Truffles are potato-shaped underground mushrooms that grow in all kinds of different environments ranging from high-rise forests of pine, oak, linden, fir and wild hazelnut to scrubs, under bushes, and in steppes and deserts. They maintain a symbiotic relationship by attaching to the roots of certain herbaceous plants and have a unique aroma with a sharp odor. Some cultures nickname truffles as bingos or buckthorns. There is also the belief that the mushrooms sprout faster under lightning or thunder thus earning them the nickname “daughters of thunder.”

Symbiotic association between truffles and plants

Nature thrives in a harmony that is based upon assistance and solidarity. Truffles have a special place in this harmony. For example, as plant seeds germinate and begin to grow into roots, the hyphae of truffles wrap around the plant roots, just like a glove does around fingers, and help the emergence of a special structure called “mycorrhiza” which facilitates food exchange between truffles and plants. Approximately 90% of plants coexist with different types of mushrooms, and some plants even need truffles to survive. Unable to photosynthesize, truffles need plants for organic nutrients, and plants need truffles, especially for the intake of more water and minerals from barren and arid soil.

It is estimated that the mushroom hyphae can be as long as 1 km in the forest soil is estimated to be more than 1 km. Truffles help to increase the contact surface of the tree roots with the soil hundreds of times while ingesting the water and minerals from remote areas where plant roots cannot reach. In this way, as soon as a drop of rain falls on the soil, it is relayed to the benefit of plants with hyphae that are invisibly thin and kilometers long. If this partnership did not exist between truffles and plants then the giant trees that we see in forests would not be able to grow tall enough and would possibly remain as bushes due to a lack of water and minerals from the soil.

Truffles and wildlife

A similar relationship exists between truffles and animals in the forest. Since they are generally active at night and cannot benefit from sunlight sufficiently, wild animals meet their vitamin D needs especially from truffles, an important food source. Recent studies show that some wild animal species survive solely on truffles. A large number of mice, squirrels, bears, deer, rabbits, hedgehogs, and bird species in the US eat truffles along with some monkeys, kangaroos, and bird species in Australia.

While the toadstools in the open can spread their billions of spores to the environment, the spores of underground mushrooms remain confined in their tissues. It is thanks to animals that can spot and extract the mushrooms that these spores spread from their tissues into the rest of the environment. Wild animals can locate, dig up, and eat underground truffles due to the strong and attractive aroma of the mushrooms. On the other hand, the spores that are expelled from the animals’ digestive systems lead to the production of fresh hyphae to partner with new plants via germination. This allows underground mushrooms to have the opportunity to sustain their generation and expand their natural habitat.

The conservation of animal species that face extinction also depends on the preservation of the variety of truffle species. From this point of view, truffles in the natural habitats are the sustenance of wild animals. Bediuzzaman Said Nursi (d. 1960), a renown Turkish religious scholar, said: “Our share is in vineyards and gardens. God Almighty allocated our sustenance there. These wild fruits are the sustenance for the wild animals. We should not touch their portion.” It is also known that Bediuzzaman discouraged his students who came across plenty of apple and pear trees on the mountains from eating those fruits. This approach also sums up a guiding insight about sustainable forestry and ecosystem.

Nutritional value and medical benefits

Truffles are richer in protein and minerals than other mushrooms. Their nutritional value consists of 53-76% water, 9% protein, 7% carbohydrates, and 8% minerals. Although they have high nutritional value, the most important feature making truffles superior to other mushrooms is their distinctive aromatic compounds. Due to their unique aroma, truffles attract the attention of many gourmets. It is no surprise that truffles have an exceptional place in exclusive cuisines.

Since ancient times, the medical benefits of truffles have been frequently reported. For example, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is known to have recommended truffles for healing weakness, nausea, pain, and wounds.

Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, said, “Truffle is a sustenance like manna. Its sap is also a cure for the eyes.”

The belief in the nutritional value of truffles is also common in the Christian world. Between 827 and 844, Pope Gregory IV had advised the consumption of truffles to gain strength in battles.

Current studies have found that truffles contain several compounds that are essential for human health. A study published in 2016 is an important step for chronicling the fact that the extract obtained from truffle mushrooms proved to be useful in healing eye infections.

Economic value

The number of commercial-value truffles collected from natural habitats constantly decreases worldwide: it has dropped from 2000 tons in 1884 to 100 tons in 1990. Today, it is around 40 tons. The main factors of this decline are the destruction of oak forests, climate change, environmental pollution, global warming, and uncontrolled picking.

Despite the dramatic decrease in the number of truffles collected from natural habitats, they are sold between $250 and $4,000 per kilo depending on the type and quality.

Growing truffles

Under current conditions, truffles have to be grown by special means. People must grow the types of truffles that they wish to consume.

The first idea for the production of truffles came from a French farmer named Joseph Talon. At the beginning of the 19th century, Talon planted fresh seeds in the oak patches where truffles grew naturally. The existing truffle hyphae in the soil infiltrated the roots of new oak saplings and led to an increase in the production of truffles in the natural habitat. In the following years, Talon created new truffle production areas by planting the saplings he had already produced in other patches. Talon’s method is still used today.

In the 1960s, a period when there was a great decrease in the production of truffles in natural habitats, studies were conducted to find new methods. The methods developed by French and Italian scientists in the 1970s led to a massive success in truffle production. Truffle spores were inoculated at the root of oak saplings and plants were grown in greenhouses to develop only the desired truffle mycorrhizal system in tree roots. Having ensured that mycorrhiza had settled in the roots, the first truffle began to be harvested four or five years after planting the oak saplings in open areas. These methods have allowed truffle production in countries such as Australia, the USA, and New Zealand where truffles are not grown naturally.

Commercial truffle types

It is estimated that there are about 10,000 different types of truffles in the world with different sizes, colors, structures, and aromas. These mushrooms, which are now listed in restaurant menus and stocked on the shelves of luxury food suppliers, are only some of the truffles numbered in thousands.

Some of the commercial types are listed below:

Tuber magnatum: Known as the white truffle of Italy, it grows in the Alba region as attached on the roots of oak, hornbeam, pine and poplar trees. It is different from all species by its peculiarly pungent aroma. It is known as the most expensive food in the world because it grows in a very limited area and cannot be grown as a cultivated mushroom.

Tuber melanosporum: Known as the winter black truffle, it grows during winter by attaching to the roots of oak, hazelnut, and pine trees in Italy, France, Spain, and the Balkans. It has a distinctive aroma and has a wider growth area as compared to the white truffle. It is the most cultivated type of truffle in different continents of the world.

Tuber aestivum: Known as the summer black truffle, it grows by attaching to the roots of oak, nut, and pine trees in a wide geography spanning from Portugal to Azerbaijan, Morocco to Poland, and Sweden to Afghanistan. It bears lower economic value because it is widely grown and has an easily extracted culture and a lower-density aroma.

Terfezia claveryi: It grows in the spring across steppes and deserts by attaching onto the roots of herbaceous plant species belonging to the genus Helianthemum. It has a unique aroma and has a huge market in the Arab countries. Its culture has started to be extracted in recent years.

Oregon truffle: It grows in winter as attached on the roots of fir trees in Oregon, Washington, and Vancouver. It has white and black types. It has an important market in the U.S despite not being as valuable as the black and white species found in Europe. No results have been obtained from cultural studies yet.

Harvest of truffle

Picking truffles is like picking apples from a tree with the difference that truffles are collected from the root of the tree. It is difficult to understand whether the truffle underground has ripened or not. If the extracted truffle is not ripe enough then its economic value immediately suffers. That is why special dogs are bred to locate truffles. Sensitive to the truffle aroma, these dogs lead their owners by simply pointing out to the places where ripe truffles are found. These dogs are motivated by rewards and are encouraged with better rewards for finding higher quality, larger, and more ripe truffles.

References

• Alhussaini S.M., Saadabi A.M., Hashim K., Al-Ghanayem A.A. (2016). Efficacy of the Desert Truffle Terfezia claveryi to Cure Trachoma Disease with Special Emphasis on Its Antibacterial Bioactivity, Trends in Medical Research, doi: 10.3923/tmr.2016.28.342016, Volume: 11, Issue: 1, pp. 28–34.
• Bukhari, 5708; Muslim, 2049; Abu Dawood, Tibb, 12; Ibn Majah, Tibb, 8.
• Hall I.R., Brown G., Zambonelli A. (2008). Taming the Truffle: The History, Lore, and Science of the Ultimate Mushroom, Timber Press.
• Sahiner Necmeddin, Son Sahitler, Istanbul: Nesil Yayinlari, 2011, Volume 1, pp. 113.
• Trappe M, Claridge AW (2010). “The Hidden Life of Truffles”. Scientific American. April 2010: 78–84.
• Wedén C. (2008). Tryffel. Infotain &Infobooks Sweden AB, Stockholm.

“Only when the last tree has died and the last river has been poisoned and the last fish has been caught will we realize we cannot eat money.” Cree Indian Proverb

The table I have under my laptop while writing this article, the materials used for my laptop, the cover case for my phone, the pen I have by my phone, the package for the mail I have received, the dividers I have in my notebook, the hair dryer I have for drying my samples before performing FT-IR on my samples, the FT-IR machine itself … They are all made up of plastics. I could go on and on, giving examples of what I observe in my immediate environment made of plastics. It would not be exaggerated to say that after the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age, we are now living in the “Plastic Age” given the fact that the production of plastics has increased from 1.5 million tons per year in the 1950’s to 260 million tons per year in 2007.1 The majority of plastics we use in our daily life are petroleum-based plastics. What that means is, the starting materials of these plastics are chemicals derived from crude oil. There are some major concerns related with these petroleum based plastics – the Earth may run out of oil one day, or the questionable durability of how these plastics biologically degrade. Further environmental concerns exist, such as the toxic additives these plastics contain, including plasticizers like adipates and phthalate. Burning these plastics can release billions of tons of toxic pollutants every year; moreover, most plastic production reactions are done in toxic solvents, so the disposal of these solvents becomes a problem.2 Reflecting on it, it’s an incredible mercy that we have been able to get away with all the waste we have produced up to this point. But the question is: how much longer can we get away with such wasteful behavior?

One of Paulo Coelho’s passages from his book The Winner Stands Alone exactly describes my attitude and desire to “go green.” My heart pounds as I read the sentences that so touched me:

It seems now that-despite wars, famine in Africa, terrorism, the violation of human rights, and the arrogant attitude of certain developed countries-our main preoccupation is saving poor planet Earth from the many threats created by human society. “Ecology. Save the planet. How ridiculous.”

Hamid knows, however, that there’s no point in fighting the collective unconscious. The colors, the accessories, the fabrics, the so-called charity events attended by the Superclass, the books being published, the music being played on the radio, the documentaries made by ex-politicians, the new films, the material used to make shoes, the new bio-fuels, the petitions handed in to members of parliament and congressmen, the bonds being sold by the largest of the world banks, everything appears to focus on one thing: saving the planet. Fortunes are made overnight; large multinationals are given space in the press because of some completely irrelevant action they are taking; unscrupulous NGOs place advertisements on the major TV channels and receive hundreds of millions of dollars in donations because everyone seems obsessed with the fate of the Earth. Whenever he reads articles in newspapers or magazines written by politicians using global warming or the destruction of the environment as a platform for their electoral campaigns, he thinks:

“How can we be so arrogant? The planet is, was, and always will be stronger than us. We can’t destroy it; if we overstep the mark, the planet will simply erase us from its surface and carry on existing. Why don’t they start talking about not letting the planet destroy us? Because ‘saving the planet’ gives a sense of power, action, and nobility. Whereas ‘not letting the planet destroy us’ might lead to feelings of despair and impotence, and to a realization of just how very limited our capabilities are.” 3

On that note I would like to share some amazing facts I found while searching articles written on bacterial biopolymers, but first of all I would like to introduce some definitions on the concepts I will be writing about.

Plastics have many definitions, but usually, in a daily conversation, plastics mean “anything that can be molded or shaped.” Scientifically, a plastic is a sub category of a polymer. Poly- meaning “more than one” and -mer meaning “member of a particular group.”[4] Basically, a polymer is a naturally occurring or synthetic compound made of many relatively simple repeating units that are linked together in the same fashion, forming a carbon rich backbone in most cases. For example, PVC is a well known synthetic polymer, in which the monomer (the repeating unit) as seen in Figure 1 is repeated several times. A well known natural polymer is cellulose, in which the monomer as seen in Figure 2 is repeated several times.

Here it is important to note the difference between a polymer and a plastic. All plastics are polymers, as in the example of PVC, whereas not all polymers are plastics, as in the example of cellulose. The combination of the chemicals, and the type of bonds these chemicals are linked to each other by, determines the properties and applications of the polymers. The molecular weight of the polymer depends on how many times the monomer repeats itself. The molecular weight of polymers can be controlled during production with chemical techniques. One significant difference between natural vs. synthetic polymers is the molecular weight distribution. When the polymer is synthesized in the lab, the polymer product is a combination of different molecular weight chains. In other words, when a polymerization reaction takes place, lots of polymer chains are produced and one chain is never the same length or weight as another. Instead, there is a molecular weight distribution as seen in Figure 3, where most of the polymer chains in the solution have a molecular weight close to the value of Mw. So in the solution, we will have polymer chains that have molecular weights close to each other, and some extreme short or long polymer chains. It is impossible to synthesize a polymeric solution where all the polymer chains are of identical length and weight; therefore, we speak about the average molecular weight when the case is synthetic polymers. However, when we look at any polymer produced in nature, we see that the polymer chain length and molecular weight are the same every time the polymer is produced. So instead of a molecular weight distribution, natural polymers have a molecular weight value. This is important because the narrower the molecular weight distribution is, the better.

When talking about bio plastics, it is important to make the differentiation between bio-derived plastics and bio-based plastics. As Dr. R. Narayan explained in his talk at Johnson County Community College[5] , bio-derived plastics means that the plastic is isolated from a living organism, meaning that the living organism performs the polymerization reaction and then you extract the polymer from the organism.

On the other hand, bio-based plastics mean that the starting material of the plastic is derived from a living organism instead of a petroleum-based material, but it is polymerized into a plastic by humans. Therefore, not all bio-based plastics are biodegradable; however, the fact that the starting material is from a plant that can be replaced in a couple of years rather than a petroleum-based product which can only be replaced after a couple million years, drives motivation for their usage. There is the ethical concern that bio-based plastics are usually made from food sources, such as corn, however Dr. R. Narayan, who is one of the leaders in the field, argues that if the situation is handled appropriately, this should not be a problem. He argues that one up-side of the situation would be to increase values of crops and the prevention of mass migration to big cities. It’s your call to decide which side you favor more.

What is more interesting to me is the polymers being created in nature. A chemistry doctorate, Dr. Lon J. Mathias, writes that “We humans make nylons in tons per day in huge chemical plants where simple molecules are joined together in large quantities to give products that we need or want. Nature is much more careful and concise in how she does things. For a living organism to make an enzyme, another enzyme or active species must be involved. The synthesis always involves a template, or recording, of how the individual amino acids are to be joined together to give the final polymer. The enzyme adds a single amino acid, one at a time, as indicated by the mRNA. This is a slow and tedious process and takes a long time. Sometimes the enzyme gets frustrated, waiting for the right amino acid to come along, and slaps a wrong one on instead. To compensate for this, the enzyme is made to back up occasionally to check its work. If it has made a mistake, it has a process for clipping out the wrong amino acid and inserting the right one. We humans never do this. If we make a mistake, we simply grind it up and throw it away.”6

Dr. Mathias goes on, comparing the manufacturing conditions between nature’s form of polymerization and humanity’s. He says polypeptides in nature are synthesized in water, whereas we synthesize our polypeptides in toxic organic solvents. “This leads us to a problem: what do we do with the organic solvents when we’re through? Sometimes we burn them, but more commonly we try to recycle these materials, which not only are getting more expensive to buy in the first place (compared to cheap water, which is everywhere, or almost everywhere) but are also a responsibility for their recycling, purification, and final disposal. An example of how nature uses water in this way, and one which we still haven’t figured out, is the production of spider silk. Spiders spin their webs from solutions of polypeptides in water. These solutions are squeezed through the spider’s tiny spinneret and elongated quickly to form the spider webs which we’ve all seen and sometimes become tangled in. What’s really weird is that, once these spider webs form, they are no longer soluble in water. If we could just figure out how spiders first make spider silk in water and then spin their webs from it, we could make nylon the same way. This might save us a lot of waste disposal problems, and money.”6

Another spectacular creation in nature is polymers produced in bacteria which can be used as plastics once isolated from the bacteria. A wide range of biopolymers that are synthesized in bacteria serve diverse biological functions and have material properties suitable for numerous industrial and medical applications.7 Different carbon sources are efficiently converted into a diverse range of polymers with varying chemical and material properties.7 To be a little more specific, four major classes of polymers are produced by bacteria: polysaccharides, polyesters, polyamides and inorganic polyanhydrides (such as polyphosphates).7 These polymers serve various biological functions, for example, as reserve material or as part of a protective structure, and can provide a substantial advantage for bacteria under certain environmental conditions.7 Some of these biopolymers can be isolated from bacteria and can be used as plastic. Biopolymers are, by definition, biodegradable, and so their application as commodity products becomes increasingly attractive in view of the desire to avoid the use of recalcitrant oil based polymers that will accumulate in the environment.7 Biodegradable means that when exposed to the microbial flora present in a given environment (for example, in soil or water), biopolymers are fully degraded and mineralized to CO2 and H2O.5 The reason biopolymers are 100% degradable is, as they are produced in bacteria as storage material, they have sites where bacterial enzymes could attack to break them down when they search for nutrients. Whereas other polymers – even bio based polymers – will not have these enzymatic sites, so they are not always biodegradable.

One popular class of polymers produced by bacteria which can be used as plastics is called polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA’s). PHA’s are a class of polymers produced in nature by the bacterial fermentation of sugar or lipids. They are produced by bacteria to store carbon and energy when there is a nutrient lacking from the environment. Many kinds of bacteria are able to produce PHA’s, such as soil inhabiting bacteria, and many bacteria in activated sludge, high seas, or extreme environments. 8 As we store fats in our bodies, the bacterium store PHA’s. In an environment that contains all of the necessary nutrients, bacteria grow and reproduce – in other words they produce biomass. However, when subjected to specific nutrient depletion (nutrients such as nitrogen or phosphorus) and excess amount of carbon resources, the bacterium starts storing PHA granules (Picture 3). The moment the missing nutrient is introduced back into the environment, the bacterium starts degrading the PHA granules and continues to produce biomass. Therefore, by manipulating the nutrient resources in the environment and providing optimum conditions, bacterium can be pushed to produce PHA’s.[9]

There are metabolic pathways involving various enzymes for the conversion of carbon sources to polymers. Scientists have been trying to genetically engineer bacteria for the increased production of these polymers. In some cases it is possible to over-express the key enzymes in the pathways to achieve increased production of PHA. However, this kind of research takes a lot of time and effort because altering biological activity is a very complicated process and in most cases, cells give unpredictable responses to alterations. By feeding the bacterium with different carbon sources at different conditions, it is also possible to alter the composition of the polymers. Moreover, different strains of bacterium produce different types of polymers; therefore, the range of biopolymer research is very wide. With over 150 different PHA monomers (the repeating unit of polymers) being reported, PHA with flexible thermal and mechanical properties have been developed. 7 Such diversity has allowed the development of various applications.

During his speech at the “2nd International PLASTiCE Conference Trends in Bioplastics” in Slovenia, 9 Dr. Martin Koller explained that there are two types of PHA’s that a microorganism produces. The first type are short length PHA’s (3-5 carbons in the backbone) and the second type are medium chain length PA’s (6-12 carbons in the backbone). While the medium chain length PHA’s can be used for biodiesel production, the short chain length PHA’s can be used as thermoplastics (plastics that can melt with heat, and can therefore be processed with the help of heat). These thermoplastics can be isolated from the organisms they are produced in by solvent extraction, mechanical disruption, or by using hypotonic media (having the lower osmotic pressure of two fluids) for cells that have high intracellular osmotic pressure.9 In the last case, the cells will explode due to the pressure difference and release the PHA’s; deionized water can be used as the hypotonic media. However, only specific strains can be treated with this method. At the moment, the most common technique used for extraction is solvent extraction. These solvents – such as chloroform or dichloromethane – are generally toxic, therefore creating a contradiction with the point of producing biopolymers.

Although not mainstream, some of these bacterial plastics are produced in the industrial world.8 The simplest and widest application for bacterial plastics is for packaging purposes. They can also be used in therapeutic applications, as they are generally biocompatible. Drugs can be incorporated into them, therefore as they biodegrade, they release the drug in a controlled time frame.9 For example, Dr. Martin Koller and his group have just finalized a project called “BRIC – BioResorbable Implants for Children,” funded by the Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG).10 Their purpose was to isolate a biocompatible polymer produced from bacterium which could be degraded and removed from the body within a certain time. The point of this project is based on the fact that in contrast to the traditional implants that need to be removed from the body after a certain amount of time, such as plates, screws or pins, the newly developed implants could be degraded and removed from the body naturally, preventing the need for a second surgery. This is a great advantage, especially for children, who would suffer greatly from additional surgeries.

Bacterial bioplastics have many other applications; however the biggest obstacle for their usage is the cost of production. During his speech, Dr. Keller stated the production of bacterial bioplastics is around five times more costly than petroleum based plastics. Most of the cost is related with the bioreactors needed to grow the bacterium and the solvents used to extract the polymers. The scientists are hoping to develop new techniques to reduce the cost of the polymers.

It is breathtaking that these creatures we cannot even see with the naked eye have been synthesizing polymers as well as we do, if not even better, and for a lot longer than us. The polymers they synthesize are completely biodegradable, have a constant molecular weight, and do not require toxic chemicals for their production, unlike the synthetic polymers we produce in the lab. They don’t harm nature as we do. And THAT is powerful.

References

1- Simon, Tristan (2007). “Experience Curves in the World Polymer Industry” Utrecht University, Netherlands.

2- Lei Pei, Markus Schmidt and Wei Wei (2011). “Conversion of Biomass into Bioplastics and Their Potential Environmental Impacts, Biotechnology of Biopolymers.” InTech.

3- Coelho Paulo(2008), “The Winner Stands Alone.” pg: 139.

4- http://dictionary.reference.com/

5- Narayan, Ramani (2013)”Bioplastics and Reducing Carbon Footprint.” JCCC Video. Johnson County Community College, USA.

6- Mathias, Lon J. (2005).”Natural Polymers.” Polymer Science Learning Center. The University of Southern Mississippi, USA.

7- Rehm, Bernd H.A.(2010). “Bacterial polymers: biosynthesis, modifications and applications” Nature Reviews Microbiology. Massey University, New Zealand.

8- Chen, Guo-Qiang (2010). “Plastics Completely Synthesized by Bacteria: Polyhydroxyalkanoates”. Plastics from Bacteria: Natural Functions and Applications, Microbiology Monographs, Springer. Tsinghua University, China.

9- Koller, Martin (2012). “Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Biodegradable polymeric materials from renewable resources” Plastice Project Video. 2nd International PLASTiCE Conference Trends in Bioplastics, Slovenia.

10- No name (2013).”Plastics from Renewable Raw Materials:Body automatically breaks down implants” Graz University of Technology, Austria.

11- Nishiyama, Yoshiharu; Langan, Paul; Chanzy, Henri (2002). “Crystal Structure and Hydrogen-Bonding System in Cellulose Iβ from Synchrotron X-ray and Neutron Fiber Diffraction”. J. Am. Chem.The University of Tokyo, Japan.

12- Ritter, Stephen(2005). “Green Success.” Science and Technology. pg: 40-43.

13- Waters Co. (2013). “GPC-Gel Permeation Chromatography”. Web.

Will there be wars over elements like there have been over petroleum and water? What element have we been using in color televisions? What substance is used to make energy saving, environmental light bulbs?

Each of the elements found in the periodic table have their own characteristics. After they have been cooked in the pot of the universe, these substances that are offered to our service can be radioactive (like uranium), metallic (like magnesium) and even gaseous (like helium). Seventeen of the elements not easily found among the layers underground have unique properties. These elements are called rare-earth elements, because it is hard to discover and mine them.

Rare-earth elements are in many of our everyday devices. The data projected on a computer screen is transmitted via optic cables containing erbium. The light of a tablet device is generated by the phosphorescent element europium. We actually touch indium covered surfaces when we scroll our fingers on touch screen monitors. When listening through headphones, we are using neodymium magnets that are ten times stronger than iron magnets.

From space technologies to defense industries, from cell phones to LED lighting, many such rare-earth elements are used in every stage of our lives. These elements – many of which we cannot live without, even though we’ve never heard of them – were recorded into the Critical Materials Strategy Document published by the U.S. Department of Energy in 2010. In a public announcement, the department declared fourteen of the elements as specially significant regarding clean energy, listed six of them as critical, and the other four as near critical. Fifteen elements, beginning with lanthanum and ending with lutetium, numbered between 57 and 71, comprise lanthanides. Combined with scandium and yttrium, these make up the seventeen rare-earth elements.

The elements that we touch on screens

Indium (atomic number 49) gains the properties of electrical conductivity and optic transparency when combined with tin, which, at number 50, is indiums’s neighbor on the periodic table. Optical transparency is a desired property for plasma screen and television technologies. Indium is also an important material for mobile phone touchscreens. Interestingly, when indium combines with cadmium, also as a neighbor at number 48, it loses the optical transparency. Instead, it is able to absorb light. Light harvesting is a very critical feature in the production of solar cells.

The relationship of indium with its two neighbors opens new horizons for scientists. In the near future, it is hoped that many unknown and interesting features will be unearthed by investigating the known elements of the periodic table. It is amazing that these elements have been around for thousands of years in the universe only to be discovered by technological advancements.

The need for rare-elements in the world is around fifty thousand tons. The current recorded reserve for rare-earth elements is 110 Million tons. Currently, 95% of the demand for rare-earth elements is supplied by China, yet the country only has 35% of the world’s reserves. Therefore scientists are constantly searching for rare-earth element mines to eliminate the Chinese monopoly and to boost the production of these rare materials. In recent years, China has gotten into political debates with Japan and the United States by curbing rare-earth element exports. Economic journals covering these debates wondered if “element wars” were near. In 2010, a massive reserve of elements, enough to sustain worldwide demand, was discovered in the Pacific Ocean. Developed countries are now planning to recycle rare-earth elements from used devices due to low reserves.

Yttrium, europium, and terbium (atomic numbers 39, 63 and 65) have been known for a long time. Terbium and yttrium are named after the Swedish town of Ytterby. Yttrium is the first rare-earth element discovered, at the end of 18th century. Plastics containing europium are used to make laser products; it’s also used as an element to provide the red color on television screens. Yttrium has a supplementary role that enhances europium’s red color production. And terbium oxide activates the green phosphorescence of television tubes with its yellow-green phosphorescent property.

Terbium also enables an 80% reduction of energy consumption in light bulbs. This makes it one of the most wanted elements in the $2 billion rare-earth element market. Today, when we purchase class A type light bulbs, we are actually buying rare elements like terbium.

Neodymium (number 60), which emits a green light via laser pointers, is also used in the magnets of electric motors. When neodymium combines with boron and iron, it makes a magnet twelve times stronger than simple iron magnets. Because it is significantly less dense than iron, it makes electric motors and laptop computers much lighter. Another interesting feature of neodymium is that it enhances the data storage capacity of hard drives. Furthermore, neodymium is wanted for electrical devices and wind turbines.

The union of elements

Dysprosium was discovered in 1886 and can never be found in a free form in nature. This is because it exists in a compound form with other minerals, like gadolinite. Dysprosium is also known for its magnetic property, and when mixed with terbium and iron, it forms a substance called Terfenol-D. In a magnetic field, Terfenol-D has unique transformational abilities. Dysprosium is utilized in laser production together with vanadium, and it emits infrared radiation when used with cadmium.

The magnetic alloys of iron, boron, and neodymium lose their magnetic features beyond 300 degrees Celsius. However when this alloy is combined with dysprosium at a 5% ratio, that problem disappears. Therefore, these magnets are used for electric turbines and hard disc motors. Dysprosium also makes magnets in electric motors 95% lighter. And dysprosium and nickel mixed fillings are used as cooling rods in nuclear reactors.

The human mind becomes fascinated after seeing all the wisdom and properties involved in these lifeless elements. Either we conclude that these elements have doctorate degrees in physics and chemistry from Harvard University, or we may express our weakness and fascination in front of The Grand Creator who created and presented these elements for our benefit.

Is the yellow color in glasses from the planet Ceres?

Since Dell recalled four million laptop computers in 2006, because of a possible explosion caused by overheating battery, scientists’ eyes have been focused on lanthanum and cerium. These two elements are considered to be safer than other alternatives. Lanthanum and cerium are used in electrical equipment and energy saving light bulbs, and are classified as critical elements in these processes, along with tellurium. Cerium, named after the planet Ceres, is responsible for the yellow coloration in glasses. Cerium is also used in polishes, ceramics, and petrol refineries. Tellurium is produced indirectly, unlike most other elements. The production of cadmium takes place during zinc production, and tellurium during copper refining. Tellurium is a cheaper element that has been used in combination with cadmium on solar cells since 2009; before then, most solar cells used expensive silicon panels.

Elements in our lives, from space rockets to ultrasound imaging

Hafnium, tantalum, erbium, and technetium are important elements, even though they are not listed critical. Even though hafnium and technetium are not rare-earth elements, they were still added to the critical material strategy document produced by the US Department of Energy. Hafnium is employed in space rockets for its resistance against extreme temperatures and wearing. Hafnium oxide is a valuable material for electronic transistors since it is a very effective electric insulator. It is 20% faster than the silicon oxide that is commonly used in transistors. A transistors length is around 65 nanometers when silicon oxide is used, but it is only 32 nanometers with transistors made of hafnium oxide. This 50% decrease enables smaller devices.

Touchscreens containing indium, laptop computers powered by lithium ion batteries, and cell phones with hafnium transistors are some of today’s technological wonders. Would these inventions still be possible without these elements? Could we reach the high capacities in hard discs without the tantalum? Would we be able to protect ourselves from electric leakage in computers without high quality electric insulators such as tantalum oxide?

Radioactive technetium, which was discovered in 1937, is the first artificially produced element. The technetium 99 isotope is used in nuclear medicine. Technetium produced from uranium has a half life of 211,000 years, as opposed to the 6 hour half life of the technetium 99 isotope. The number of technetium based nuclear medicinal tests, like ultrasounds and x-ray imaging, is estimated to be above thirty million annually.

We take advantage of these elements in every stage of our lives, from medicine to technology. Could we become dependent upon elements the way we are upon petroleum? Only time will tell. Either these elements will be replaced by other materials, or other technologies will outdate the current technologies. It is also possible new elements will be discovered.

A majority of our modern technologies would not exist without these elements that were dispersed among the earth billions of years ago. These elements were placed here for our benefit, and so we could utilize them, and produce institutes of scientific research and education to study them.

Kadir Can and Mehmet Ramazanoglu are science teachers in Ankara, Turkey.

The findings in mice imply that humans might also possess similar characteristics. This increases the possibility and brings hopes of having a baby even at older ages along with treatments in the future, just like in the miraculous story of Prophet Abraham and Sarah as narrated both in the Qur’an (ad-Dhariyat 51:24-30) and the Bible (Genesis 21:7), showing us one aspect of the possibility and ultimate limits of knowledge and technology that humans can attain one day so that these miracles can become true, though to some extent, with the advancement of medicine.

Bone borne eggs

An interesting study showed an unexpected source of oocytes in the bone. Study by Tilly’s group at the Harvard Medical School in 2004 showed that cells in the bone marrow of mice could be a source of oocytes that are developing in the ovaries [1, 2]. Their first observation was the expression of genes related to egg cells in the bone marrow samples of mice. To test the possibility of bone marrow cells as a source of new oocytes, they chemically generated infertile mice. Treating mice with two chemotherapy drugs called cyclophosphamide and busulfan causes infertility. Once they treated the mice with these drugs, the mice had extensive damage in their ovaries along with an end in new oocyte production in their follicles. Ovarian follicles are spherical aggregations in the ovaries which periodically produce oocytes. Remarkably, when they transplanted bone marrow from female donors, they found a number of oocyte containing follicles (about several hundred). Interestingly, the appearance of those oocytes were rapid and thought to be due to circulating oocytes originating from the bone marrow and developing as they travel through the blood stream. Although they don’t have the evidence that those cells could be fertilized, findings could lead to fundamental changes in the current understanding of the female reproductive system.

Tilly and colleagues also report that bone marrow and blood transplants could also induce the development of oocytes in a genetically infertile mice model (which has a mutation in ATM gene) [3]. This mutant mice lack follicles and developing oocytes and are unable to produce mature germ cells (egg producing cells). Their study shows that bone marrow or blood transplant from healthy donors induces production of oocytes in this mice model. They conclude from those studies that bone marrow could be a source of germ cells to the ovaries throughout adult life. Their findings are somewhat supported by the clinical studies on cancer patients who were expected to be infertile but they could have babies after bone marrow transplant.

Another study on the circulating cells for female fertility used parabiotic (the union of two mice through an exchange of blood) mice model. This study by Eggan and colleagues tested the capacity of circulating bone marrow cells to generate ovulated oocytes and could not show any contribution of bone marrow cells to ovulated oocytes [4]. Blood or bone borne oocytes are highly debatable but bone marrow cells, at least, might have a role in enhancing women’s fertility. This might lead to the treatment of infertility. In addition, it might bring new opportunities for those dreaming of having a baby even at a late stage, but requires much additional research to be realized.

Lab & bone borne sperms

Sperm formation is known to continue throughout adulthood. It involves various steps of cellular differentiations. Maturation of sperms in the body takes more than a month in most mammals. Trials to mimic this complex process in petri dishes failed to demonstrate the production of normal, fertile sperms.

Scientists had dreamed of growing sperms in petri dishes for years. Recently, researchers in Japan developed a technique that allowed production of fertile mammalian sperms in a petri dish [5]. Attempts to make such mature sperms usually failed due to meiosis, a specific type of cell division that halves the number of chromosomes. Meiosis is very essential step for sperm cells to get ready to fuse with an egg. Ogawa and colleagues demonstrated that meiosis of sperm cells lay in a simple change to standard petri conditions. They tried various petri conditions but they ended up with a special serum free medium that is commonly used for growth of embryonic stem cells. Several weeks later, they observed formation of mature sperm cells and even half of them had flagella, a tail-like structure that sperm cells use to swim. Injection of those sperms into egg was also able to produce offspring. In addition, when they used frozen testis tissues of newborn mice, they could grow sperms as well. This discovery in reproductive biology is likely to be beneficial not only for people having infertility problems associated with sperm maturation but also children that undergo cancer therapy which destroys fertility. It is known that chemotherapy impairs fertility. Adults could freeze their sperm before such treatment, but young boys can’t. This new discovery offers such patients hope. In addition, this finding opens new avenues for protection of endangered animals that might die before reaching sexual maturity. It is a matter of time for the same technique to be applied to humans and other species.

There are also reports suggesting the generation of male germ stem cells (sperm producing cells) from bone marrow [6, 7]. Mesenchymal stem cells, which are derived from the bone marrow, have shown to differentiate into male germ cells. Studies testing the effect of retinoic acid and testicular extracts showed to induce human bone marrow stem cells to differentiate into male germ cells as shown by male germ-cell specific marker expressions. Another approach tested the possibility that bone marrow-derived stem cells would differentiate into germ cells when transplanted into the mouse testis. Using GFP positive bone marrow cells transplantations, it has been demonstrated that bone marrow-derived stem cells can also be induced to differentiate into germ cells. Interestingly, there seems to be a connection between bones and fertility.

Bones and fertility

The Qur’an tells the story of Prophet Zachariah, peace be upon him, when he secretly prayed to God to ask for a successor. He said “My Lord! My bones have grown feeble and my head glistens with gray hair from old age…” (Maryam 19:4). His prayer was accepted and the angels came with the glad tidings of his son, John. He was surprised as to how he could have a son while his wife was barren and that he had already reached infirmity in old age. It has been said by scholars that weakness of bones here refers to weakness in engaging in sex due to old age and gray hairs as a sign of infertility. It is also worthy to mention another verse where the creation of human is described as happening from a lowly fluid that gushes forth the vertebra and rib bones: Let human, then, consider from what he has been created. He has been created from some of a lowly fluid gushing forth. It proceeds (as a result of incitement) between the (lumbar zone in the) vertebra and the ribs (At-Tariq 86:5−7). As commentator Ali Unal explains, these verses refer to both the mechanism of the ejection of the seminal fluid and where it is emitted [8], which is a relatively recent discovery in biology. Remarkably, the Qur’an mentions two major bones where this fluid is emerging. Our current knowledge in medicine do not say anything about the role of ribs in reproduction or fertility but both the Islamic and Judeo-Christian traditions mention the creation of Eve from Adam’s ribs, peace be upon him. Could this refer to the relation between bones and fertility? God knows best. Lastly, it is of importance to note that one of the symptoms of menopause is the loss of bone mass. Isn’t it amazing how mysterious events regarding bones and fertility are taking place beyond our control and knowledge?

Ali Fethi Toprak is a PhD candidate at University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center.

References

1. Johnson, J., et al., Germline stem cells and follicular renewal in the postnatal mammalian ovary. Nature, 2004. 428(6979): p. 145-50.
2. Vogel, G., Reproductive biology. Controversial study finds an unexpected source of oocytes. Science, 2005. 309(5735): p. 678-9.
3. Johnson, J., et al., Oocyte generation in adult mammalian ovaries by putative germ cells in bone marrow and peripheral blood. Cell, 2005. 122(2): p. 303-15.
4. Eggan, K., et al., Ovulated oocytes in adult mice derive from non-circulating germ cells. Nature, 2006. 441(7097): p. 1109-14.
5. Sato, T., et al., In vitro production of functional sperm in cultured neonatal mouse testes. Nature, 2011. 471(7339): p. 504-7.
6. Hua, J., et al., Derivation of male germ cell-like lineage from human fetal bone marrow stem cells. Reprod Biomed Online, 2009. 19(1): p. 99-105.
7. Lue, Y., et al., Fate of bone marrow stem cells transplanted into the testis: potential implication for men with testicular failure. Am J Pathol, 2007. 170(3): p. 899-908.
8. Unal, A., The Qur’an with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English. Vol. Qur’an 86:5−7, 51;24−30 and 19:4. 2009.

Art, on its quest for refinement, is the expression of the ethos and values of society. It serves to remind us that life must be permeated with physical, spiritual and emotional beauty. The objects in these Met Galleries are the memoirs of civilization, yet they are not cast in the amber of the past. They pulse with life. They help us to understand how the cultures touched by Islam were built and evolved through the present day. A balanced display of objects of all types and techniques leads the visitor on a rich ride through the artistic, cultural and religious contexts of regional spheres stretching from Rabat to Ulan Bator, from Trabzon to Jakarta.

A paradise of artistic delight

Selecting these outstanding pieces must have been an emotional and challenging experience for the curators. How to choose only 1200 pieces from the Museum’s vast collections of 12,000 objects to tell the story of the interlinking themes across centuries and continents? The galleries explore the richness of Islamic art in objects big and small: from monumental bronze salvers of princely palaces to humble ceramic bowls, from stylish illuminated manuscripts to Qur’an pages filled with graceful calligraphy, from steel sabers to gardens of textile delights.

Some of the stunning artifacts on exhibit include miniatures from the most famous series of paintings in Islamic art, the celebrated 16th century Shahnama of Shah Tahmasp, ornamental doors from the 9th century royal residence at Samarra in Iraq, a monumental 12th century Seljuk feline incense burner from Iran, a 12th century astrolabe from Yemen, and carved stucco panels from a 10th century house in Nishapur, Iran. Turkish and Mamluk carpets are presented in a room under a newly-assembled wooden ceiling from a 15th century Spanish monastery crafted by Muslim artisans, offering visitors a constellation of stars above and below.

Architecture, one of the most visible and unifying manifestations of the Islamic heritage, has a place here as well. Peeking into the Damascus Room, an intact 18th century reception room from an upper-class Syrian Ottoman house, gives insight onto the daily life of the era. The 11-foot high turquoise tiled prayer niche from a 14th century theological school in Isfahan has been moved to a more prominent place in the galleries (and respectfully reset to its correct kibla orientation), which allows visitors to feel its architectural impact. One of the most popular attractions is the Moroccan Courtyard – a room built from scratch to resemble a 14th century home interior, with intricately carved niches and a bubbling fountain. This graceful gem was created by craftsmen from Fez brought in especially for the project.

Innovative objectives

A desire to rethink the presentation of the galleries prompted the museum to close them for renovation in 2003, two years after the events of 9/11. The curatorial staff set out to sensitively join the galaxy of cultures touched by Islam, and to make its appreciation more accessible by the general public through a judicious intermingling of art objects. The curators chose three major strategies to achieve this monumental task.

Firstly, the official name change from the former reductive “Islamic Galleries” was a bold one. The new name is indeed a mouthful, but it removes the stigma of Islam as opposed to the West and alien, as well as the stereotype of an art produced only in relationship to religion. It effectively dismantles the notion that Islamic art is a single, uniform production.

Secondly, intelligent architecture, using an open plan, created more square footage and brightened the former dim and mysterious rooms into a light and positive space. Lattice screens made in Egypt point the way and provide awareness of the mutual visibility of the cultures. The floors are paved in a different stone for each section, ranging from Egyptian marble inlaid with stars to soft Indian sandstone. Created as well are two new galleries, one linking Spain and North Africa, and the second for the South Asian sphere. The circular path though the galleries encourages visitors to make intuitive cultural interconnections as they rove.

Lastly, and most importantly, the curatorial approach is groundbreaking. The galleries are arranged not in a chronological order, but attempt a more geographical transverse. Particular attention is paid to display objects that emphasize the exchange of artistic influences with surrounding cultures. One gallery is devoted to depicting the imprint of the late Roman, Sassanid and Coptic traditions on the formation of this art. Objects from the Byzantine Empire, China, and Europe are skillfully sprinkled in the cases to highlight the interplay of cultures. Particularly intriguing is portrayal of the hybrid Buddhist-Jain-Hindu-Muslim-Colonial context of the Indian subcontinent. Effort was also paid to present objects which highlight secular and cosmopolitan aspects, not just those exclusively linked to liturgical needs.

In this fashion, the Met galleries help us break with the idea of art compartmentalized solely in reference to a single religious or cultural tradition. Our eyes are lifted towards a more universal vision. The voyage through trans-regional history presented in these Galleries opens new lines of conversation and leads us to contemplate the artistic and historical traditions of our own practices in relation to those of a different civilization.

A reinterpretation of misconceptions

Interpretation of Islamic art in the past by the Western world has often dismissively focused on the visual differences of this art: Islamic art “bans human representation,” Islamic artists “did not understand perspective” in their miniature painting, Islamic art is limited only to the “flat surface” and to the production of the “minor arts,” and “uses only geometry and calligraphy” to express the aesthetic, and so forth. The current presentation allows visitors to see the contrary, persuading them to make up their own mind about how these artists sought to depict the divine and mundane in ways different, yet just as powerful, as those in Western art: flowing calligraphy soars off Qur’an pages as high as the arches of Gothic cathedrals, glass mosque lamps sparkle with the intensity of a king’s gold treasure, colossal wall tiles shine forth with the same inspiration as stained glass windows, and carpets sing as brightly as a Cezanne or Klee painting.

The revised perspective of these galleries, filled with a respectful, reconciliatory motivation, allows visitors to appreciate the distinctive themes and the monumentality of this production, as well as the complexity and diversity of artistic expression. By providing objects illustrating the universal human aspiration towards beauty and refinement in society, we are led to reassess our present relations to these cultures accordingly.

Many examples here illustrate universal human aspirations and the interconnection of the peoples of the earth. Through excellence in craft, these objects poignantly illustrate the hope-filled quest of the honored verse of the Qur’an: “We created you nations and tribes that ye may know one another.” (49:13). The first piece visitors view upon entering the galleries is a large, 10th century white ceramic bowl from Nishapur in Iran, inscribed in a boldly powerful black calligraphy. It sets the tone for harmony, for the potter and the calligrapher needed to work closely hand in hand to produce such a masterpiece. On an Iznik plate from 16th century Ottoman Turkey, the artist has depicted 4 types of flowers – a rose, a hyacinth, a honeysuckle sprig and a tulip – all gracefully springing from the same clump of roots. A special grouping of manuscripts side by side explores the triple traditions of Judaism, Islam and Christianity that lived together harmoniously in medieval Spain. A folio illustrating the preparation of medicine from honey, copied in Baghdad 1224 from the Greek medical manuscript De Materia Medica by Discorides, illustrates the respectful heritage of scientific thought from one culture to the next. A judiciously-situated doorway pulls visitors out of the Egypt/Syria gallery into the room containing the Met’s 19th century “Orientalism” collection. These paintings depict the Middle East as seen through the eyes of European painters. Pausing to look at these colorful and often fanciful interpretations forces us to ask ourselves how we view these cultures today.

A Courtyard of Hope

The mainstream portrayal of Islam is not always kind, and does not usually deal with transcendent beauty, refined ornamentation, or intricate arabesques. Yet one of the most famous hadith, or sayings of the Prophet declares: “God is beautiful and He loves beauty.” Should it thus come as a surprise that this culture has led to the creation of so many great works of art? Perhaps the art at the new Met Galleries will close some chasms and conflicts that plague Muslim-West relations, especially over the last 10 years. Instead of blaring headlines on a newspaper article, perhaps scrutiny of the elegant calligraphy of a Qur’an page will offer grounds for reflection of the other face of the story and provide hope for well-needed harmony. The spiral of galleries ends in the serene Moroccan courtyard. Visitors are invited to linger there a moment and take home with them its restorative light and spirit of tranquility.

A new game

One of the most engaging pieces on display is a 12th century chess set from Iran, one of the earliest to come down to us. Crafted from glazed clay, the modern-looking pieces challenge us to a game. Yet, we cannot play because one piece is missing. Somewhere along the march of time, through earthquakes, Mongol invasions, wars and strife, one pawn has gone missing from this stunning set.

Looking at this chessboard, one cannot help but reflect on the still-charged game of misunderstandings which pits East and West on opposing sides. Does the loss of this representative of castles and conflicts auger a more peaceful society? Perhaps this missing foot soldier can presage the beginning of a new game, one where we are all on the same side of the chessboard; a game without confronting pieces and with reconciliation as the victor.

May the art in these Met Galleries inspire us to write the rules for this new Game of Peace.

Katharine Branning is the author of a series of essays on Turkey, “Yes I would love another glass of tea” and the curator of the exhibit “Song of Stones” dedicated to Seljuk art held at the Turkish Cultural Center in New York in the fall of 2011.

According to a recent report by the UN, factors like climate change and high demand for energy are the main reasons for switching to alternative sources, among which biogas is an essential one. The same report also indicates that increasingly higher shares of budgets are spent on biogas, solar and wind energy research.

What is Biogas?

Biogas is a mixture that is produced by microorganisms during the decomposition of vegetable and animal wastes in an oxygen-free environment. It consists of methane (60–70%), carbon dioxide (30–40%) and hydrogen-sulfide (0–2%). For its production, plant seeds that are rich in oil (e.g. sunflower), vegetables rich in carbohydrates (e.g. potato, wheat, corn, beet), fiber-rich plants (e.g. flax), other plant and tree remains (e.g. branches, hay, roots, bark), and animal remains can be utilized as raw material. Municipal and industrial waste can also be utilized on the condition that they are purified from inorganic materials like plastic and glass.

Biogas is an environmentally friendly energy source that is easy to produce almost anywhere. Biogas production capacity is directly proportional to the agricultural level of a country. Its ease of production and relatively higher efficiency compared to other renewable energy sources make it particularly important for countries which are not self-sufficient in energy production.

Biogas production in reactors

Biogas is produced by two main methods. In one case, the amount of biogas that can be extracted from the available organic waste is calculated. Then reactor tanks are designed according to the rate of production. In the other case, the energy requirement of a certain system (in terms of biogas energy) is calculated first, and then the reactors are built accordingly. The main concern in both designs is of course achieving the maximum efficiency and ease with minimum cost.

We can list the parameters in the design of a reactor tank as follows:

– Type and amount of organic material

– Type and amount of raw material

– Meeting the heat requirement of the chemical process

– Mixing various materials in appropriate proportions

Currently, reactors that are fed with raw materials on a daily basis are widely used in rural areas. This type of reactor is known as a continuous reactor. In cases where daily feeding is not possible, semi-continuous reactors are used instead. In this second type, re-feeding of the reactor is not necessary till the end of the first production cycle, but at the end of each cycle, the reactors have to be emptied and cleaned for the next cycle.

Keeping the temperature of the medium at the correct level is crucial. Solar energy can be used to manage this. It can help heat the liquid mixture up to the desired temperature and prevent the heat loss in certain designs by providing the green-house effect.

Implementing in daily use

How to implement biogas as an alternative source of energy in real life is surely an important subject. Currently, energy production from biogas is carried out either by direct burning or enriching and converting it into other forms of fuel to be used in industry.

One may wonder how good biogas really is compared to current energy sources. In terms of biogas production capacity, 440 lbs of food waste is equivalent to the daily manure production from 5 cows. From this much food waste or manure, 88 ft of biogas can be obtained. In terms of energy, this is equivalent to 9 lbs of wood, or 3 lbs of charcoal or 0.16 gallons of coal oil, 1.5 lbs of gasoline and finally 56.50 ft of natural gas. What can we really do with this much energy? Here is a small list of things we can do:

– cook 3 meals a day for a normal size family for 3 days

– run a 2-horsepower engine for an hour

– keep a 60–100 Watt lamp on for six hours, which is approximately 1.25kWh electrical energy

– heat two bedrooms daily

Humanitarian issues

Although when the western developed countries are considered, biogas is an excellent way of making use of waste food and other organic remains, it still calls for global thinking. In western countries, cutting food waste and turning it into useable energy is an advantage of biogas. Whether that energy is really needed is another issue to think about. People need to evaluate honestly how much energy they really need; they must consider the lights that are left on for no purpose, the heating and cooling systems that are over-used for extreme comfort, the excess of food they leave on plates and the pots of food dumped in the trash… Besides, in much of the rest of the world, there is malnutrition and a shortage of food. So, a straightforward question is, “Is it fair to consume edibles to make energy that we do not necessarily need, while there are people suffering from hunger?”

Biogas clearly holds promise to resolve both the energy problem and the environmental crisis of our modern days. However, will it ever be possible to find resources that can satisfy the consumption needs of a humanity that lacks virtues such as contentment and the desire to share?

Bekir Mugayitoğlu is an environmental engineer. He lives in West Virginia, USA.

Our current source of energy is mostly fossil fuels such as oil, coal, and natural gas. Fossil fuels are nonrenewable. In other words, they are finite resources and they will diminish significantly in future; hence, they will be very expensive to use and environmentally harmful to recover. In contrast, solar, wind, biomass, hydrogen, geothermal, ocean, and hydro power are renewable energy resources, that is, they are constantly replenished and will not run out. Renewable energy is not only important for our energy needs but also has significant advantages over fossil-based energy resources in the protection of the environment. Besides, the environmental aspect of renewable energy also has a religious dimension, since preservation of the earth and its inhabitants is regarded as a duty for humankind.

Among these energy resources, solar energy is generally used for electricity generation or for hot water heating. It also finds uses in solar cooling, and in direct heating and lighting of buildings and homes. Solar panels are made of photovoltaic (PV) cells. The term “photovoltaic” means “converting light into electricity.” Solar energy technology has been around since the late nineteenth century. Yet, its share in energy production constitutes a very small fraction (less than 0.1%) of production around the world. This stems from the higher cost of electricity generation with solar panels in comparison to use of fossil fuels. In the US, electricity generated from PV cells costs $0.30 to $0.40 per kilowatt-hour while consumers pay only $0.10 per kilowatt-hour to the electric utility companies. Nonetheless, with recent advances in this technology, it will be possible in the near future to decrease the cost and make this technology viable for our energy needs as we face shrinkage in fossil fuels around the globe.

One of the factors that increases cost is the low power-conversion efficiency of current PV cells. The PV cells used in the market are mostly fabricated from silicon crystals and these cells show a power conversion efficiency of 15%. That means, 85% of photons go to waste when harvesting energy from sunlight. In fact, the theoretical limit of light harvesting in silicon-based solar panels is only 31% because of the low band gap of silicon, which only partially absorbs sunlight to form charge carriers in the device. To solve this problem, scientists have utilized three different crystals in a single PV cell to absorb more sunlight, and these studies have yielded a device efficiency of 37%. Just recently, scientists at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (Golden, Colorado) and Boeing-Spectrolab have achieved a world-record conversion efficiency of 41% by using the same idea, establishing a new milestone in sunlight-to-electricity performance. Although such studies are very promising in this field, when it comes to production cost, these inorganic PV cells are still an expensive technology for power generation compared to fossil fuels.

Organic photovoltaics

An alternative solution to decrease the cost is to use devices with lower power efficiency but a very low cost of production. Organic-based PV materials offer such an alternative with easy and fast production techniques such as solution processing and printing. Conjugated polymers (polymers with alternating single and double bonds in their polymeric backbone) are especially important in this regard, since they exhibit semiconductor properties. The best organic PV cell efficiencies reported in recent years are around 5%. This number must double in order for the cells to be used in solar panels, assuming that the cell displays high photostability and conductivity. Many research groups are now focusing on organic-based solar systems as an alternative technology to their inorganic counterpart.

Although we are all familiar with solar energy, most of us do not know how electricity is produced from sunlight. To show the mechanism for photovoltaic activity, one first should look into an anatomy of a typical organic PV cell which is shown in Figure 1. This cell is based on an organic PV cell. The organic layer is sandwiched in between two electrodes where light absorption and charge separation occurs. Typically, glass is used for support but plastic materials can also be used as alternatives. The anode is usually indium tin oxide (ITO) and the cathode can be aluminum, calcium, gold, or magnesium. The electrodes must be semi-transparent to facilitate light absorption. Specifically designed conjugated polymers are utilized for sunlight absorption, where the wavelength range of absorbed light may vary from ultraviolet-visible to near infrared depending on the material used in the device. The efficiency of the device is determined by the extent of light absorption, efficiency of charge separation, and charge diffusion to the electrodes. The morphology of the organic layer has been found to be very important for device characteristics and cell efficiency. In an organic PV, an electron is promoted from the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) level to the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) level upon light absorption (Figure 2). This transition results in an electron-hole pair which is then separated by the electric field formed by the different ionization energy of electrodes (Φ). Therefore, the electron moves to the cathode and the hole moves to the opposite side. This process causes charge flow between the electrodes and hence electricity is generated in the process.

Despite all the improvements in organic PV technology, current cell efficiencies are still low for electricity generation. The stability of organic PV materials must be improved as most of them are prone to degradation by oxygen and humidity in the air. The large-scale production of organic solar panels is possible, and yet the feasibility of current methods has not been investigated extensively so far.

Solar energy is a clean, renewable resource of energy and is projected to have significant role in the energy market in near future. Funding in the field of solar energy has been increasing in recent years due to the increasing need for energy and the likely reduction of fossil fuels towards the end of this century. Yet, our research efforts are still not sufficient for the advancement of this technology.

Importance of renewable energy for the environment: an Islamic perspective

Solar energy, like other renewable energy resources, is environmentally friendly. Its use should be promoted, as fossil fuels play a dominant role in the increase in greenhouse gases, which are believed to be responsible for the increased rate of global warming and hence climate change. Global warming may cause rises in sea level and changes in the amount and pattern of precipitation. These changes may in turn increase the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as floods, droughts, heat waves, hurricanes, and tornados. Other consequences may include higher or lower agricultural yields, glacial retreat, reduced summer stream flows, and species extinctions. Warming is expected to affect the number and magnitude of the events mentioned above; however, it is difficult to connect particular occurrences to global warming.

In any case, focusing on renewable energy and energy-efficient technologies is one of the best options to secure the future of our planet and all existing forms of life on it. Our effort should not only be due to the expected shortage of fossil fuels in future. Rather, it must be seen as a duty and moral act to save the environment since use of renewable energy resources has little or no negative impact on nature. Religious awareness and guidance in this area is necessary so that each individual may take active part in the protection and development of the environment. Much environmental degradation is due to our ignorance of what our Creator requires of us. People should be educated to realize that the conservation of the environment is a religious duty demanded by God. This fact is expressed in Qur’an in a number of places such as, “Do good, even as God has done you good, and do not pursue corruption in the earth. Verily God does not love corrupters” (Qasas 28:77), “And do not follow the bidding of the excessive, who cause corruption in the earth and do not work good” (Shu’ara 26:151–152), “And do not cause corruption in the earth, when it has been set in order” (A’raf 7:56). Any deliberate damage to the natural environment and its resources is a kind of corruption which is forbidden by Islam.

As Muslims, we should protect and preserve the environment because by doing so we protect the creatures which pray to God and praise Him. Although we do not know how they praise God, the Qur’an clearly points this out: “The seven heavens and the earth, and all beings therein, declare His glory: There is not a thing but celebrates His praise, and yet you understand not how they declare His Glory!” (Isra 17:44). Islam is established on the concept of good (khayr). Since it is scientifically proven that protecting the environment is of great significance for all animals and plants on earth, Muslims should see it as khayr. In the last two verses of chapter Zalzalah (99:7–8), God says, “And whoever does good an atom’s weight will see it then. And whoever does ill an atom’s weight will see it then.”

Protecting God’s creatures and the environment is a duty of humankind because human beings are the “agents” of God on earth. This task cannot be performed by other creatures. Therefore, as the Muslim community we should all commit ourselves to the preservation and to the protection of the environment. Surely, investing in and promoting improvement of the technologies based on renewable energy is one way to go.

References

• http://www.nrel.gov/learning/re_basics.html
• http://www.islamonline.net
• http://lfw.pennnet.com/Articles/Article_Display.cfm?Section=ARTCL&ARTICLE_ID=257239&VERSION_NUM=3&p=12 (PHOTOVOLTAICS: Research targets more-efficient photovoltaics)
• http://lucy.mrs.org/publications/jmr/jmra/2005/dec/0407.html (Organic and nano-structured composite photovoltaics: An overview)
• http://www.orgchem.science.ru.nl/molmat/mm-web/education/caput-college/SolEnergMatCells-2004-83-125.pdf (A brief history of the development of organic and polymeric photovoltaics)
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming
• http://www.islamset.com/env/index.html

The theory is simple: Cosmic particles coming from outer space continuously collide with stable carbon-12 atoms in CO2 molecules, which are widespread in the atmosphere. Each carbon-12 atom takes up two neutrons and is converted into a radioactive carbon-14 atom. Radioactive carbon-14 atoms rapidly mix and become uniform throughout the atmosphere. Deep oceans, the biosphere, and carbonate rocks are giant reservoirs of carbon and with the addition of the atmosphere they constitute the carbon cycle of the Earth. Within this cycle, radioactive carbon-14 is continuously created and disintegrated. Both processes are in equilibrium. Since the total amount of carbon on the Earth is constant, a constant ratio is established between the amount of stable and radioactive carbon. This same ratio is valid in all the reservoirs of carbon in this giant cycle. In the biosphere, both carbon-14 and carbon-12 atoms are added to the food chain via assimilation; first by plants through photosynthesis and then by animals through consumption of the plants. For an animal or a plant, a carbon-14 atom is no different from a carbon-12 atom in assimilation. Living beings continuously take up both atoms, so the ratio of both atoms in their bodies remains constant throughout their life. When an organism dies, the uptake of exogenous carbon is terminated. After this point, although the amount of carbon-12 remains constant, carbon-14 continues to disintegrate and the ratio starts to decrease after the body dies. Because the ratio after death is related to the time that has passed since death, it is possible to determine the date of death by measuring the amount of radiocarbon present.

The half-life of radiocarbon is 5,730 years. This means that after 5,730 years half of the total amount of radiocarbon in a dead body disintegrates. The remaining half decays in the following 5,730 years and only a quarter of the first amount remains. This goes on until a very minuscule, undetectable amount remains. In bodies less than 50,000 years in age the amount of radiocarbon can be detected. For an older body, the amount of radiocarbon is so small that the instruments would be unable to measure the amount of radiocarbon present. In addition, such a test obviously works only on the remains of things that were once alive, such as bones or wooden parts of an old structure.

But how accurate is an age determined by this method? How dependable is this technique for enlightening us about the past? Although the theory seems quite consistent from a general outlook, one can see it is not the case when analyzed more rigorously.

Archeologists have tried different ways to test the accuracy of the method. The results have revealed long-term and short-term variations from the actual ages. Long-term variations show systematic deviations of the radiocarbon age from the real age; that is as the date of the sample gets older the deviation increases. On the other hand, short-term variations show irregular fluctuations in the radiocarbon age from the real age. These deviations apparently reveal that the assumptions made concerning the radiocarbon technique were not accurate. The results of these important abnormal conclusions in radiocarbon dating were summarized in the Introduction to Prehistoric Archaeology as follows: “for years, it was thought that possible errors could have minor effects, however, recent research shows that the natural concentration of carbon-14 deviates at some certain periods, significantly affecting the calculated ages.”

The method is based on two assumptions that should be examined carefully: Firstly, the method assumes that the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 has remained constant in the atmosphere from the time the body died to the present. However, recent scientific research has proven that this ratio has not remained constant during geological time.

Secondly, the method also assumes that the carbon supply to the organism was made only by the global carbon cycle and no other source of carbon has affected the system.

Initial concerns about the possible sources of error were focused on the constant ratio assumption. So, why did the constant ratio assumption turn out to be incorrect? Actually, many reasons were found to refute the validity of this assumption. The most important ones are explained below:

Changes in the Earth’s magnetic field are believed to be responsible for long-term deviations in radiocarbon dating. By investigating the orientation of magnetic minerals in ancient rocks, geologists have proven that the magnetic field surrounding the Earth has not been constant throughout the time. Today, it is widely accepted that both the strength and direction of the Earth’s magnetic field has changed. Interestingly, these changes are appreciable even within a century. Changes in the geomagnetism affect the radiocarbon production in the upper atmosphere; cosmic rays are deflected according to the strength of the Earth’s magnetic field. If the magnetic field is high, more cosmic rays are deflected away from the Earth and the production of radiocarbon falls. If it is low, production rises. When the production rate changes, a new equilibrium concentration in the carbon cycle as a whole can only be established after a considerable amount of time has passed. The likely time scale for achieving the complete new equilibrium level is about 10,000 years. This is about the same as the age of the sample that is to be dated! The bottom line is that anything that affects the density of cosmic rays reaching the atmosphere will affect the rate of radiocarbon production, thus affecting the ratio.

Short-term changes might be the results of different factors. One of these is the variation in sunspot activity. Sunspots appear as dark places on the surface of the Sun for a short period of time and generate strong geomagnetic storms. Sunspot activity increases the Earth’s magnetic field and leads to a decrease in the radiocarbon production rate. Therefore, again, anything that causes a change in the Earth’s magnetic field will affect this ratio.

Other effects for short-term variations are the changes in the Earth’s climate. It is widely accepted that the amount of carbon in the atmosphere during geological time is strongly related to temperature changes on the Earth. This fact is also key in understanding the global greenhouse effect, which occurs with the release of high amounts of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere by hydrocarbon combustion. The global sea level has also been affected by these climatic changes. During low temperature seasons (ice ages or glacial periods), large ice sheets covered most of the continents and as a result of this, the sea level dropped appreciably. During these periods, a high amount of carbon (as carbon-dioxide) was kept inside glaciers and they became C-14 depleted (dead carbon). By the end of the Ice Age, large amounts of dead carbon had been released into the system and they had decreased the global ratio of radiocarbon.

Actually, three more resources of dead carbon make a negative contribution to the ratio. One of them is the dead carbon that comes up from deep Earth through volcanic eruptions. Radiocarbon dating of an organism that lived in the vicinity of a volcano gives inaccurate results. Because of the expulsion of dead carbon, samples found close to volcanoes have less radiocarbon in their body than others. Consequently, the age determination of these samples gives significantly incorrect results.

As is obvious from the previous examples, the main problem arises in the lack of knowledge about the history of the sample being dated by this method. Another example is when the sample being tested is wood from the inner part of a tree; the radiocarbon method gives an incorrect result in this case. The reason for this is that the innermost part of a tree finishes the carbon cycle before the tree dies. If a sample was made from this part of the tree (it is impossible to know which part of a tree is being used) then the date produced would be greater than its real age.

Even human activity is an important resource for dead carbon. Although only effective since the last century, a high amount of dead carbon in the carbon dioxide has been released into the atmosphere by the burning of fuel. So the ratio of radiocarbon has decreased. Actually, compared to the factors above, this effect has a more profound influence on the application of radiocarbon dating: No recent organic material can be used as a modern standard. Because of this, the zero point of the timescale chosen is to be 1950 AD, as determined by the US National Bureau of Standards for quoting radiocarbon results.

Consequently, the ages determined by the radiocarbon method are not taken seriously by archeologists because of the problems in the basic assumptions upon which the method was established. Occasionally, the radiocarbon method is used to roughly determine whether an object is modern or of considerable antiquity; in essence, it is used as an authenticity test. Even then the answer may not be clear-cut; for example, an old piece of timber could have been carved to produce an authentic looking sculpture!

Radiocarbon dating is an example of how scientific tools should be used carefully to unfold the reality around us. Scientific theories are only poor models of what is happening in reality. The history of science is full of such examples, which sometimes may be misleading if not handled carefully.

Reference

Radiocarbon Dating, Sheridan Bowman, University of California Press, 1990

Biological weapons (BWs), defined as infectious bacterial or viral agents used to harm others, have a long history2: Primitive peoples used arrows poisoned with biological toxins from animal and plant extracts, and also poisoned their enemy’s water supply with fecal extracts. Medieval warriors besieging the Russian city of Kaffa catapulted plague-infected corpses over its walls. Europeans knowingly gave smallpox- or measles-infected blankets to Native Americans, who had no resistance to these diseases. BWs reportedly were used during WWII. Over time, BWs have come to include biologically derived toxins and poisons.3 Among the most dangerous agents are smallpox, botalinum toxin (Btx), anthrax, and ricin.4 Some are highly lethal, while others incapacitate the host or primarily harm animals and plants. Today, many countries are believed to fund such research.

BWs Become a Modern Issue

Japan started the first offensive biological weapon program in 1918 with Unit 731, a special army unit dedicated to BWs production and experimentation. In 1931, it moved to Man-churia, China, where it conducted experiments on Chinese people and actually attacked several cities with different BWs until 1942. At least 10,000 Chinese died during those experiments. In 1942, the U.S. learned of this program and started its own. By 1969, it had weaponized the agents causing anthrax, botulism, tularemia, brucellosis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, and Q fever.5

In 1969, President Nixon declared that the U.S. unilaterally renounced first use of lethal or incapacitating chemical agents and weapons, and unconditionally renounced all methods of biological warfare. Henceforth, the U.S.’s biological program would research only strictly defined measures of defense, such as immunization. All stockpiles were ordered to be destroyed. The U.S. and 165 other countries have signed the Biolog-ical and Toxic Weapons Convention (BWC), and 144 countries have ratified it.6

But the BWC cannot be effective if it cannot be enforced. For example, the USSR signed it but continued its programs. In 1979, at least 66 people died after an accidental anthrax release from a plant near Sverdlovsk. Soviet authorities denied any BWs production, but years later President Yeltsin confirmed that anthrax was being researched at that time.7 Yeltsin further asserted that all such programs were stopped and that stockpiles were being removed. However, evidence suggests that part of the offensive programs continue.8

The USSR’s demise (1991) led to the spread of BWs production information. According to Margolis, some of the 60,000 scientists and technicians formerly employed by its biological warfare establishment reportedly are working in Iraq, Israel, Iran, Syria, and Serbia, all of which already have extensive arsenals of biowarfare weapons. India also may have received substantial Russian aid.9

Iraq announced its BWs program in 1995. Fortunately, such agents were not used during the Gulf War, possibly due to fear of nuclear retaliation. The UN destroyed whatever it could find of Iraq’s BWs program in 1996.10 China, Iran, Taiwan, Syria, Cuba, North Korea, Egypt, Israel, and Libya are suspected of having similar programs.11

Why Would Anyone Use BWs?

In the eyes of nations or groups that put their own ideology or interests above all other considerations, including human life and future generations, such weapons might appear attractive. Consider the following points:

BWs probably are more effective on a per-quantity basis than more conventional weapons. Just 8 ounces of Type-A botalinum toxin, “the most lethal substance known,” could kill every living creature on Earth.12 One gram of anthrax contains 100 million lethal doses, and a few kilograms can kill as many people as died at Hiroshima.13 Generally speaking, several kilos of a biological agent can have the impact of several tons of nerve gas. BWs are extremely effective because they are highly toxic and are living organisms that multiply in and infect target hosts.

Producing chemical and nuclear weapons requires sophisticated equipment and highly trained personnel; BWs require only a modest level of education and investment. Kathleen C. Bailey, a former assistant director of the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, is “absolutely convinced” that a major biological arsenal could be built with $10,000 worth of equipment in a 15×15 ft. room.14

For example:

To infect 1 sq. km., it would cost approximately $2,000 using conventional weapons, $800 using nuclear weapons, $600 using chemical weapons, and $1 using biological weapons. Any nation with a reasonably advanced pharmaceutical and medical industry can mass produce BWs.15

Weaponized anthrax probably could be produced in a small house, apartment or RV for less than $100,000. The program could be run by perhaps less than a dozen technicians with the equivalent of a BS degree led by one supervisor with a Ph.D. The relevant basic knowledge for most biological weapons-grade microbes is freely available, and equipment and chemicals can be obtained from dozens of suppliers.16

A live weapon needs only a small sample for mass production. Some agents exist naturally in the soil or can be ordered from a biotech company. Various researchers have claimed that Saddam Hussein used the latter method to acquire his original anthrax culture.17 BWs are hard are to detect in the production phase, for most bioweapons can be produced in hidden and/or mobile conditions.18 When detected, the place can be quickly cleaned and transformed into an ordinary pharmaceutical research or biology lab. Furthermore, such anti-terrorist sensor systems as metal detectors, x-ray machines, trained dogs, or neutron bombardment cannot detect BWs.19

Damage is confined to people (and possibly other living things), thus leaving infrastructure intact20; the sheer terror caused by such a threat21; ensuing governmental panic22; and the time lag between release and detection makes identification and apprehension very remote.23 But BWs also have certain drawbacks, among them:

The need for effective delivery. Most biological agents infect through inhalation. Too-large particles are caught in the respiratory system; too-small particles are exhaled. To stay in the lungs, the particle should be between 1 and 5 Angstroms. In fact, a BW attempt in Japan failed because the dissemination tool was ineffective.24

Even if disseminated, the desired result is far from certain. Most biological materials, including spores, are destroyed by exposure to ultraviolet light and drying. Agents released in the air may disperse in unexpected ways due to changes in wind patterns. Rain may wash the agents out of the air before they reach their target. Also, BWs can turn around and infect those who released them.

BWs’ live nature is a two-edged sword. The disease spreads easily, but no one can know when it is safe to live in the infected area. An agent’s lifespan is a major concern, for it can become part of the local microflora and thus threaten any military follow-up activities for an unknown length of time.25

Vulnerability to Attack

BWs have two main uses: on the battlefield and on a civilian population. Battlefield Use: BWs have several drawbacks here, such as high dependence upon external conditions, delayed effects, possible self-infection, uncertainty over when an infected area is safe enough to return to, and neutralization by vaccination or protective clothing. Use on a Civilian Population: This is the true horror, for civilians would not be prepared for such an attack and the resulting epidemic would be very hard to control. If the attack is covert, authorities would be unable to identify the source and unaware of the attack until infected people start showing up in the hospitals. When they finally identified the agent, the infection would be widespread. If a vaccine did not exist, health professionals would be unable to offer much help. The U.S. considers itself very vulnerable to such an attack and is working to protect itself.

Given that BWs are not hard to obtain, why have they not been used on civilian populations so far? The main reasons seem to be fear of a reprisal attack and of alienating the public to one’s cause. Potential users apparently feel that the disadvantages far outweigh the advantages. But as they may not always feel that way, the U.S. and other nations are studying how to prepare their national health care infrastructures and personnel to deal with such an event.

A Recent Development

On July 26, 2001, the Washington Post announced that the U.S. would withdraw from the BWC on the grounds that a newly proposed protocol “would not prevent cheating, and could encourage espionage against the U.S. pharmaceutical and chemical industries.” One wonders if other countries will follow suit.

Conclusion

Many Web sites discuss this vital issue, such as: www.brad.ac.uk/acad/sbtwc/: strengthening the BWC; www.cbiac.apgea.army.mil/about_us/general.html: Department of Defense focal point for data related to Chemical Warfare/Chemical and Biological Defense technology; www.asanltr.com/: specializes in nuclear, biological, and chemical defense and protection issues; www.geocities.com/nbclinks/: gateway for nuclear, biological, and chemical warfare data on the Web; and www.seanet.com/~gtate/cwoff.htm: gives access to various chemical warfare-related Web pages.

All religions condemn such horrific weapons on the grounds that all life is inherently sacred and worthy of respect. However, realpolitik, greed for profits, ideological conflict, and the need to assert or maintain control of natural and other resources deafens many governments and people to the appeals of religion.

Unfortunately, one nation’s and even one group’s decision to head down this path causes others to follow for the sake of self-preservation. We are well-advanced on this path, and no one can say where it will end

Footnotes

1. Rod Hafemeister, “Vaccines Will Not Suffice Fight Vs. Anthrax Needs Other Ammo,” Belleville News-Democrat (28 Dec. 1997). Online at: www.militaryreporter.org/anthrax.html.
2. R. E. Hurlbert, Microbiology 101, “Chapter XV, Adden-dum: Biological Weapons; Malignant Biology,” Washington State Univ. 1997). Online at: www.slic2.wsu.edu:82/hurlbert/micro101/pages/101biologicalweapons.html.
3. Henry E. Hardy, “Biological Weapons FAQ v. 0.44,” (1999): Online at: www.ocean.ic.net/ftp/doc/disaster/bio/biowfaq.html.
4. Partial online list: www.fas.org/nuke/intro/bw/agent.htm.
5. Thomas W. McGovern and George W. Christopher, Biological Warfare and Its Coetaneous Manifestations. Online at: www.telemedicine.org/BioWar/biologic.htm.
6. http://projects.sipri.se/cbw/docs/bw-btwc-mainpage.html.
7. F. A. Abramova et al., “Pathology of inhalational anthrax in 42 cases from the Sverdlovsk outbreak of 1979,” Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, no. 90 (1993): 2291-94; G. W. Christopher et al., “Biological Warfare: A Historical Perspective,” J Am Med Assoc, no. 278 (1997): 412-17.
8. Eric Margolis, “Another Doomsday Clock Is Ticking, Ticking,” Foreign Correspondent (20 June 1999). Online at: www.foreigncorrespondent.com/ archive/doomsday.htm.
9. R A. Zilinskas, “Iraq’s biological weapons: The past as future?” J Am Med Assoc, no. 278 (1997): 418-24.
10. Chemical and Biological Weapons Nonproliferation Project Web Page: www.stimson.org/cwc/bwissues.htm.
11. Margolis, “Another Doomsday,”(20 June 1999).
12. Robert H. Kupperman and David M. Smith, “Coping with Biological Terrorism,” in Brad Roberts, ed., Biological Weapons: Weapons of the Future? (Washington: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1993), 35-46; Wayman C. Mullins, “An Overview and Analysis of Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Terrorism: The Weapons, Strategies and Solutions to a Growing Problem,” American Journal of Criminal Justice 16:2 (1992): 95-119.
13. M. Asperilla, “Bioterrorism: The threat of the future.” Online at: www.sun-herald.com/2000/fron9.htm.
14. L. Cole, “The Specter of Biological Weapons,” Scientific American. Online at: www.sciam.com/1296issue/ 1296cole.html#1.
15. Ibid.
16. R. E. Hurlbert, “Biological Weapons: Black Biology,” Focus on Microbiology Education Newsletter (Spring 1998). Online at: www.microbelibrary.org/newsletter/nltrs98.htm.
17. For this and other claims of how the U.S. helped Iraq obtain the necessary ingredients for both biological and chemical weapons, consult Mark Phythian and Nikos Passas, Arming Iraq: How the U.S. and Britain Secretly Built Saddam’s War Machine (Northeastern Univ. Press: 1996); Alan Friedman, Spider’s Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq (New York : Bantam Books, 1993).
18. Hurlbert, Microbiology 101 (see footnote 8).
19. Robert S. Root-Bernstein, “Infectious Terrorism,” Atlantic Monthly (May 1991): 44-50.
20. Stanley L. Wiener 1991. “Terrorist Use of Biological Weapons.” Terrorism 14:2, (1991): 129; “Chemical and Biological Weapons and Terrorism,” in Susan Flood, ed., International Terrorism: Policy Implications (Chicago: Office of International Criminal Justice, The University of Illinois at Chicago, 1991), 65.
21. Robert H. Kupperman and Darrell M. Trent, Terrorism: Threat, Reality, Response (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1979).
22. Harvey J. McGeorge, “Reversing the Trend on Terror,” Defense & Foreign Affairs 16:4 (April 1988): 16-22.
23. Jeffrey D. Simon, Terrorists and the Potential Use of Biological Weapons: A Discussion of Possibilities R/3771-AFMIC (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corp., 1989): 10; William E. Burrows and Robert Windrem, Critical Mass: The Dangerous Race for Superweapons in a Fragmenting World (New York: 1994), 483.
24. The ease of dissemination remains controversial. A detailed summary of the BWs delivery scenarios can be found in Ron Perver, Chemical and Biological Terrorism: The Threat According to the Open Literature. Online at: www.csis-scrs.gc.ca/eng/miscdocs/purv_e.html#tab2.
25. Dr. Dane Jones. Online at: www.calpoly.edu/~drjones/ biowar-e3.html.

The movie makers probably did not intend to make killing look attractive. But was it the final effect anyways? Do movies depicting indecent acts fail to show the consequences sufficiently? What can society do about this trend? These and similar questions have been asked and debated for decades. Below, we analyze a time in Hollywood when the concentrated efforts of concerned individuals and organizations had a significant positive impact on forcing the movie industry to move toward self-regulation.

The Beginning of the Movie Industry

Movies rose as a new form of entertainment at the turn of twentieth century. By the 1920s, 40 million Americans were watching them each week. After winning the right to vote in 1920, flapper girls were exercising their new-found freedom, Harlem nightclubs flourished with whites with an interest in African American culture, and the number of gangs selling liquor during Prohibition increased. Movie producers displayed these value changes in their films to attract more young people. This started the big fight between America’s moral guardians and the movie makers.

Hollywood scandals in the early 1920s accelerated the demand for movie censorship. In 1921, the famous comedian Fatty Arbuckle was accused of raping and murdering a young actress; director William Desmond Taylor was found murdered, and a series of front page stories revealed his drug use and sex life; actor Wallace Reid died of a drug overdose; and America’s “sweetheart,” Mary Pickford, got a quick divorce to marry Douglas Fairbanks.

The motion picture business had become an industry. Film companies seeking to integrate production, distribution, and exhibition had one formula in mind: expansion meant capital, capital meant Wall Street, and Wall Street meant conservative business practices. They could not afford any scandals or federal investigations of Hollywood.

The Pressure for Codes Builds

Leff and Simmons write: “In 1921 alone, solons in thirty-seven states introduced nearly one hundred bills designed to censor motion pictures. Women could not smoke on screen in Kansas but could in Ohio; a pregnant woman could not appear on screen in Pennsylvania but could in New York. Six censorship states, which controlled over thirty percent of the theater seats in America, condemned illegitimacy and sexual deviance.”(1) State censors recut films after the producers, and the outcome was unfavorable. Local exhibitors were tired of the cost of censor cuts and attacks by the public and the media. In January 1922, the movie company presidents formed a trade association, the Motion Picture Producers and Distributers of America (MPPDA). Postmaster General Will Hays, an ex-Republican national chairman with White House connections, was chosen as their head. He was a great success as a spokesperson, but failed as a censor regulator of movie content.

Under Hays, Hollywood instituted a morals clause that, as part of the standard employment contract, regulated performers’ off-screen lives: “The artist agrees to conduct himself with due regard to public conventions and morals and agrees that he will not do or commit any act or thing that will tend to degrade him in society or bring him into public hatred, contempt, scorn or ridicule, or that will tend to shock, insult or offend the community or ridicule public morals or decency or prejudice the producer or the motion picture industry in general.”(2) Furious with such self-regulation and restraints, many ignored the contract, and so the scandals continued.

A mainly Protestant anti-movie lobby grew larger and more threatening in the mid-1920s. The Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), the Reverand William H. Short’s Motion Picture Research Council, and Canon William Shaefe Chase’s Federal Motion Picture Council, among others, all lobbied for federal action. Supporters of cencorship bills claimed that movies were immoral, vile, and corrupting young people. With the advent of —talking— films, the moral guardians of America faced a bigger threat: movies were more popular and dialogue challenged public norms. According to Black: —In 1928 the New York State censorship board cut over 4,000 scenes from more than 600 films submitted, and Chicago censors sliced more than 600 scenes.—(3) Martin Quigley, owner and publisher of the industry trade journal Exhibitors Herald-World, initiated in 1929 the first attempt by Catholics to influence the film industry. Believing that government censorship was futile, he began thinking of a code that would include rules, regulations, and philosophy. Father FitzGeorge Dinneen, Chicago censor board advisor, sent him to Father Daniel Lord, a St. Louis University professor who could write the document. The resulting production code had three working principles:

• No picture should lower the moral standards of those who see it.

• Law, natural or divine, must not belittled, ridiculed, nor must a sentiment be created against it.

• As far as possible, life should not be misrepresented, at least not in such a way as to place in the mind of youth false values of life.(4)

The production code termed movies entertainment, and those who made them were obligated to produce —correct entertainment— for mass audiences. Movies had a profound impact on the —bodies and souls of human beings,— and could —affect spiritual and moral progress.— Hays saw the code in early 1930. He later wrote: —My eyes nearly popped out when I read it. This was the very thing I had been looking for.—(5) The code announced specific limitations on language and behavior. Lots of offensive words and phrases were banned, and the ridicule of religion, nudity, evocative dances, depiction of illegal drug use, and scenes of childbirth were prohibited. The code was explicit when it came to on-screen crime and sex:

I. Crimes against the Law

These shall never be presented in such a way as to throw sympathy with the crime as against law and justice or to inspire others with a desire for imitation.

1. Murder

1. The technique of murder must be presented in a way that will not inspire imitation
2.  Brutal killings are not to be presented in detail c. Revenge in modern times shall not be justified

2. Methods of crime should not be explicitly presented

1. Theft, robbery, safe cracking, and dynamiting of trains, mines, buildings, etc., should not be detailed in method
2. Arson must be subject to the same safeguards
3. The use of firearms should be restricted to essentials d. Methods of smuggling should not be presented

3. Illegal drug traffic must never be presented a. The use of liquor in American life, when not required by the plot or for proper characterization, will not be shown.

II. Sex

The sanctity of the institution of marriage and the home shall be upheld. Pictures shall not interfere that low forms of sex relationship are the accepted or common thing. 1. Adultery, sometimes necessary plot material, must not be explicitly treated, or justified, or presented attractively. 2. Scenes of Passion a. They should not be introduced when not essential to the plot. b. Excessive and lustful kissing, lustful embraces, suggestive postures and gestures, are not to be shown. c. In general passion should so be treated that these scenes do not simulate the lower and baser element.(6) Interestingly, the above principles set forth by a Catholic scholar were in perfect accord with the moral codes of Islam, another Abrahamic religion that prohibits the vivid depiction of actions not approved by God.(7) By the beginning of the Depression, film studios turned increasingly to themes of sex and violence to attract audiences. Finally, Hays used the resulting public reaction to persuade the studios that enforcing the code would be the most secure and economical answer to their troubles. If the movie industry regulated itself, it could prevent likely government intervention. The film companies were in debt, having spent a lot of money to introduce sound, and many had lost money in the stock market crash of 1929. Desperate to cut costs, they decided to avoid paying to revise the film after the censorship boards made their edits, by following the code before making their movies. The code was adopted in 1930.

Joe Breen Gets Involved

During 1930-34, movie producers ignored and openly mocked the code. The pressure continued from the Catholic Church with the support from Jewish and Protestant leaders. In 1934 Joe Breen, a strict Catholic moralist working as a public relations man for the production code in Hay’s office, was hired to run Hollywood’s Production Code Administration (PCA). Breen brought new standards: —The PCA had the authority to review all movies and demand script changes. Any theater that ran a film without the PCA seal of approval would be fined $25,000.—(8) Finally the Code had some power. Studios accepted it and produced films that met Breen’s standards. Largely because of his efforts to get the code implemented, it has become known as Breen’s Code. It lasted for more than two decades, being officially abandoned only in 1968. Breen’s Code is a perfect example of people affecting the behavior of institutions whose motives may not match the best interests of the people they serve. By expressing their dissatisfaction and organizing to pressure the motion picture industry, Americans managed to change the nature of the movie industry’s products toward higher moral standards held in common by most monotheistic religions. As we go into the twenty-first century, there are many areas in which people of faith can work together to make a positive change in their societies and the world

Footnotes

1. Six states: Pennsylvania, Ohio, Florida, New York, Maryland, Kansas, and Virginia. Leonard J. Leff, and Jerold L. Simmons, The Dame in the Kimono (New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1990), 4.
2. Ibid., 5.
3. Gregory D. Black, Hollywood Censored (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 34.
4. Leff and Simmons, The Dame in the Kimono, 284-85.
5. Black, Hollywood Censored, 40.
6. Leff and Simmons, The Dame in the Kimono, 284-85.
7. Bukhari, —The Prophets,— No. 8.
8. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/cultureshock/beyond/hollywood.html.

Additional References

• O’Connor, John E. and Jackson, Martin A. (eds.). American History/American Film.
• New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1979. Walsh, Frank. Sin and Censorship. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996.