tau neutrinos. Each kind has a tiny mass. According to the Standard Model, there are three kinds of particles in the universe: “light-weight” leptons, “mid-weight” mesons, and “heavy-weight” baryons, such as protons and neutrons. Neutrinos are in the lepton family, which, in total, has only six particles; they have weak interactions within the universe. Neutrinos are neutral leptons since they are chargeless. Other leptons, electron, muon, and tau are called as charged leptons.

The Standard Model is one of the fundamental models in experimental high-energy physics explaining how the universe came into being. Well-known scientists are still improving the model to categorize particles properly in the universe with the aim of finding missing particles. The model explains very well the fundamental forces governing the world: strong nuclear forces, weak nuclear forces, gravitational force, and electroweak force. There were, frankly, two contradictions challenging the Standard Model until today: the Higgs mechanism ^[6] and the mass of neutrinos. The model predicted that Higgs boson ^[6] is the particle responsible for all the mass in the universe. CERN, the biggest particle accelerator^[7] on earth, announced in July 2012 that they had found a particle that behaves like the Standard Model predicted Higgs boson would. Scientists at CERN are still striving to understand the identity and features of this discovered particle. If they achieve that, they can unravel the mystery and origins of the universe a little bit more. At the end, only the mass of neutrinos will remain a controversial topic within the model.

The Standard Model predicted that neutrinos were chargeless and massless particles. However, cosmic, reactor, and accelerator neutrino experiments, which are the main three experiment types to track neutrinos, confirmed each other on the subject of neutrino oscillation. Neutrino oscillation, in short, means that they can change their flavors. For example, a tau neutrino can convert to an electron neutrino, and vice versa. This discovery shows that these particles can be chargeless but not massless. Each of them has to have small, different masses to be able to perform flavor conversions, according to the laws of physics. That is why these particles are usually called the misfits^[8] of the Standard Model.

Since each particle was produced with its antiparticle, according to Dirac’s theory of pairs^[9], neutrinos also have their antiparticles, so there are actually six types of neutrinos in the universe. Each antiparticle has exactly the same properties as the original particle, just with the opposite charge. What about the chargeless neutrinos? The difference between neutrinos and antineutrinos is their spin behavior, not their charge. They both have zero charge; however, antineutrinos have a right-handed spin and neutrinos have a left-handed spin.

If each particle has its own antiparticle in theory, there should be the same amount of particles and antiparticles in the universe. However, experimental results show that there are more particles than antiparticles. There are a lot of scientists explaining this dilemma by accepting a parallel universe in which there are more antiparticles than particles, so the total would still be the same. In return, some others are trying to clarify this contradiction by accepting that more particles were created at the beginning of the universe, approximately 14 billion years ago.

Acknowledgment: This article is produced at Mergeous ^[10], an online article and project development service for authors and publishers dedicated to the advancement of technologies in the merging realms of science and religion.

References

[1] Kaya, A. 2009. “The Expansion of the Universe and the Big Bang: A Qur’anic Perspective,” The Fountain Magazine, Issue 68.
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation
[3] http://www.chem.duke.edu/jds/cruise_chem/nuclear/exposure.html
[4] Why can we see visible light? 2007. Physics Education, 42(1), pp. 37-40.
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Concepts like the number zero, negative numbers, complex numbers, matrices, and spatial geometry are inventions of mathematicians which were studied earlier and presented especially for the use of physicists. When mathematicians theorized the “Group Theory,” they were reported to have said, “Finally we have developed something that physicists cannot use.” However, this theory, which stemmed from intangible algebra, was found to be useful in investigating the symmetry of physical systems and had serious applications in particle physics.

If there were no mathematical advances, would physics and other sciences have developed as far as they have? What does it mean that sciences are found in such an interrelated state, and thus support each other?

The perfect relationship between physics and mathematics, as in the expression of many physical laws via simple mathematical equations, is truly amazing. The laws that describe the physical world – from equations expressing the laws of motion (like X=V.t, V=a.t, F=m.a h= (gt2)/2), to basic electrical equations (like V=I.R, P=I.V, E=V/d), going all the way to the equations that define gravitational forces and the expansion of the universe (like F=G.m1.m2/d2, V=H.d) – can easily be expressed through mathematics. Furthermore, this simplicity and plainness in creation of the universe fascinates many scientists. Einstein expressed this fascination when he said, “The most incomprehensible thing about the universe is that it is comprehensible.”

One of the most important relations between mathematics and physics is that the independent study of intangible works of mathematics unexpectedly became one of the best tools to describe the physical world. Numbers, for example, are one of the greatest inventions of humanity. Humans have used them to quantify their properties. For thousands of years, people used numbers, but then the concept of negative numbers developed for seemingly no reason. For centuries, negative numbers were seen as nonsense. Of course there is not a square with a negative side length, a circle with a negative value area, or a classroom with negative number of students. However, negative numbers were found to be applicable in many areas of physics; they are now accepted as being as real as positive numbers. For instance, it is almost impossible to graph position-time, speed-time, acceleration-time, and the momentum-speed relation of objects without negative numbers.

Ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas (plane sections of cones cut in different shapes) were studied by Apollonius (BC 262-200), who was a contemporary of Archimedes. Interestingly these shapes were one day used by Kepler and Newton to describe the orbits of heavenly bodies like planets. Three dimensional pentagonal and hexagonal patterns, like those on the surface of a soccer ball, were also investigated by Archimedes. This shape has been found to be in exact configuration of a special carbon molecule composed of 60 atoms.

Likewise, the number zero, which was introduced by Muhammad bin Ahmad, in 967, led to many innovations in mathematics, as well as physics. Did al-Khwarizmi (780-850) know, when he found and utilized 1st and 2nd degree equations, that he was working on something mathematicians and physicists could one day never do without?

Imaginary numbers, as proposed against the main principles of arithmetic, also provides a very good example for this topic. We cannot think of a number whose square is negative in normal conditions. In other words, when a number is multiplied with itself, the resulting number is always a positive number. But mathematicians thought of a number that is negative when squared and continued various studies accordingly. Again, these studies have proven to be an important tool, especially in understanding electrical circuits by physicists.

Let’s finish our examples with ones from modern physics. Riemann (1826) was a mathematician who studied spatial geometry and proposed the concept of space curves. Mathematical equations designed by Riemann, pertaining to spatial geometry, were used by Einstein in 1908 to describe and formulate the concept of general relativity. Einstein also used Minkowski’s four dimensional geo-spatial continuum when developing his theory of general relativity.

There are many more examples. The famous Russian mathematician Friedman established a mathematical model that allows the expansion of the universe by improving Einstein’s model of universal geometry. This model was also later confirmed by the physicist De Sitter in discovering universal expansion and by Hubble in formulating the expansion. In addition, well before the discovery of quantum mechanics, Davit Hilbert proposed the complex vector space with a very different mathematical purpose known as “Hilbert Space.” This concept of space with an infinite number of dimensions is today used by quantum mechanics.

Sometimes physical realities can be foreseen via these invented equations. For example, Dirac proposed the existence of a particle known as the positron (or as we call it, the twin of the electron; it just differs by the charge) through his mathematical equation that he wrote in 1928. Four years later this particle was discovered by Carl D. Anderson, as predicted. To name, James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), a famous physicist and mathematician, predicted the presence and speed of electromagnetic waves mathematically via his own equations. Later, these waves were detected by Hertz (1886) through experiments. Again, Maxwell calculated the speed of electromagnetic waves via his equations, and by revealing that it was equal to the speed of light, it was understood that light was also a type of electromagnetic wave. Nowadays, the particle called the “graviton,” which is supposed to be in charge of gravitational forces, and the “Higgs” particle, that theoretically fills space according to quantum theory, are waiting to be discovered.

The book of nature is written in such a way that it is expressible by mathematical language. Famous physicist Sir James Jeans (d. 1946) expressed this situation as follows: “From the intrinsic evidence of his creation, the Great Architect of the Universe now begins to appear as a pure mathematician.” Yes, the level of knowledge that is at play in the universe encompasses both physics and mathematics. The overall interconnectedness of sciences and the interdisciplinary character physics and mathematics point to an owner of this knowledge.

As a conclusion we can deduce that physics and mathematics, just like material and non-material worlds, are in fact intertwined with each other’s various dimensions. The physical face of the universe is the place where records are kept and concepts of matter like heavy or light, big or small, and soft or hard, exist. The mathematical face of the universe (as if spiritual) is the unseen side of events or materials that are hidden and intangible. In a way, this relation between physics and mathematics is a display of the material and spiritual sides of universe.

Nuri Balta is the Head of Physics department at Samanyolu Schools in Turkey. He is also pursuing a PhD degree in Physics at Middle Eastern Technical University, Ankara, Turkey.