Cancer is a prevalent disease among humans and animals, affecting millions of lives across the globe. It can be caused in a variety of ways and can affect virtually every part of our bodies, ranging from skin cancer caused by prolonged exposure to the sun’s harmful UV rays to lung cancer that results from carcinogenic substances smokers inhale. However, plants do not die of cancer despite sometimes being exposed to the sun for over a thousand years – and they do not use any sunscreens!

Humans and animals who live to a certain age are very likely to get cancer one day. We see this situation mostly in our pets which have been specially bred and protected from predators and diseases. Cancer has become part of our lives and remains a top world health priority. The probability of prostate cancer is roughly 80% in 80-year-olds, 90% in 90-year-olds, and 100% in 100-year-olds. However, these statistics yet again do not apply to trees.

What is cancer?

Cancer is a disease caused by the uncontrolled growth of cells that have become abnormal in a part of the body. These abnormal cells are not foreign invaders that have entered our bodies from outside but are instead our own cells. However, in time, various factors such as radiation, viruses, and chemical substances that they are exposed to cause the accumulation of errors, or mutations, in the genetic codes of cells. Some of them then acquire very different characteristics and become alien to their own body.

With old age, errors arise in the genetic code in an increased rate when our cells divide by copying their own DNA. External factors, such as “free radicals” and various radiations that affect our DNA, play a role in these errors. For young people, when there are too many errors in a cell’s genome, a process called “apoptosis” takes place after which faulty cells die before they can multiply in a potentially cancerous manner and forming a tumor. However, sometimes these accumulated errors cause the cell’s growth process to become stuck in the “on” position, and the cell begins to grow and divide continuously. Cells that emerge with out-of-control divisions ignore the commands coming from the healthy cells of the body, continue to grow and reproduce according to the erroneous commands from the cell’s disrupted genome. This situation lasts until death.

What is a tumor?

Cell growths that result from defective genome proliferation will eventually form a mass called a tumor. Some cells grow very slowly and stop at a certain size after a while and do not spread anymore and are called benign tumors. Masses formed by fast-growing, defective (cancerous) cells are known as malignant tumors. Cells that detach from malignant tumors and grow rapidly can attach to another organ where they will begin to grow again when they enter the bloodstream. The process by which cancerous cells start from a tumor and spread all over the body to different organs is known as metastasis.

Why does this process not happen in plants?

One of the most destructive features of cancer when it enters metastasis is the mobility of malignant cells to varying degrees according to their type. Blood vessels, i.e. the transportation pathways of the circulatory system, act like a highway for cancer cells. As the blood vessels surround the entire body, a single cancerous cell can travel to and settle almost anywhere in the body, from the toes to the head.

Plant cells have a vital feature that is different from human and animal cells. In plants, cells do not change their locations because their cells are surrounded by a very rigid, strong, and impenetrable wall outside of normal plasma membranes. Cell walls are made of cellulose, which constitutes the main substance of plants, and form the wooden structures that ensure the plants stand upright and harden while at the same time locking each cell in place and preventing it from migrating within the organism.

Another important difference that is unique to plants is that they do not have blood circulation in which cells are carried; they have a circulatory system in which only water and food are carried. This system is often used to pump water from the roots to the leaves and to transport organic products such as sugar, which is a product of photosynthesis, from the leaves down. Therefore, there are no blood cells or immune system cells in these carrier channels, which are known as wood and roe tubes (xylem and phloem), in plants.

In addition, animal cells are specifically employed in tissues and organs such as muscle, bone, liver, and skin during embryonic development. Thus, when they divide only new cells of the same type are created. Tumors that occur in animal tissues can metastasize into different tissues and disrupt different organs. We can think of animal and human biology as a very complex system in which each cell, tissue, and organ has a task and purpose. In such a system, all elements work in cooperation for the continuation of life. This system is of a kind of irreducible complexity. A human being cannot live without organs like brain, heart, or lungs, while plants, on the other hand, have fewer simpler internal structures which are not as vital. When plant cells divide, they retain their ability to form new cells of any type. This is called totipotency.

In plants, every necessary structure can be recreated from the few tissues they have. For this reason, a gardener can grow new plants from the roots, branches, or leaf parts of a plant.

Plants are equipped with very powerful antioxidants to protect them from the sun’s harmful rays and mutations that may be caused by radiation. Therefore, tumors can develop only due to bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and insects. For example, in a situation that we can call “information confusion” that occurs when Agrobacterium Tumefaciens bacteria insert some of its DNA into the plant’s DNA, an anomaly occurs in the plant’s genome. Cells that go through a rapid growth process and form tumors are not normally classified as cancer, since they simply remain in that area and cannot be transported elsewhere. Since the tumors cannot spread to the whole plant, they may cause only minor distress at most in a specific area rather than a fatal disease such as cancer. Just as the plant continues to grow around a rock that it encounters, it grows around the tumor as well. The tumor can continue to grow for years, but does not spread to the rest of the plant, meaning there is no metastasis.

In summary, plants can also be cancerous, but a cancerous tumor is not a deadly threat to a plant, as its cells are immobile and do not have vital and complex organs like humans and animals. Thanks to the cellulose walls gifted to the them, plants continue their role in the ecosystem by continuing to grow with healthy cells around the tumor as if nothing had happened.

References

• Luis Villazon. “Can a plant die of cancer?” www.sciencefocus.com/nature/can-a-plant-die-of-cancer
• Sam Westreich. “Do Plants Get Cancer?” medium.com/@westwise/do-plants-get-cancer-60eb435c6d1a
• Stuart Thompson. “Plants couldn’t run away from Chernobyl—but that’s what saved them. Why plants don’t get cancer.” www.popsci.com/chernobyl-plants-radiation-cancer

Being a native Indian tree, the Moringa also grows in tropical countries, such as Nigeria. Although its leaves have long been eaten or brewed for health benefits, its effectiveness has not yet been recognized in other parts of the world. Often called the “miracle plant,” there has been a significant amount of research done on the therapeutic properties of the moringa, and this research will hopefully spread knowledge of its healing qualities.

The literature mentions its antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial properties. Its leaves contain high-quality protein, and the seeds have lipid (fat) in abundance [1]. That is why moringa has a great deal of calcium, potassium, sodium, and iron [2]. It is claimed that moringa has twelve times more vitamin C than oranges, ten times more vitamin A than carrots, seventeen times more calcium than milk, nine times more protein than yogurt, and twenty-five times more iron than spinach.

Moringa is used to treat more than 300 illnesses, especially in Africa. The ancient Egyptians used it as skin cream. Since then, more and more of its cosmetic benefits have been discovered, and it has found a unique place among health-care products today [3]. Moringa is used to accelerate hair growth; treat illnesses such as excessive hair oil, dandruff, and inflammation of the scalp; treat skin wrinkles, blackheads, and pimples in the skin; and to manage eczema and psoriasis. To determine the plant’s ultimate effectiveness, more research and lab work are needed.

After oil extraction, moringa’s seeds and leftovers are used as an organic fertilizer which increases farming efficiency [4]. The seeds, leaves, oil, sap, shells, roots, and flowers are also used for cooking and treatment. The leaves of the plant can be brewed as tea and can be eaten raw as a vegetable.

More than 400 studies carried out over many years have looked into moringa’s effects on illnesses [5]. The significant findings can be summarized as follows: it has been shown to strongly reduce [6] cholesterol and blood fat as well as the atherosclerotic plaques; this effect can even be achieved with the oral consumption of the plant. When peeled, the moringa fruit’s shell reveals a soft white seed, like a chickpea-sized cotton. The seed can be consumed by swallowing it. The moringa’s roots and branches can be grounded and used as powder.

The studies have also revealed that moringa’s usage can help with improving numerous conditions, including but not limited to liver infections such as hepatitis [7], lowering the glucose levels in blood in patients with Diabetes Type-2 [8], various gastrointestinal problems, increasing milk production in nursing mothers, regulating kidney functions, Parkinson’s disease [9], and atopic dermatitis [10].

Some of the studies carried out examine how safe moringa is. People have a general inclination towards consuming natural plants without paying attention to how much they intake. Unfortunately, there are many life threatening and poisonous plants – and other plants that can be dangerous when taken in large quantities. Trying to identify the safety range of moringa, a study that lasted for 14 days examined the effects of it on mice that had depression and used anti-depressants. Researchers found out that moringa does not cause toxicity, provided that the dose does not exceed 2 grams per 2.2 pounds of weight [11]. It would be wise to utilize this plant after the testing process has been completed on humans, and a guide is prepared to show the types of illnesses and the corresponding doses.

Illness is a fact of life. Thankfully, the universe has been created with plants like moringa, which can be used to ease our pains and illnesses. We owe it to ourselves, and to other humans, to study all facets of the universe, including the moringa plant.

References

1. Stohs SJ, Hartman MJ. Review of the Safety and Efficacy of Moringa oleifera. Phytother Res. 2015 Jun;29(6):796-804.
2. Raimunda S, Nogueira B, Jamille AS et al. Research advances on the multiple uses of Moringa oleifera: A sustainable alternative for socially neglected population. Asian Pac J Trop Med 2017;10:621-30.
3. Fahey J. Moringa oleifera: a review of the medical evidence for its nutritional, therapeutic, and prophylactic properties. Trees Life J 2005;1:1-33.
4. Emmanuel SA, Emmanuel BS, Zaku, SG, Thomas SA. Biodiversity and agricultural productivity enhancement in Nigeria: Application of processed Moringa oleifera seeds for improved organic farming. Biol J N Am 2011;2:867-71.
5. Matic I1, Guidi A2, Kenzo M3, Mattei M2, Galgani A2, Investigation of medicinal plants traditionally used as dietary supplements: A review on Moringa oleifera. J Public Health Afr. 2018 Dec 21;9(3):841. doi: 10.4081/jphia.2018.841. eCollection 2018 Dec 21.
6. Chumark P, Khunawat P, Sanvarinda Y, et al. The in vitro and ex vivo antioxidant properties, hypolipidaemic and antiatherosclerotic activities of water extract of Moringa oleifera Lam. leaves. J Ethnopharmacol 2008;116:439-46.
7. Almatrafi MM, Vergara-Jimenez M, Murillo AG, et al. Moringa Leaves Prevent Hepatic Lipid Accumulation and Inflammation in Guinea Pigs by Reducing the Expression of Genes Involved in Lipid Metabolism. Int J Mol Sci 2017;18:E1330.
8. Kumari DJ. Hypoglycaemic effect of Moringa oleifera and Azadirachta indica in type 2 diabees mellitus. Bioscan 2010;5:211-4.
9. Giacoppo S, Rajan TS, De Nicola GR, et al. The Isothiocyanate Isolated from Moringa oleifera Shows Potent Anti- Inflammatory Activity in the Treatment of Murine Subacute Parkinson’s Disease. Rejuvenation Res 2017;20:50-63.
10. Choi EJ, Debnath T, Tang Y, et al. Topical application of Moringa oleifera leaf extract ameliorates experimentally induced atopic dermatitis by the regulation of Th1/Th2/Th17 balance. Biomed Pharmacother 2016;84:870- 7.
11. Kaur G1, Invally M1, Sanzagiri R1, Buttar HS2. Evaluation of the antidepressant activity of Moringa oleifera alone and in combination with fluoxetine. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2015 Oct-Dec;6(4):273-9. doi: 10.4103/0975-9476.172384.

Every essential oil gets its uniqueness not just due to one of its components but because of its delicate and complex admixture. The individual perfume and therapeutic value of each essential oil depends on this balance.

What is aromatherapy?

Aromatherapy is the practice of using essential oils, also known as volatile plant oils, for physical and psychological health. These essential oils and/or essences are concentrated liquids that are extracted from many different types of wild or cultivated plants. Essential oils can be obtained from different parts of the plant, such as the flower, leaves, fruits, bark, roots, and resins. Some examples of essentials oils are Agar oil, highly coveted for its wonderful fragrance, and Geranium oil, used in herbal medicine. As for essences, they can be obtained not only from flowers and resins but also from chemicals such as benzoins, and plants such as gaiacs and pines. Some examples of resins that can be used for their essences are Asafoetida, which is dried latex that certain Ferula plants exude from their tap root, and Myrrh, which comes from thorny plants of the genus Commiphora.

A brief history of aromatherapy

It’s hard to say when people first started using aromatherapy, partly because the practice of using plant-derived ingredients for medicinal (and other) purposes is as old as time. There is evidence that the Chinese may have used aromatherapy several thousands of years ago, with an emphasis on maintaining harmony and equilibrium. Some years after this the Egyptians were able to develop a machine that could distill cedar wood oil. Later on, the Greeks adapted aromatherapy from the Egyptians. “Istenshaque,” a form of aromatherapy, was first practiced in the Greek system of medicine by Hippocrates (460-370 BC). In the 11^th century, the renowned Avicenna developed a coiled cooling pipe that made the essential oil distillation process much faster. The term “aromatherapy” was eventually coined by the French chemist and scholar Dr. Rene Maurice Gattefoss’e (1881-1950) in 1930 and thereafter practiced as a medical science for the treatment of various diseases.

What are essential oils composed of?

From a chemical analysis standpoint and by chromatography it is evident that essential oils are not single entities but can instead be classified as compounds. Additionally, essential oils are volatile in steam, which means they will turn into a gas in the presence of steam. They differ entirely in both chemical and physical properties from fixed oils, which are also known as non-volatile oils. Animal or vegetable oils are very common types of fixed oils. Essential oils consist of many organic constituents which unite in a delicate and complex balance to produce a wide range of therapeutic and olfactory qualities. For example, the oil of the eucalyptus leaf contains no less than 250 different constituents. In one study, researchers were able to identify 40 different compounds in tea tree oil using chromatography methods (Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry). Every essential oil gets its uniqueness not just due to one of its components but because of its delicate and complex admixture. The individual perfume and therapeutic value of each essential oil depends on this balance.

Scope & methods

• Olfaction (shamoom): Aromatic medicines either in dried or liquid forms are kept in a vessel and the fumes are inhaled. Rose oil is often used in this manner.
• Inhalation (lakhlakha): Aromatic medicines or pungent medicines either dried or liquid forms are kept in a wide mouthed bottle and then inhaled. With this method the vapors of the medicines not only reach up to the nose but can reach down in to the respiratory passage as well. Camphor is a common choice for inhalation therapy.
• Massage (dalak): Some treatments involve massaging the oil into the skin directly, and can be one of the more effective treatment methods.
• Poultices: Essential oils used in poultices bring out impurities of the skin. These treatments sooth irritation and relieve congestion and pain. Most frequently, poultices are made up of linseed (Alsi) or mustard. These are particularly useful for chest complaints and skin diseases.
• Compresses: Used externally, particularly on eyes. They can be either hot or cold depending on the effect required.

Base oils and carrier oils

Most essential oils are not used in their pure, undiluted sate. Rather, they are mixed into a fixed plant oil base, like almond, soya, or wheat germ. These base or carrier oils act as balancing and stabilizing agents. They are typically pure, have little to no smell, and are easy for essential oils to dissolve in. The ratio of essential oils to base oils differs for each oil. For example, 2 to 3 drops of essential oil to 5 ml of base oil can be used for the body, and 1 drop essential oil to 5 ml base oil can be used for the face.

Some commonly used oils

• Almond oil: Oil extracted from bitter and sweet almond.
  Constituents: Olein is the chief constituent. Other constituents are glyceride and linoleic acid.
  Action: Skin softening agent, lubricant, nourishing and revitalizing.
  Uses: Wonderful for dry, wrinkled hands. Very beneficial for eczema and skin irritation of any kind.
• Castor oil:
  Constituents: Major constituents are palmatic, fatty acids, ricinoleic acid and glycerine.
  Uses: as soothing agent for skin rashes, in embalming, eczema, dryness of the skin.
• Soya oil:
  Constituents: Oleic, linoleic, stearic and palmitic acid.
  Action: Lowers cholesterol levels.
  Uses: To be taken every day in salad dressing or with rice dishes.
• Sage leaf (Salvia officinalis)
  Action: Antiseptic, astringent.
  Uses: Mouth washes and gargle, Alzheimer’s disease, memory loss.
• Thyme & thyme oil (Thymus vulgaris)
  Action: Antiseptic, anti-tussive, expectorant, spasmolytic.
  Uses: Cough cold, spasmodic pain.
• Lavender oil (Lavendula angustifolia)
  Action: Masks disagreeable odors, heals skin burn and acts as relaxant in premenstrual tension.
  Uses: In ointment, rheumatic pain.
• Aniseed (Pimpinella anisum)
  Action: Carminative, appetizer, hepto-tonic, stomachic, diuretic, emmenogogue, galactogogue, analgesic.
  Uses: flatulence, loss of appetite, liver disorders, indigestion, renal disorders, to stimulate lactation, for pain.
• Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare)
  Action: Carminative, stomachic, diuretic, emmenogogue & galactogogue and vermicide.
  Uses: flatulence, loss of appetite, indigestion, renal disorders, to stimulate lactation and worm infestation.
• Cumin (Cumin cyminum)
  Action: General tonic, digestive, antiseptic, bactericide, carminative, detergent (Jaali)
  Uses:Indigestion, loss of appetite, infections, flatulence, skin disorders.
• Cinnamon oil (Cinnamomum zeylanicum)
  Action: Rubefacient, carminative, powerful germicide, anti-rheumatic, digestive, analgesic, detergent.
  Uses: Skin disorders, flatulence, infection, arthritis and indigestion.
• Camphor (Cinnamomum camphora)
  Action: externally: rubefacient, internally-mild antiseptic, carminative, antipyretic.
  Uses: skin disorders, infections, flatulence and fever.
• Caraway (Carum carvi)
  Action: Carminative, antispasmodic, galactogogauge and emmenogogue.
  Uses: Flatulance, colic, stimulate lactation and dysmenorrhea.
• Myrrh (Commiphora)
  Action: Antiseptic, antibiotic, stomachic, emmenogogue, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, wound healing properties.
  Uses: as an essence and in perfumes, mouth wash, in anti-ulcer treatment and is cytoprotective.
• Clove oil (Eugenia caryophyllus)
  Action: Stimulant, antiseptic, stomachic, expectorant, sedative, carminative, antispasmodic, digestive.
  Uses: Mouth and tooth infection, flatulence, rheumatic pain, bronchitis, cold.
• Eucalyptus oil (Eucalyptus globus)
  Action: Decongestant.
  Uses: Internally: Mixtures, inhalations, lozenges. Externally: In ointments and liniments.
• Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla)
  Action: Antiseptic, anxiolytic, digestive, disinfectant, carminative antipyretic.
  Uses: Insomnia, headache, migraine, facial neuralgia, sinusitis, dermatitis, acne, eczema, abscesses, boils, amenorrhea, pre-menstrual tension, cystitis, colic, loss of appetite.
• Sandal wood (Santalum album)
  Action: Calming action on dry skin, aphrodisiac.
  Uses: For dry and chapped skin.
• Rose oil (Rosa domascena)
  Action: Cardio tonic, resolvent, anti-inflammatory.
  Uses: In perfumery, palpitation, inflammation.

Precautions while using essential oils

Although essential oils are useful for treating a number of ailments you should still take the necessary precautions before using them. For example, you should always perform a skin test before using an essential oil, since everyone is unique and reacts differently to different oils. Body size, age, and sex also makes a difference. As for storage, essential oils should always be stored in dark glass bottles away from sunlight.

In our era that is characterized by stressful environments and ever-changing life styles, essential oil aromatherapy offers an optimal answer to the emerging health burden of degenerative diseases. It not only offers therapeutic but also preventative and restorative health benefits, without most of the side effects of modern treatment schedules. Hence aromatherapy with its wide scope and application potential offers a therapeutic solution for not only diseased body systems but also soothes the soul and the spirit, thereby taking care of the stress component that is prominent in many illnesses.

You need to read “The Very Lonely Firefly,” a story book delighting children of all ages by Eric Carle (1) to get the answer. In the mean time, you can read this article to have better insight into the enchanting world of the firefly. Are they just a pleasure to our eyes, during their short lives in the summer, or do they live on in children’s books?

Fireflies, or lightning bugs, belong to the Lampyridae family. There are thousands of firefly species all over the world and none of them are actually flies. Then what are they? Well, they are beetles, who get the names “firefly” and “lightning bug” because of the flashes of light emanating from their bodies, a process called bioluminescence (2). This “cold light” does not heat up or burn its producer through infrared or ultraviolet frequencies, and is formed by the action of an enzyme called luciferase in the lower abdomen of the firefly. It may be yellow, green, or pale red, with wavelengths from 510 to 670 nanometers. The enzyme luciferase acts on the luciferin, in the presence of magnesium ions, ATP, and oxygen to produce light (3). According to Vieira et al., 2012, in the Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology, the firefly’s luciferase is the most important and studied bioluminescence system in scientific research(4). The firefly luciferase was cloned and isolated for the purpose of constructing bioassay systems in the late 1980s (5). Since then, due to very interesting characteristics, this system has been used in numerous biomedical, pharmaceutical and bioanalytical applications (4).

In biomedical research, the ability to visualize a biological process is very important because it offers the most direct method to support or disprove any scientific claim (6). Therefore, firefly luciferase is very desirable as a reporter in this area. Typically, the luciferase gene is cloned with a DNA sequence of interest into cells and then the cells are assayed by measuring its bioluminescence. Fusing a protein with luciferase is like putting a reflective vest on a cyclist in the dark to be able to watch him. Because the firefly luciferase lights up, it helps screening for chemical biology and drug discovery applications in academia and the pharmaceutical industry (5). For example, the firefly luciferase gene was used as a reporter to screen tumor-specific promoters in lung cancer (7). Another example showing how beneficial the firefly is for scientific research is a rapid in vivo (Latin for within the living) assessment of drug efficacy against Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which is the causative agent of most cases of tuberculosis, using an improved firefly luciferase (8). In this study, Andreu et al., 2013, used a Mycobacterium tuberculosis strain carrying a red-shifted derivative of the firefly luciferase gene to infect mice, and they monitored disease progression in living animals by bioluminescence imaging before and after treatment with a frontline anti-tuberculosis drug. Furthermore, firefly luciferase was used in a research about anti-malaria drugs, an illness which affects about 5% of the world’s population and brings a death toll of 0.5–2.5 million each year (9).

Firefly luciferase is not only used in biomedical research, but also in molecular plant biology. In the early ’90s, plant scientists were already able to show the bioluminescence of a promoter fragment fused to the firefly luciferase gene and its regulation by phytochrome (a pigment that plants use to detect light) and the circadian clock (a roughly 24 hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings) (10) in plants. Some examples for the great usage of this system among many others include a firefly luciferase complementation assay that was used to reveal the interacting partners of Open Stomata 1 protein, which is critical for plant drought responses in Brassica oleracea (cabbage) (11) and the characterization of the promoter region of an important gene encoding a copper chaperone for the copper/zinc superoxide dismutase that is involved in oxidative stress protection of the potato plant (12).

Scientists have found many ways to use the firefly light, but what is the function of it for its real owner? Marc Branham, an assistant professor in the department of entomology and nematology at the University of Florida, explains. “Fireflies seem to flash light for a variety of reasons. The larvae produce short glows and are primarily active at night, even though many species are subterranean (underground) or semi-aquatic. Fireflies produce defensive steroids in their bodies that make them unpalatable to predators. Larvae use their glows as warning displays to communicate their distastefulness. As adults, many fireflies have flash patterns distinctive to their species and use them to identify other members of their species as well as to discriminate between members of the opposite sex. Several studies have shown that female fireflies choose mates depending upon specific male flash pattern characteristics. Higher male flash rates, as well as increased flash intensity, have been shown to be more attractive to females in two different firefly species (13).”

Are there other creatures like fireflies producing light? “Besides fireflies, many other organisms, especially marine creatures, use bioluminescence for sexual selection, attracting prey and as a means of camouflage, and it has been estimated that about 90 percent of deep-sea animals are bioluminescent, according to the Scripps Institution of Oceanography,” says Remy Melina, a staff writer for “Life’s Little Mysteries.”(14)

A firefly’s glow is a theme of summer nights, romantic poems, and childhood adventures and books. However, when you enjoy a firework show done by fireflies next time, please look at them more carefully by thinking that they have more than that to offer humanity, including thrilling scientific inventions done with just a single protein from them. Who knows what else they have waiting to be discovered by us? How amazing it is that, like everything else created on earth, a firefly is also a very precious art piece decorated with intricate features, and even though it is very tiny, its service to humanity is, in many ways, enormous.

References

http://www.barnesandnoble.com/sample/read/9780399227745
National Wildlife Federation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefly
Vieira J, Pinto da Silva L, Esteves da Silva JC (2012) Advances in the knowledge of light emission by firefly luciferin and oxyluciferin. J Photochem Photobiol B. 117:33-9.
Thorne N, Inglese J, Auld DS (2010) Illuminating insights into firefly luciferase and other bioluminescent reporters used in chemical biology. Chem Biol. 17(6):646-57>
Brogan J, Li F, Li W, He Z, Huang Q, Li CY (2012) Imaging molecular pathways: reporter genes Radiat Res. 177(4):508-13.
Xu R, Guo LJ, Xin J, Li WM, Gao Y, Zheng YX, Guo YH, Lin YJ, Xie YH, Wu YQ, Xu RA (2013) Luciferase assay to screen tumour-specific promoters in lung cancer.Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 14(11):6557-62.
Andreu N, Zelmer A, Sampson SL, Ikeh M, Bancroft GJ, Schaible UE, Wiles S, Robertson BD (2013) Rapid in vivo assessment of drug efficacy against Mycobacterium tuberculosis using an improved firefly luciferase. J Antimicrob Chemother. 68(9):2118-27.
Che P, Cui L, Kutsch O, Cui L, Li Q (2012) Validating a firefly luciferase-based high-throughput screening assay for antimalarial drug discovery. Assay Drug Dev Technol. 10(1):61-8.
Millar AJ, Short SR, Chua NH, Kay SA (1992) A novel circadian phenotype based on firefly luciferase expression in transgenic plants. Plant Cell.4(9):1075-87.
Wang M, Yuan F, Hao H, Zhang Y, Zhao H, Guo A, Hu J, Zhou X, Xie CG (2013) BolOST1, an ortholog of Open Stomata 1 with alternative splicing products in Brassica oleracea, positively modulates drought responses in plants. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 442(3-4):214-20.
Trindade LM, Horvath BM, Bergervoet MJ, Visser RG (2003) Isolation of a gene encoding a copper chaperone for the copper/zinc superoxide dismutase and characterization of its promoter in potato. Plant Physiol. 133(2):618-29.
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-and-why-do-fireflies/
http://www.livescience.com/32677-what-makes-fireflies-light-up.html

Organic substances in the soil go through oxidative decomposition depending on factors such as temperature, air, humidity, and pH balance. This is a slow burning (oxidation) event of organic substances. However, oxidative decay is hindered if one of the aforementioned factors is lacking. Then, a slow decay of organic materials in soil called humification takes place.

Humification occurs in an open system in contact with air. For example, early chemical processes start with leaves changing color in autumn. The break down and partial ingestion of leaves by soil organisms follows. During this time, water soluble carbohydrates and proteins leave the leaf tissue. What remains behind are plant structures like cellulose and lignin, which are not broken down yet. Since leaf shapes are not completely deformed, species identification can still be possible at this stage. In the decay step, however, the cellulose and lignin are decomposed by various fungi species and converted to humus.

Humic substances and their properties

Humic substances are intermediate products that occur as the result of organic materials going through a series of chemical reactions. These intermediate products are humic acid, fulvic acid, and humate. Their molecular weights are around 1.000-10.000 gr/mol, 10.000-100.000 gr/mol, and 100.000-10.000.000 gr/mol, respectively. Humic acids contain weak aliphatic (carbon chains) and aromatic (carbon rings) organic acids that are soluble in water when it has a base medium but insoluble under acidic conditions.

Fulvic acids with smaller size molecular structures can reach plant roots, branches, and leaves easily because they are soluble in water under all pH conditions (acidic, neutral, and basic). Thus, trace elements such as iron, zinc, copper, manganese, and boron can be easily transported to plant tissues via fulvic acid.

Humates, however, are insoluble in water. Only the portion of a humate called ulmic acid can dissolve in alcohol.

Major functions have been assigned to humic matter in the nutrient and carbon cycle, as they are inseparable members of the ecosystem. Plants capture significantly more nutrients from humic matter than from clay minerals. Even though they can be depleted from soil by certain agricultural practices in less than 50 years, they can still remain in natural soils, outside human activity, for hundreds or even thousands of years without being degraded. This very long presence in soil enables them to continue their functions longer. According to radiocarbon dating, humates can last approximately 1140 years; and humic acid and fulvic acid last for 1235 and 870 years, respectively, in natural soils.

Positively charged nutritious elements (cations) remain in the soil by binding to negatively charged (anions) in humic matter. Because this bond is weak, useful elements for the plant can easily be exchanged with another cation, becoming free and getting absorbed by the plant. On the other side, cations such as iron, copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and calcium, which are hazardous to plants when taken excessively, are held in the soil, bound to humic matter and thus not causing toxicity.

Another significant feature of humic and fulvic acid is their ability to form water bridges. Water bridges facilitate the movement of nutrient ions towards roots via soil solutions.

Aside from agriculture, humic matter, with its aforementioned properties, serve humankind in the industrial, environmental, and biomedical fields.

Industrial and environmental applications

Humic matter is utilized in the staining of leather works, as wood lining paint (natural blue color), as well as water based stripping material for furniture stains. Humic matter is also used in the production of durable, resistant papers in the paper industry, to provide mechanical strength to processed ceramics, and as an additive. It is also applied as a coloring, hardening, and plasticizing agent in plastic fabrication.

Humic and fulvic acids gain significance regarding their ability to form water soluble substances with many metal compounds containing radioactive elements in their structure.

In environmental chemistry, the main role of the humic matter is to remove toxic substances, human sourced organic chemical matter, and other pollutants from water. Calcium humate, obtained from humic matter, can bind and remove nickel, iron, cadmium, and copper in addition to radioactive elements produced at nuclear power plants from water.

Humus based filters are designed to treat sewage water and mud waste. Oils, stains, poisonous phenolic substances, and pesticides are removed from sewage via these materials. In poultry, humic substances are employed to absorb and eliminate the odor of waste gases.

Biomedical applications

Drugs for the treatment of human and animal diseases are developed from humic matter. These can be used for the treatment of viral and bacterial illnesses, in the prevention of blood clots, to cure infections, and to remedy estrogen deficiencies. Clinical studies have shown that common viral diseases of children’s respiratory tracks can be treated with fulvic acid supplements. A lot of medical research has shown that humic matter, especially fulvic acids, have the ability to provide protection against cancer causing viruses. In a study, laboratory mice were given ethanol to trigger gastritis and it was determined that humic acids supplied to mice led to a significant reduction in the harm gastritis caused. The fact that humic acids can form compounds with heavy metals, such as cadmium, enables the excretion of heavy metals from organisms.

In our universe there is no place for waste. Once every particle completes its task, it is returned in a different fashion to be assigned another job. Humification is a good example to this reassignment as a complex recycling event in the soil. It is amazing to observe everything being generated from one thing and everything converted into one thing so easily and in such a crafty, balanced, and organized fashion. In fact, the power and wisdom behind the conversion of the remains of millions of different organisms into a few similar substances to be employed in different tasks are no less amazing.

Some insight for leaves

Leaves are in charge of respiration in plants. They consist of the main mechanism producing food for plants, using sunlight via photosynthesis through which food for many more organisms, animals, and humans are provided. Having been assigned to convert solar energy to food, which they’ve been doing for millions, perhaps billions, of years, plants have been a significant instrument for sustaining life on or planet. It is as if plants turn their leaves upward in prayer to ask for food on behalf of all living things.

Morphology of a leaf

Leaves are composed of three sections: the base, blade, and petiole. The blade is the most important part of the leaf; it is wide and flat. The exact shape of leaves vary according to climate, geographical conditions, life span and risk of consumption by other organisms. In tropical climates, the blade is often very wide. In drier climates, it is usually smaller, in order to reduce water loss.

Leaves of some plants undergo a transformation called “metamorphosis” to fulfill different tasks. For example, some leaves have a thorny shape and protect the plant form herbivorous animals. Some leaves are designed to store water, and some are converted into a trap in order to capture insects to nourish the plant.

On the cross section of a leaf, one can observe that four layers constitute the inner part. The first one is the epidermis, which covers the leaf from top to bottom. This layer protects the leaf against external elements and is lined with a waterproof, waxy substance.

The palisade parenchyma is located on the upper side of the inner tissue and it houses chloroplast rich cells, which are lined up densely and carry out photosynthesis. The spongy layer under the palisade tissue forms the intercellular air spaces and this layer is responsible for the respiration of the plant.

For photosynthesis to occur, the leaf needs to receive the maximum amount of sunlight. The sun must hit the leaf at a perpendicular angle; thus, the leaf must be amply wide and must sit level. Because the sun hits different latitudes at different angles, plants have branches of different lengths facing different directions, and leaves have different curvatures. Furthermore, leaves are also lined up in a way so as not to block the sun’s rays. For this to happen, it is required for the leaf base to be thin and the leaves to be lined up in a spiral fashion that enables both lower and higher ones to harvest sunlight in the most efficient way. This type of arrangement exemplifies the golden ratio, which is observed among many structures in nature.

Each leaf sprouts at an angle of either 222.5 or 137.5, derived from division of 360 degrees, from the previous leaf under. This spiral leaf growth provides them with the most suitable place to harvest sunlight maximally. This way the gaps around branches are minimized and a maximum number of leaves is positioned without reducing the light capture capacity of the plant.

Seasons and leaves

Plants work like factories during spring and summer, producing a great deal of food through photosynthesis. Some of these foods help the plant grow and some are stored as starch for winter. With the onset of autumn, a majority of plants outside tropical zones go through hibernation, like many organisms do, and enter a dormant period. In order for plants, like trees and bushes, to survive the cold, their leaves are shed to minimize their surface area and conserve energy. Perennial green plants lose their aerial parts, too, including stems and leaves, and hibernate underground as roots, bulbs, and tubers. They sprout back from their roots once spring brings warmer weather.

Many leaves begin to fade and fall once autumn arrives. The leaves of some hardy plants – like cypress, pine, and spruce trees – continue to function through winter. In some of these trees, like the bay tree and the Indian sandalwood, there are protective layers covering the leaves against the cold. Other leaves, like pine needles, are created in a spiny shape to resist the cold.

Colors of autumn

Leaves seem green during the spring and summer months because the chlorophyll found in them absorbs all wavelengths other than green. The other major pigments found in leaves are carotene (orange) and xanthophylls (yellow). These two pigments are the most common pigments in nature.

As autumn approaches, and photosynthesis begins to end, chlorophyll starts to degrade and the other pigments begin to show. Thus, leaves turn yellow and bright red.

As the weather gets colder, the chloroplasts that are near the leaf’s bottom are broken apart, and sugar levels begin to elevate. The sugars produced during this season accumulate in the leaves day by day due to lower photosynthetic speed and reduced transportation to other parts of the plant. These sugars are converted into anthocyanins. At first, leaves appear yellow. A couple weeks before they fall, most leaves shift from yellow to red. Under abundant sunlight, due to concentrated anthocyanins, leaves seem brighter and more colorful – and thus red. Once the live tissues die completely, all leaves turn brown. This is due to the high concentration of tannin.

Leaf color varies not only because of plant genetics and external factors, but also because of climate. Temperature, humidity, soil composition, and levels of sun exposure all affect color. There is a higher degree of color change in the leaves of trees that grow in lower temperatures.

The composition of soil plays a major role in the color of leaves. Leaves that turn yellow early indicate a nitrogen shortage; on the other hand, the presence of a strong red color indicates very acidic soil. A high alkaline ratio is present in places where leaves are purple.

Walking among fallen leaves and the colorful scenery in a forest in autumn can trigger unique emotions. Depending on the psychological state of a person, the colors of autumn sometimes remind us about the briefness of this world, but they can also hint at the infinite life to come.

The motifs and patterns of leaves

Receiving sufficient sunlight is a significant matter for leaves. Therefore, they are created differently. No two plant leaves are the same.

Some of the leaves are simple and some are compounds. According to their arrangements, opposite, alternate, whorled, and rowed forms exist. Leaf blades can be ovals, kidneys, triangles, or even hearts. Edges can be smooth, serrated, toothed, or lobed. Leaf veins can also have many different motifs.

Each plant species has its own leaf motif. The alfalfa leaf has a triple pattern of specific angles; walnut leaves have an opposite arrangement of eight to ten. A hand-like motif, like the fingers of a praying hand, formed of seven leaves, can be observed on chestnut trees.

Among tropical fruits, bananas are probably the most popular, and with good reason. They are delicious and nutritious, and can be consumed by everyone, from babies to seniors.

The banana plant belongs to the Musa genus. The varieties preferred for cultivation are two hybrid species, Musa accuminata and Musa balbisiana. These types are mostly produced in Southeast Asia, Africa, and South and North America.

There are many varieties of banana. Short Cavendish, mid-sized Grand Nines, and longer Chiquita are some of those. The main harvesting occurs in September and October, but bananas can be produced year round in greenhouses.

Bananas are not reproduced by seeds. They reproduce through tissue culture – pieces of tubers or underground shoots. Underground perennial tubers spread horizontally and grow roots. Once the leaves and sheaths inside the annual aerial pseudostem reach a certain number, a flower bud is developed. The flower stalk, rising among the leaf bundles that are in the center of the pseudostem, carries the purple colored flowers that will become fruit.

When these flowers bloom, sounds can be heard. These sounds occur during the tearing of stem when the flowers force away from the crust to form the banana clusters; this is also known as inflorescence. While the buds are quickly developing, the purple leaves open and flowers become visible. Once the flower inflorescence emerges completely, it bends towards the ground. Fruits then form. Since the banana is a parthenocarpic plant, its fruit is generated without pollination from female flowers, like seedless grapes. The approximate time required for flowers to give fruit and become ripe is three months (1).    

Bananas are rich in nutrients. There is 1.1 gr. of protein, only 0.2 gr. of fat, 22 gr. of carbohydrates (fructose, glucose, sucrose and starch, cellulose, pectin), along with minerals like potassium, calcium, iron, phosphate, copper, zinc, and magnesium in 100 grams of a banana. It also contains fruit acids, along with vitamins A, B1, B2, B6, B9, C, D, E and P vitamins. Before bananas ripen, when they are still green, they contain approximately 1% sugar and 20% starch. As they ripen, the sugar content rises to 20% and the starch level drops to 1%.  

Bananas are harvested green and unripe and are matured in a closed environment. Unripe bananas can be stored for up to 15 days at 5-10 degree Celsius and 80-90% relative humidity. Maturation is enabled via ethylene gas, in storage rooms or during shipment. The shell becomes completely yellow, with brown spots, when the banana ripens. These spots indicate the sufficient conversion of starches into sugars. It is recommended to consume the ripe fruit as soon as possible.

In the past, the transportation of mature fruits to remote regions was a major problem, but this is not the case today. It is because methylcyclopropene (MCP) is used to delay the ripening of the fruit. When MCP is used, it binds to ethylene receptors, and slows down maturation (2). The proper storage temperature is 13-15 degrees (Celsius), so they get darker in the fridge faster. Therefore, it is advised to store them in a suitable place in a paper bag (3).

Even though they are usually eaten raw, as a fruit, some banana types are consumed after cooking. They can also be utilized as chips, baby food, puree, flour, or juice. In some places, banana flowers are used in salads and as decoration. Furthermore, bananas are employed in facial and skin care products. The leaves and stalks of the banana plant may also be used in the construction of roofs, and the fibers can be used as ropes, upholsteries, or even hats.  

According to the statistics of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the annual production was 55-60 million tons in 1995, whereas it is 90-100 million tons today. 25% of the production occurs in India, and the majority of the rest takes place in the Philippines, China, Brazil, and Ecuador. Even though they are grown in various parts of the world and traded widely, bananas are mostly imported by developed countries.

Benefits of the banana

Bananas can help prevent many diseases or provide complementary aid to different therapies. When a banana is blended with milk, it can serve as an ideal starter food for babies, and can also reduce wear and tear on the body, delaying aging.

Bananas have been shown to help after stomach or intestinal bleeding, and in patients with ulcers or various laryngeal problems. They can help prevent acid reflux. The sodium and potassium contained in bananas are effective for restoring heart beat rhythms and the body’s osmotic balance. Since bananas are rich in iron, they’re beneficial for anemia. Due to a high amount of serotonin, bananas can actually make people happier, improving our decision making and concentration. Because they can actually make us less depressed, bananas are a recommended snack (5).

Bananas help support the development of children’s skeletal structures, and can ease the pain of menstrual cramps. Aside from being an energy source, bananas help the nervous system function properly, maintaining the acid-base balance of bodily fluids and strengthening the immune system. Because of high magnesium and potassium, they help us sleep better – thus making a banana the perfect midnight snack!

Carbohydrates can cause instant blood sugar spikes, but they are also the most important energy source of the brain, central nervous system, and muscles. When blood sugar rises, it is stored as sugar or fat with the help of insulin secreted by the pancreas. This can cause obesity, or even diabetes, if a person ingests too many carbohydrates. Therefore, one must consume high sugar foods like bananas at the right time, and in the right amount.

Beta-carotene, one of the precursors of vitamin A, happens to be abundant in bananas. Beta-carotene helps with the neutralization of free radicals, supports the immune system, prevents cardio-vascular disease, and is protective against cancer. It’s more beneficial when taken together with vitamin E and C, which are also found in bananas.

The good news keeps coming! Due to a high amount of fiber, bananas are great for dieting and can also prevent colon and bowel cancers. Bananas can also help to regulate bowel functions.

Genetically modified banana plants are also employed for the synthesis of vaccine proteins used against Hepatitis, rabies, dysentery, cholera and other intestinal infections (7).

As you can see, the banana has been imbued with an extraordinary amount of positive properties. It’s not difficult to look at bananas as an amazing blessing bestowed upon humanity.

Meinecke et al. Turbulent amplification of magnetic fields in laboratory laser-produced shock waves, June 2014, Nature Physics.

A supernova is the explosion of a massive star which releases a burst of radiation that can be as bright as 10 billion suns. Such a massive amount of radiation can shine throughout the entire universe for several light-years. Supernovas are triggered either when the fuel within a star ignites or when a star’s core collapses under extreme gravitational forces. Supernovas have already taught us very important lessons about the history of the universe. For example, these explosions have provided solid evidence that the universe is expanding. Supernovas can also tell us a lot about how old stars die and how new stars are born. When a star goes through a supernova explosion, it leaves behind a skeleton made of expanding dust and gas that scientists call a remnant. These star-remnants spread around space. They might end up on earth or other planets, or they could form the energy source of a new star. Since the best way to understand supernovas is to actually explode a star, researchers recently developed a technique to simulate small-scale supernovas in a lab environment. To do this, scientists used lasers that are 60,000 billion times more powerful than a laser pointer. They focused the laser beams on a thin carbon rod inside a gas-filled chamber. The lasers heated the chamber to over 1 million degrees Celsius, which caused the carbon rod to explode and expand out through the low density gas – just like how exploding stars speed through space. The experiment revealed that as the blast passes through the grid, it becomes irregular and turbulent. They also noticed that the magnetic field was dramatically higher within the grid than without, suggesting that the magnetic field was amplified by the generated turbulence. The supernova system developed in this study holds the possibility of helping us better understand how the universe was formed and evolved, and could provide some insight into how magnetic fields were first created.

Young blood: The fountain of youth?

Villeda SA et al. Young blood reverses age-related impairments in cognitive function and synaptic plasticity in mice. June 2014, Nature Medicine.
Sinha M. et al. Restoring systemic GDF11 levels reverses age-related dysfunction in mouse skeletal muscle. June 2014, Science.

Two recent studies of lab mice showed that transfusions of blood from younger individuals reverse the effects of aging in their elders. One research group showed that neural damage of mice with age-related cognitive impairments could be reversed by such transfusions. Alternatively, injecting the younger plasma into the brain was also very effective at repairing neural damage. Another research group showed that blood from younger mice repaired age-related heart defects in older mice. Researchers further discovered that high levels of the protein GDF11, present in the blood of younger mice, were the key for rejuvenation. Researchers proposed that blood from younger mice contains molecules with anti-aging properties that awaken the stem cells of the brain and heart muscles and thus initiate the rejuvenation. These studies are incredibly encouraging for combating Alzheimer’s disease, heart disease, and many other age-related diseases; however, a comprehensive set of clinical tests needs to be conducted before testing the effects in humans.

“Chameleon” plant discovered

Gianoli E. and Carrasco-Urra F. Leaf mimicry in a climbing plant Protects against herbivory. May 2014, Current Biology.

Scientists thought for many years that camouflage and mimicry were only observed in the animal kingdom. A newly discovered wood vine in Chile, Boquila trifoliolata, has been found to transform its leaves to mimic a variety of host trees. B. trifoliolata is the first plant ever shown to imitate multiple hosts. This is a rare trait called “mimetic polymorphism” and it was only previously observed in butterflies. As B. trifoliolata climbs onto a tree’s branches, it changes the color, size, shape, orientation, and even the vein patterns of its leaves to match the surrounding flora. When the same vine crosses over to a second tree, the size of its leaves can even increase 10 times  to match the second host plant. According to scientists, mimicry may protect the vine from plant-eating herbivores such as weevils and leaf beetles. It is perplexing how a plant can distinguish between individual trees and keep changing its physical characteristics. Odors, chemicals, or microbes that are released form host plants are potential candidate mechanisms for this intriguing plant behavior.

In recent years scientists have taken huge steps towards the bio-hybrid architecture developed for exploring an alternate approach to the control of autonomous robots (1). The plant-robot interactions through cyborg plants have been investigated in an effort to apply lessons from plants to robots, which provided another role for these organisms other than being a food source or decoration items. There are several joint experimental, numerical and robotic studies conducted in this newly developed area. One of the examples includes a flower robot made by Korean engineers which has the appearance of a common flower with petals, stem and leaves (2). The flower robot has sensing ability, moving mechanism, and home appliance function. It can recognize environmental conditions such as room temperature, pressure, voice and light intensity and can imitate the blooming of a flower, the bending of the stem and the stirring of the leaves in the wind. Other than these, the flower robot functions as a humidifier, a vision/voice recording system and an illumination device. For example, when flower robot receives light, it senses the intensity of the light and blooms. On the contrary, when it is dark, as the flower robot starts fading away and its illumination device turns on to flash the room.

Plantas nomadas, made by Mexican artist Gilberto Espaza, is another example of cyborg plants. It uses dirty water to live. It is a miniature eco-system consisting of plants and micro-organisms within a robotic shell. Each of the components symbiotically relies on the others: the plant provides the perfect environment for the microbe, and the microbe (in a microbial fuel cell) transforms nutrients in dirty water into energy to power the robotic components, and the robotic components provide mobility (3).

A team from Switzerland has been working on a project that endows a robot with the ability to react in response to environmental stress of a plant in order to maintain the state of the plant. The robotic devices monitor the changes in morphology and electrical activity of the avocado plants. According to these parameters, it classifies the drought level and triggers irrigation when necessary (4).

Some of the artists like James Stone, who is a Media Artist specializing in digital technologies and fabrication, are interested in seeing if plants are prone to act in certain ways, show preference and possibly display other traits such as emotion. Artists are specifically curious as to what would happen when a plant is augmented with technology but also given full control over such technology to do with it whatever it chooses (5). To see the results of such systems that provides a means for the plant to interact with people or things will surely be fascinating. A study in this line of research is done by a group of researchers in mobile robotics at ETH Zürich, whose long-term research goal is also to bestow machines with the ability to gain and employ knowledge from the universe to improve their intelligence, by building a prototype called iRobot Create. This cyborg plant consists of a computer running Linux, a normal plant and additional sensors and lives its own life, following its internal needs of water, sunlight and electrical energy (6). The cyborg stays away from obstacles using ultrasonic sensors, finds the best light spot using light sensors and goes to a recharge and to a mock-up water station using iRobot’s infrared sensor. Moreover, its sensors pick up noise caused by people moving around nearby, allowing cyborg plant to react by moving out of the way, to prevent themselves from getting underfoot (7).

It is very important to improve the ability of robots to work successfully in a complex and harsh environment, which would increase their usages. In one of those efforts exploring the use of biological systems to control robots under changing environmental conditions, Dr. David Hu and his group from Georgia Institute of Technology (8) used the Mexican jumping bean, Laspeyresia saltitans, which consists of an empty seed housing a moth larva. Heating by the sun stimulates movements by the larva which rolls, jumps and flips by the bean. They explored this unique means of rolling locomotion and recorded bean trajectories across a series of terrain types, including one-dimensional channels and planar surfaces of varying inclination by Time-lapse videography. They found that the shell encumbers the larva’s locomotion, decreasing its speed on flat surfaces by three-fold. Interestingly, they also showed that the two-dimensional search algorithm of the bean resembles the run-and-tumble search of bacteria. When they tested this search algorithm using both an agent-based simulation and a wheeled Scribbler robot, they demonstrated that the algorithm succeeds in propelling the robot away from regions of high temperature. It is amazing that from a study that involves a plant seed, a moth larva and a robot, scientists may develop applications in biomimetic micro-scale navigation systems.

The hi-tech devices that have been inspired by biological systems are not limited by the ones stimulated with plants. The insect world also represents a huge and original database for future bio-inspired systems, vehicles, and micro-vehicles (9). For example, the process of motion detection system in the fly’s eye is a good example of a neural circuit that was used for robot automatic piloting. Recently, a novel bat-like unmanned aerial vehicle inspired by the morphing-wing mechanism of bats has been presented (10). Other than that, body undulation used by snakes and the physical structure of the body of a snake may offer major advantages over typical legged or wheeled locomotion designs in certain types of scenarios, therefore a large number of research groups have developed snake-inspired robots to make use of these benefits (11). Caenorhabditis elegans, a roundworm which has similar motions with snakes but with a simpler structure, was also selected to develop a small crawling robot with a thermal shape memory alloy, a homogeneous mixture or solid solution of two or more metal, as an actuator (a type of motor for moving or controlling a mechanism or system) due to the similarities of its properties to C. elegans muscles. (12).

Not only multicellular organisms but also unicellular (single-celled) organisms are utilized for generating cyborgs; for example, scientists used circuits prepared from Physarum polycephalum, amoeboid plasmodia of the slime mold, to control an omni-directional hexapod robot. Sensory signals from the macro-physical environment of the robot are transduced to cellular scale and processed using the unique micro-physical characteristics of intracellular information processing and the response from the cellular computation is amplified to yield a macroscopic output action in the environment mediated through the robot’s actuators(1).

In addition, a new biorobotic system using human neuroblastoma cultures was introduced in 2011 by a Spanish engineering group (13). Multielectrode Arrays Setups have been designed for direct culturing neural cells over silicon or glass substrates. The main objective of this work is to run a robot using this biological neuroprocessor and the final system could be used for many things such as testing how chemicals influence the behavior of the robot.

In summary, manipulation of robots that use living organisms as an interface to perceive the environment and transfer their responses into functions seem to have endless applications as well as challenges. Biologically-inspired technologies represent an emerging and promising field of interdisciplinary areas composed of engineering, computer sciences, chemistry, biology, physics and even art. In nature there are so many living and non-living elements designed by God to help us develop and improve robots to make our lives easier, better and more productive. Even a flower can offer us with something more than color and scent, and that is if we start thinking outside the box like so many people mentioned above have done.

Safiye Arslan is a Research fellow in the area of molecular biology in Nevada.

References

1. Tsuda, S., Zauner, K. P., & Gunji, Y. P. (2006). Robot Control: From Silicon Circuitry to Cells, Biologically Inspired Approaches to Advanced Information Technology (pp. 20-32). Osaka, Japan: Springer.

2. H. K. Park, S. H. Park, J. O. Park, (2007) “A study on the Moving Mechanism for Flower Robot,” International Conference on Control, Automation and Systems.

3. http://m.ammoth.us/blog/2010/09/a-cyborg-arboretum/

4. http://www.cyborgplant.com/

5. http://www.manofstone.com/cyborgplants/

6. Stocker, J., Veillat, A., Magnenat, S., Colas, F., Siegwart, R. (2011). Towards Adaptive Robotic Green Plants. TAROS 2011: 422-423

7. http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21128305.900-robotassisted-plants-find-their-place-in-the-sun.html

8. West, D. M., Lal, I. K., Leamy, M. J., & Hu, D. L. (2012). Locomotion of Mexican jumping beans. Bioinspiration & Biomimetics, 7(3), 036014. doi:10.1088/1748-3182/7/3/036014

9. http://www.ercim.eu/EU-NSF/Bionics.pdf

10. Colorado, J., Barrientos, A., Rossi, C., & Parra, C. (2012). Inertial attitude control of a bat-like morphing-wing air vehicle. Bioinspiration & Biomimetics, 8(1), 016001. doi:10.1088/1748-3182/8/1/016001

11. Hopkins, J. K., Spranklin, B. W., & Gupta, S. K. (2009). A survey of snake-inspired robot designs. Bioinspiration & Biomimetics, 4(2), 021001. doi:10.1088/1748-3182/4/2/021001

12. Yuk, H., Kim, D., Lee, H., Jo, S., & Shin, J. H. (2011). Shape memory alloy-based small crawling robots inspired by C. elegans. Bioinspiration & Biomimetics, 6(4), 046002. doi:10.1088/1748-3182/6/4/046002

13. Ferrández, J. M., Lorente, V., de Santos, D., Cuadra, J. M., de la Paz, F., Alvarez, J. R., & Fernández, E. (2011). Human neuroblastoma cultures for biorobotics. Conference proceedings : … Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Conference, 2011, 6672-5. doi:10.1109/IEMBS.2011.6091645

The lotus, a radiant and graceful aquatic plant with a magnificent ability to repel dirt, has been the inspiration behind a range of self-cleaning and dirt-repelling technologies. Now a registered trademark, the “Lotus Effect” promises a future filled with objects that rarely, if ever, need washing. Finally, this means owning bathroom mirrors that unfog itself and shirts that shrug off ketchup and coffee.

And the earth, We have spread it out like a couch; and how excellent We are in spreading it. (Adh-Dhariyah, 51:48)

The factory of the universe and the guesthouse of the earth are so pure and clean and so untainted and fresh that … if … the act of cleansing is not attributed to the Creator of the universe, then … [e]ither all the creatures would have a share in the universal act of cleansing… or there would have to be a consultative committee the size of the universe in order to decide and regulate all those acts together… This is impossible not just once, but hundreds and thousands of times over. (4)

Have you ever come across a “stinky forest”? How about a “messy desert”? These questions are primarily posed as rhetoric since various means of sanitation is ubiquitous in nature (Stinky forests and lakes actually exist only thanks to pollution—a modern problem introduced by human intervention via misconduct of technology) where Lotus Effect is only one of the mechanisms contributing to the steady “house-keeping” in nature.

In muddy waters, the lotus plant stands out with its ever-clean leaves making it a symbol of purity in Asian cultures. Moreover, lotus leaves keep dry under even the heaviest monsoon rain. Such seemingly ironical feats are accomplished by capitalizing on a principle named after the plant itself: The Lotus Effect.

The Lotus Effect

At first sight, the cleansing of the leaves by the rainfall seems utterly trivial. However, the cleaning of the lotus plant (Nelumbo nucifera) by the downpour is not something to be taken for granted. Curiously, when raindrops encounter the lotus leaf, they adopt an almost perfectly spherical shape, resembling ball bearings, and start rolling off the surface carrying away all the dirt (Figure 1). Easier said than done, the lotus plant always keeps pristine, even at the microscopic level.

In the early 1970s, soon after the electron microscope (which can yield vivid images of the ultra small details that are at length scales on the order of a billionth of a meter) became commercially available, German botanist Wilhelm Barthlott (of University of Bonn, Germany) started imaging plants using the newly discovered technology. Sample preparations for electron microscopy normally demanded tedious cleaning procedures since even a speckle of dust could ruin the portrayed landscape at such minuscule scales. To Barthlott’s surprise, some plants apparently were “self-cleaning”: They required very little (or sometimes none whatsoever) cleaning for detailed inspection with the microscope and the lotus plant was a prince of these (1). Further intrigued by the fact, Barthlott looked at the lotus leaves through the electron microscope to find out what renders the lotus plant remarkably competent to repel even the tiniest dirt.

Water’s love-hate affair

Before delving into the secrets for lotus plant’s sanitation, let’s look at the interaction of water with other materials. At the molecular level, the electrical charges are unevenly distributed across a water molecule (i.e. water is highly “polar”) which becomes entangled in a love-hate type of relationship with other materials: Some materials “love” water tending to maximize their interaction with it, whereas others “hate” it, trying to avoid their encounter with water as much as possible.1 To put things in perspective, we can immediately tell from everyday experience that oil is “water-hating” since oil and water do not mix, while sugar is “water-loving” because sugar can dissolve in water without much effort.

Macroscopically—that is, one can immediately realize by touching a lotus leaf—the lotus leaf surface feels waxy, and should therefore be water-hating. However, the waxiness is not enough to equip the lotus plant with its unusual capabilities to remain clean since the lotus leaf is not alone among plants in its leaves’ surface waxiness. Indeed, there is more to the lotus leaf’s curious surface properties than that, a property which was first recognized by Barthlott under the electron microscope.

Super water-hating surfaces

When Barthlott looked at the lotus leaf, besides its spotlessness in the microscopic sense, the leaf surface was decorated with numerous bumps a few micron sizes each (a micron is one millionth of a meter). Such bumpiness served to enhance the water-hating aspect of the surface making it “super water-hating,” corresponding to a contact angle that is close to 170 degrees. As a result, water encountering the lotus leaf surface rapidly beads up forming a nearly spherical shape (akin to the scenario when one drips water on a hot cooking pan) and drops roll off the surface even with an ever-so-slight inclination of the leaf. Apparently, a rolling water droplet is much more effective in picking up the surface dirt than one that is merely sliding, and all the surface debris is thus wiped off.

Although discovered first in the lotus plant, the super water-hating surfaces are serving a passive yet effective means of cleaning for animals like butterflies, dragonflies and other insects that are not able to clean all their body parts actively. For plants, preventing the coverage of their leaves by water (or other contaminants) is important to maximize the exposure to sunlight which would otherwise cause reduced photosynthesis. Another great biological relevance of surfaces of such nature for all these creatures is that it provides protection against the growth of pathogens by keeping the surface dry at all times.

Inspirations from biology for technology

There are ever-growing biologically inspired technologies, so-called biomimetics, and the lotus effect provides a nifty example. Unfolding the mystery behind lotus’ exceptional competence in self-cleaning, Barthlott patented the idea of artificially manufacturing microscopically-raised, water-repelling surfaces to mimic the lotus leaf. “Lotus Effect” is now a registered trademark which underlies commercial products such as self-cleaning windows and fabrics, as well as a dirt-repelling paint. Other applications that are waiting around the corner are: swimsuits that stay dry for days allowing prolonged underwater excursions, coatings on metals to avoid the deposits of marine bioorganisms which would enable up to 40% reduction on fuel consumption by decreasing friction (2). Metal coatings will also find applications to prevent ice formation on plane engines alleviating their wear-and-tear (3).

Apparently, lotus does not collect dirt, but only patents.

Note

1 Contact angle is a metric for the water propensity of a surface. Water drop displays a higher contact angle (hence lower contact area) on a water-hating surface when compared to a lower contact angle (hence higher contact area) on a water-loving one.

References

1. Forbes, Peter. August, 2008. “Self Cleaning Materials,” Scientific American.

2. http://www.basf.com/group/

corporate/en/innovations/events-presentations/nanotechnology/basf

3. “Water-Repelling Metals,” Prachi Patel, MIT Technology Review, 2008, http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/21530/

4. “The Thirtieth Gleam,” Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, Risale-i Nur Collection.