Being a native Indian tree, the Moringa also grows in tropical countries, such as Nigeria. Although its leaves have long been eaten or brewed for health benefits, its effectiveness has not yet been recognized in other parts of the world. Often called the “miracle plant,” there has been a significant amount of research done on the therapeutic properties of the moringa, and this research will hopefully spread knowledge of its healing qualities.

The literature mentions its antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial properties. Its leaves contain high-quality protein, and the seeds have lipid (fat) in abundance [1]. That is why moringa has a great deal of calcium, potassium, sodium, and iron [2]. It is claimed that moringa has twelve times more vitamin C than oranges, ten times more vitamin A than carrots, seventeen times more calcium than milk, nine times more protein than yogurt, and twenty-five times more iron than spinach.

Moringa is used to treat more than 300 illnesses, especially in Africa. The ancient Egyptians used it as skin cream. Since then, more and more of its cosmetic benefits have been discovered, and it has found a unique place among health-care products today [3]. Moringa is used to accelerate hair growth; treat illnesses such as excessive hair oil, dandruff, and inflammation of the scalp; treat skin wrinkles, blackheads, and pimples in the skin; and to manage eczema and psoriasis. To determine the plant’s ultimate effectiveness, more research and lab work are needed.

After oil extraction, moringa’s seeds and leftovers are used as an organic fertilizer which increases farming efficiency [4]. The seeds, leaves, oil, sap, shells, roots, and flowers are also used for cooking and treatment. The leaves of the plant can be brewed as tea and can be eaten raw as a vegetable.

More than 400 studies carried out over many years have looked into moringa’s effects on illnesses [5]. The significant findings can be summarized as follows: it has been shown to strongly reduce [6] cholesterol and blood fat as well as the atherosclerotic plaques; this effect can even be achieved with the oral consumption of the plant. When peeled, the moringa fruit’s shell reveals a soft white seed, like a chickpea-sized cotton. The seed can be consumed by swallowing it. The moringa’s roots and branches can be grounded and used as powder.

The studies have also revealed that moringa’s usage can help with improving numerous conditions, including but not limited to liver infections such as hepatitis [7], lowering the glucose levels in blood in patients with Diabetes Type-2 [8], various gastrointestinal problems, increasing milk production in nursing mothers, regulating kidney functions, Parkinson’s disease [9], and atopic dermatitis [10].

Some of the studies carried out examine how safe moringa is. People have a general inclination towards consuming natural plants without paying attention to how much they intake. Unfortunately, there are many life threatening and poisonous plants – and other plants that can be dangerous when taken in large quantities. Trying to identify the safety range of moringa, a study that lasted for 14 days examined the effects of it on mice that had depression and used anti-depressants. Researchers found out that moringa does not cause toxicity, provided that the dose does not exceed 2 grams per 2.2 pounds of weight [11]. It would be wise to utilize this plant after the testing process has been completed on humans, and a guide is prepared to show the types of illnesses and the corresponding doses.

Illness is a fact of life. Thankfully, the universe has been created with plants like moringa, which can be used to ease our pains and illnesses. We owe it to ourselves, and to other humans, to study all facets of the universe, including the moringa plant.

References

1. Stohs SJ, Hartman MJ. Review of the Safety and Efficacy of Moringa oleifera. Phytother Res. 2015 Jun;29(6):796-804.
2. Raimunda S, Nogueira B, Jamille AS et al. Research advances on the multiple uses of Moringa oleifera: A sustainable alternative for socially neglected population. Asian Pac J Trop Med 2017;10:621-30.
3. Fahey J. Moringa oleifera: a review of the medical evidence for its nutritional, therapeutic, and prophylactic properties. Trees Life J 2005;1:1-33.
4. Emmanuel SA, Emmanuel BS, Zaku, SG, Thomas SA. Biodiversity and agricultural productivity enhancement in Nigeria: Application of processed Moringa oleifera seeds for improved organic farming. Biol J N Am 2011;2:867-71.
5. Matic I1, Guidi A2, Kenzo M3, Mattei M2, Galgani A2, Investigation of medicinal plants traditionally used as dietary supplements: A review on Moringa oleifera. J Public Health Afr. 2018 Dec 21;9(3):841. doi: 10.4081/jphia.2018.841. eCollection 2018 Dec 21.
6. Chumark P, Khunawat P, Sanvarinda Y, et al. The in vitro and ex vivo antioxidant properties, hypolipidaemic and antiatherosclerotic activities of water extract of Moringa oleifera Lam. leaves. J Ethnopharmacol 2008;116:439-46.
7. Almatrafi MM, Vergara-Jimenez M, Murillo AG, et al. Moringa Leaves Prevent Hepatic Lipid Accumulation and Inflammation in Guinea Pigs by Reducing the Expression of Genes Involved in Lipid Metabolism. Int J Mol Sci 2017;18:E1330.
8. Kumari DJ. Hypoglycaemic effect of Moringa oleifera and Azadirachta indica in type 2 diabees mellitus. Bioscan 2010;5:211-4.
9. Giacoppo S, Rajan TS, De Nicola GR, et al. The Isothiocyanate Isolated from Moringa oleifera Shows Potent Anti- Inflammatory Activity in the Treatment of Murine Subacute Parkinson’s Disease. Rejuvenation Res 2017;20:50-63.
10. Choi EJ, Debnath T, Tang Y, et al. Topical application of Moringa oleifera leaf extract ameliorates experimentally induced atopic dermatitis by the regulation of Th1/Th2/Th17 balance. Biomed Pharmacother 2016;84:870- 7.
11. Kaur G1, Invally M1, Sanzagiri R1, Buttar HS2. Evaluation of the antidepressant activity of Moringa oleifera alone and in combination with fluoxetine. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2015 Oct-Dec;6(4):273-9. doi: 10.4103/0975-9476.172384.

The fascinating aspect of these materials stems from the fact that when certain particles or devices are manufactured on the nanometer size region by means of special chemical and physical methods, they start showing distinct properties dependent on size, shape, and elemental compositions (such as huge amount of light absorption/emission, plasmonic resonance, high surface area, ability to convert light into heat, desirable magnetic properties, etc). Each of these features have found many applications in technology and they provide superior properties when compared to conventional materials. This article will not cover each technology based on nanomaterials but rather focus on the medical aspects and applications of nanotechnology and the direction it is heading.

Nano-medicine is a novel branch of nanotechnology seeking to deliver medically relevant drugs and imaging agents to the desired sites of the body. Biomedical imaging and drug delivery fields are benefitting from nanotechnology to a greater extent because not only do nanomaterials provide unprecedented results in diagnosis and therapies, considerable amounts of incentives in the form of governmental and private funding also drive topnotch institutions and scientists to study these materials around globe. For instance, iron oxide—when designed and manufactured on the nanometer order—can compete with, if not replace, most of the commercial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents due to some of its attributes, (i.e., being much more sensitive) requiring a less amount compared to other contrast agents, non-toxic to humans, and easy to manipulate in terms of its chemistry (1). Nanometer-sized spherical and rod-shaped Cadmium/Tellerium/Lead sulfides and selenides, also known as “Quantum Dots,” can absorb and emit light from ultra-violet (UV) to infrared region (IR) and this phenomenon could be utilized to construct biomedical sensors capable of detecting biologically relevant species (such as blood glucose, tumor markers, hormones, and etc.) with great accuracy and speed (2). Even by using multiple colors emitting “Quantum Dots,” one can, in principle, detect more than one biological entity simultaneously. Furthermore, their superior emissive properties could be harnessed to develop sensitive and selective fluorescence imaging techniques and assays which can lead to simple and early diagnosis of diseases. Gold nanorods, if irradiated with IR lasers, can generate extreme local temperatures in the surrounding medium owing to “plasmonic resonance of surface electrons,” and this feature could be directed to killing of localized tumor tissues known as “Photothermal Theraphy” (3).

Another class of nanomaterial called liposomes (4) can actually mimic lipid bilayer of the cell membrane which gives rise to a protective layer around organelles and nucleus, and maintains the transport of ions and molecules in and out of the cell. Synthetic liposomes, strikingly, can accommodate various cargoes extending from drugs to imaging agents in their inner cavity and render controlled release of its cargo as it circulates in the body, thereby providing longer bio-availability.

One of the most alluring uses of nanoparticle formulations in cancer therapy is their dimension. Certain sizes of nanoparticles can permeate into tumoral sites and be retained in that region longer than small particles or molecules. This extraordinary feature of nanoparticles, called “enhanced permeability and retention effect” (5), was utilized with liposomes to deliver chemotherapeutics to cancerous tissues effectively in a slow and controlled manner. In addition, chemical malleability of nanoparticles give rise to smart formulations which could respond to external stimuli in drug delivery applications. For example, the fact that cancer cells have lower pH values as compared to normal cells has been used to trigger release and delivery of drugs on site (6).

An alternative approach to conventional treatments is gene therapy in which the malfunctioning or mutant gene has been reintroduced into cells with a properly functioning one in order to restore the malady (7). Nanoparticles, especially polymeric counterparts, have shown promising results in encapsulating, carrying and delivering the gene of interest into desired cells.

Apart from synthetic nanoparticles, naturally occurring nanoparticles, have lately received great attention due to their unique structures and properties such as biocompatibility, uniform size, as well as suitability to chemical and genetic engineering. Plant and bacterial viruses, known as viral nanoparticles (8), have been tested for imaging and drug delivery applications, and because they infect only plants and bacteria, they are considered to be benign towards mammalians. Their inner and outer amino acids could be chemically modified with drugs and imaging modalities and cleverly engineered drug release mechanism could be invoked to operate upon external or internal stimulus.

Nanomaterials are, furthermore, suitable candidates for vaccine development. The immune system normally recognizes certain chemical groups on the surface of antigens (pathogens) and develops its defense mechanism based on this recognition. Multiple copies of these chemical groups could be chemically tailored around the surface of nanomaterial, and thereby could trigger the same immune response more efficiently (9).

The future of medicine will be shaped and enhanced through a targeted delivery of drugs and imaging contrasts into desired sites. Promisingly, nanoparticles will be able to assist in this regard to a considerable extent. Today’s cancer chemotherapy rely mostly on administering a variety of cancer drugs via intravenous (injecting through the vein) or oral means which delivers drugs to cancer cells as well as a considerable amount to healthy tissues which causes major side effects. In order to accumulate higher doses of drugs in tumor cells selectively and minimize nonspecific delivery, nanoparticles loaded with drugs and chemically decorated with “smart molecules” which have the ability to recognize cancer cells and specifically bind to them have been designed and tested successfully (10). These smart groups (organic molecules, antibodies, peptides and small molecules), surprisingly, have higher binding affinities toward some receptors over-expressed in cancer cells. Furthermore, encapsulation of drugs by nanomaterials provides a protective shell which prevents leakage of drugs to other sites.

An important drawback of cancer therapy is drug resistance in which cancer cells develop mechanisms to pump chemotherapeutics out of cells and decreases the efficacy of drugs. Nanoparticles, however, invalidate these resistance mechanisms by encapsulating drugs and should therefore not be exposed directly to surrounding cell environment. When nanoparticles reach the desired destination in the cell, an engineered mechanism or stimulus augment the release and drugs are expected to show their activity without any compromise (11).

It is fascinating to see how these small nanoparticles behave cleverly and orderly even though they look like inanimate and unconscious clusters of atoms. The extraordinary art, design and engineering witnessed in macro dimensions can also be seen in nano dimensions which means that a conscious and purposeful Hand of Power is present and visible in this nanoworld.

To sum up, nanomaterials could be ideal platforms for drug delivery and imaging applications and could complement the deficiencies in conventional therapies. Loading multiple copies of these entities into nanoparticles and devising clever mechanisms to target and deliver them into desired sites would be key elements in the nanomedicine of the future. We are living in a world where each of us has someone in our families or among our friends who are going through painful cancer treatments, which is a heart-rending and traumatic experience. Hopefully, nanomaterial-based therapies would give rise to solutions and success in battling against cancer. For in one prophetic tradition the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, says: “O servants of God! Search for ways for treatment of illnesses. If God gives you ailments, for sure He bestows upon you cures for those.”

And why can’t this bestowal be in the nano form?

References

• Qiao RR, Yang CH, Gao MY. “Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles: from preparations to in vivo MRI applications” (vol 19, pg 6274, 2009). J Mater Chem 2009;19:9286-9286.
• Raymo FM, Yildiz I. “Luminescent chemosensors based on semiconductor quantum dots.” Phys Chem Chem Phys 2007;9:2036-2043.
• Giljohann DA, Seferos DS, Daniel WL, Massich MD, Patel PC, Mirkin CA. “Gold Nanoparticles for Biology and Medicine.” Angew Chem Int Edit 2010;49:3280-3294.
• Jesorka A, Orwar O. “Liposomes: Technologies and Analytical Applications.” Annu Rev Anal Chem 2008;1:801-832.
• Sancey L, Barbier E, Hirsjarvi S et al. “Enhanced Permeability and Retention (EPR) effect in tumors: characterization by MRI and fluorescence imaging.” B Cancer 2011;98:S67-S67.
• Hruby M, Konak C, Ulbrich K. “Polymeric micellar pH-sensitive drug delivery system for doxorubicin.” J Control Release 2005;103:137-148.
• Waehler R, Russell SJ, Curiel DT. “Engineering targeted viral vectors for gene therapy.” Nat Rev Genet 2007;8:573-587.
• Yildiz I, Shukla S, Steinmetz NF. “Applications of viral nanoparticles in medicine.” Curr Opin Biotech 2011;22:901-908.
• Peek LJ, Middaugh CR, Berkland C. “Nanotechnology in vaccine delivery.” Adv Drug Deliver Rev 2008;60:915-928.
• Ruoslahti E, Bhatia SN, Sailor MJ. “Targeting of drugs and nanoparticles to tumors.” J Cell Biol 2010;188:759-768.
• Liang XJ, Chen C, Zhao Y, Wang PC. “Circumventing tumor resistance to chemotherapy by nanotechnology.” Methods Mol Biol 2010;596:467-88.

Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) is a Mediterranean perennial plant having light blue flowers, feathery leaves, and a sweet, distinctively flavored root. Its generic name, “Glycyrrhiza,” comes from the ancient Greek words glycos riza, meaning “sweet root.”1 It has grown in the wild in many Middle Eastern, European, and western Asian countries.

Licorice is 50 times sweeter than table sugar, though some researchers have placed it at more than 150 times sweeter than sucrose. This intense sweetness can be traced to Glycyrrhizic acid, a multi-purpose molecule that consists of two sugar moieties. Glycyrrhizic acid, one of the main components found in Licorice root, is believed to contribute to the herb’s healing properties. The varied properties of this molecule have led to the surprising mix of products containing licorice today: medicines, cough syrups, herbal supplements, gum, drinks, and candy.

History of licorice as a healing herb

Licorice root has been used since ancient Egyptian, Greek and Roman times in the West, and since the second and third centuries B.C in the East. Hindus, Chinese, Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and eventually the Greeks and Romans all were acquainted with its sweet flavor. Egyptians used it as the main ingredient of a very well known drink, called erksoos,2 which is still popular in modern times. In Japan, the oldest specimen of licorice introduced from China in the middle of the eighth century still exists in the Imperial Storehouse. Ancient soldiers found that if they chewed the root on long marches, it would prevent thirst. The benefits of licorice were also known by physicians in the Middle East, so they prescribed it as a medicine. Ibn Sina (Avicenna), the famous physician and philosopher, said that: “the infused licorice purifies the voice and the trachea, and is useful in disorders and diets.”3 He used this plant in treating his patients nine centuries ago. Greeks and Romans ate licorice to treat coughs, asthma, colds, and sore throats. Today it’s still a popular flavor for cough drops and other medicines. During the Ottoman Empire Eastern Turks used to make a drink called “Meyan serbeti” by combining licorice and water. Even today it is sold by the street vendors in Southeast Turkey.

Medicinal uses and indications

In both the East and West, licorice has been used to treat a variety of illnesses ranging from the common cold to liver disease. This herb has long been valued as a demulcent (soother) and expectorant (which rids phlegm and mucous from the respiratory tract). It is particularly popular for relief from respiratory ailments such as allergies, bronchitis, colds, and sore throats. It is also used as a treatment for stomach problems, diseases of the skin, relief from stress, and diseases of the liver.

Today’s studies and findings have revealed the amazing properties of licorice, which will be a remedy in medicine for different diseases beside pharmaceutical products.

• Animal studies and trials in humans have supported the value of licorice for stomach ulcers. “If I had an ulcer, the first thing I’d go for is licorice,” says James Duke, Ph.D., botanist at the US Department of Agriculture. .Dozens of studies, he says, endow licorice root with formidable anti ulcer properties.4 Many studies have shown the licorice is just as effective as the commonly used ulcer drug Tagamet in healing ulcers.

• The Journal of Drugs in Dermatology July edition reports that licorice, among other natural products, is very effective for use in treatment of rosacea, atopic dermatitis, irritated skin, drug-induced skin eruptions, and psoriasis.

• Licorice is showing well in studies of its use in heart treatment. In recent research, people with high cholesterol experienced significant reductions in total cholesterol after taking licorice root extracts for one month. Systolic blood pressure was reduced by 10%. These measures returned to their previous elevated levels when participants stopped taking the licorice supplements.

• Researchers at the University of California have been studying licorice root to prevent cavities. Studies which have been done so far have shown that compounds isolated from licorice root could be inhibitors for microbes to cause tooth decay. “More studies are needed before it is proven that the compounds effectively fight cavities in humans. If further studies show promise, the licorice compounds could eventually be used as cavity-fighting components in mouthwash or toothpaste” says Wenyuan Shi, Ph.D, a microbiologist at UCLA’s School of Dentistry.”5

• Some people in the USA face a serious oral problem which is the severe pain in the mouth called “canker sores”. Dentists have been trying different types of treatments for this disease. Studies have shown that the best result received the treatment that is used the adhesive patch with the licorice extract.6

Even though there are many benefits to using licorice, at high doses there may be some side effects such as high blood pressure and low blood potassium levels, and fluid retention because of glycyrrhizin. Some licorice root extracts, with the glycyrrhizin removed, are known as deglycyrrhizinated licorice (DGL). This form retains many of licorice’s healing properties and is the better choice for long term use. Scientific studies have shown that DGL reduces inflammation and is as effective as prescription drugs for gastric ulcers without side effects. Natural health experts Phyllis and James Balch reported to naturalnews.com that “it’s best not to eat more than three ounces a day and it should not be used on a daily basis more than seven days in a row by persons with diabetes, heart diseases and high blood pressure.”

Food and other uses

Licorice root has a long history of being used to make candy. Two licorice candies that originated in England are Allsorts and Pontefract Cakes, which have been around since Elizabethan times when licorice was grown in the Pontefract district of Yorkshire. Allsorts are pastel-colored and round-square candies. Pontefract Cakes are soft, coin-shaped black licorice. Today, some of these candies are decorated with a stamp of Pontefract Castle. In Finland, red and black licorice is shaped like little smoking pipes, while in Germany it’s shaped into wheels. Salty licorice, shaped in coin-diamond, is very popular in Holland. Another popular Dutch candy is Katje, shaped with black cats and made of strong-flavored licorice [10]. Although it seems odd, many flavors such as mint, coffee, cherry, honey and chocolate are combined with licorice to make tasty treats. Unfortunately, many American candies that are called licorice actually contain no licorice at all. Licorice, fennel, and anise all have an essential oil called anethole, which gives them a distinctive taste. Many “licorice” candies are actually flavored with anise instead. Next time you eat licorice, check the package to see if licorice extract is one of the ingredients.

Although licorice is something to eat or drink, some of its more interesting uses have little to do with food. Much of the natural licorice grown today ends up flavoring tobacco instead of candy. But what about the parts of licorice that remain once the flavor is removed?

One of the products of licorice roots is a foaming liquid. This can sometimes be added as a flavoring in some beverages, but an unexpected use for the same liquid is found in fire extinguishers. It can extinguish fires in oil tanks, where other traditional methods are unsuccessful.

Even after every drop of liquid is removed from roots, they’re still useful. Pulp mills blend the root’s fibers with other ingredients to make boxes and wallboards. Walls with only a half-inch-thick piece of this fiber board are better insulators from heat, cold, and sound than six-inch walls of brick, stone, or concrete.

Until several decades, Scientists have emphasized only how plants do photosynthesis other than informing or searching other amazing functions. Today, scientists have been studying plants in order to get more useful benefits from them. The licorice plant needs further research in order for us to discover other benefits to human being’s ecology. In the light of explored results about licorice, numerous ways of using this plant have been proven and caused people to ponder about how a simple plant is able to carry the varied properties in its roots. It is basically wood, but sweeter than sugar.

Conclusion

Almost every day humankind faces a new health problem which can never be healed by medicine, nor can they determine the root cause. Today, by understanding the amazing properties of the Licorice plant, we should explore the earth for other plants in search for what has been created and its benefits to us. There are surely countless other unknown and useful plants waiting to be discovered and used for their real purpose of living.

Even though there have been many promising findings, there are ongoing debates in the scientific community regarding the value and side effects of licorice products. Further studies are needed.

Despite its long history, licorice may yet surprise us. Its presence in the candy aisle, at the pharmacy, among the natural food products, and on the checkout stand attests to the complexity and rich chemistry of this sweet beneficial root.

Sumeyra Dural Cokavci has a Master’s degree in Nuclear Physics, Georgia State University, Atlanta.

References

1. The Green Pharmacy Herbal Handbook: By James A. Duke p:194

2. Toxicology and clinical pharmacology of herbal products By Melanie Johns Cupp, p: 223

3. http://www.asehlicorice.com/

4. Food–Your Miracle Medicine By Jean Carper p:177

5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2632514?dopt=Abstract

6. http://www.food-info.net/uk/products/sweets/liquorice.htm

The innovations implemented in nature have the potential to improve the way we do everything, from desalinating water, gluing things together, to streamlining cars. Where there is a design problem, there is a solution for it in nature created by nature’s Designer. We can distinguish the levels in biology that technology can be modeled after as i) mimicking the natural methods in the manufacture of chemical compounds to create new ones, and ii) imitating mechanisms found in nature. There are a few examples of biomimetic materials that are already part of our daily lives. Velcro, for instance, is a brand name of a fabric that consists of hook and loop fasteners used to connect objects. It was invented by Georges de Mestral, a Swiss engineer/inventor. The idea came to him after he took a close look at the Burdock seeds which stuck to his clothes and his dog’s fur on their daily walk in the Alps. He closely examined the hook-and-loop system that the seeds used under a microscope, and realized that the same approach could be used to join other things together. Velcro is commonly used in many different areas, such as in the automotive industry, clothing, shoe making, and for bringing rigid or soft surfaces together. The lotus, which possesses tiny wax crystals on the surface of its leaves, remains pristine and white, even in the midst of swampy, contaminant-rich conditions. For some, the lotus plant is even a symbol of cleanliness.

The lotus effect in material science is defined as the observable self-cleaning property found in the lotus plant. The characteristics of the lotus brought about a new application of biomimetics to the self-purification of surfaces, such as paints and roof tiles that maintain a clean surface like the lotus, by creating a surface that is similar to that of the lotus plants.1 The figure shows that dirt particles are unable to adhere to the paint and simply flow away with the rain. Everybody knows about the vivid colors of butterflies. But where does this color come from? One would naturally think that butterflies must use pigments, as in the paint industry. Actually, there are two fundamental mechanisms by which color is produced on butterfly wings. One leads to what we call ordinary color, and the second leads to the spectacular iridescent color. The ordinary color is due to the presence of chemical pigments, which absorb certain wavelengths and transmit or reflect others. The iridescent color is produced not by pigmentation, but by the interference of light due to multiple reflections within the physical structure of the material. The parts of a butterfly wing are shown in the Figure 3 in the following order, from left to right: Wing > Scales > Veins > Ridges. The size and periodicity of arrangement of the features on the wings causes interference with the visible light, creating color. Using this concept, structures and physical mechanisms that produce a shining color, like that found on the wings of butterflies, have been reproduced in carbon by an international team based at Allied Signal in Morristown, N.J. These highly periodically patterned novel carbon materials possess unique and potentially useful properties. 2 Another striking example that inspires design principles is the box-fish. These are rigid-bodied marine fish that live predominantly in shallow-watered, highly energetic, tropical reef environments. They are remarkably stable and agile swimmers.

They are able to maintain smooth swimming trajectories with minimal pitching, rolling, or yawing, even in highly turbulent waters. Moreover, they are capable of swimming rapidly (> 6 body lengths s-1), can spin around with a minimal turning radius, and can maintain precise control of their position and orientation.3 What applications could these types of properties be used for? In fact, one of the leading car manufacturers produced a bionic concept car that is based on the contours of the boxfish carapace and takes advantage of its drag reduction benefits. Not only the shape, but also the organizational composition of living organisms is highly advanced.

Therefore, great efforts are made to study and understand the formation of the hierarchical structures of these creatures. The shell of the abalone, for instance, is known for being exceptionally strong. It is made of microscopic calcium carbonate tiles that are stacked like bricks. Between the layers of tiles is a sticky protein substance. Even though calcium carbonate is one of the softest materials in nature, when the abalone shell is struck, the tiles slide, instead of shattering and the protein stretches to absorb the energy of the blow. Material scientists at the University of California, San Diego are studying the tiled structure for insight into stronger ceramic products, such as body armor. Researchers at Princeton, working on a grant from NASA, are analyzing the remarkable strength of abalone shells to help make impact-resistant coatings for thermal tiles. There are numerous groups that are working towards a better understanding of the structure and the governing mechanisms involved in the assembly of natural composite systems that have amazing mechanical properties. In synthetic composite structures, the hardness of the material is proportional to the inorganic/mineral content. However, there are striking examples of design in nature in which almost negligible amounts of minerals are used in a specially tailored environment, and very high levels of hardness, comparable to human dentine, can be achieved. An interesting example is sea-worms. Although mainly consisting of soft tissue, these worms have very hard jaws that have an exceptionally low amount of inorganic consistency. The jaw material is of particular interest because of its hard, lightweight and abrasive-resistant properties due to some gradient elements. The chemical surrounds and forms of these elements are not clear enough to be able to identify or mimic the arrangement/structure. These jaws, in addition to their extraordinary mechanical properties, are very good examples of natural gradient materials that have a perfect interface between the hard and soft tissues. Although many high-tech analysis techniques have been devised to understand how such a composite could be formed, particularly in highly unfavorable salty sea or ocean water, and how they have such great mechanical strength, the findings are still incomplete.

The information gathered is like the scattered pieces of a puzzle; to finish the puzzle, the missing pieces must be found with new advancements in analytical tools. What about mussels then? “If we have Batman and Spider-Man, why don’t we have any mussel super heroes?” asks Professor Herbert Waite of the University of California, Santa Barbara. Mussels may not be the biggest or the flashiest creatures in the sea, but they do one thing exceedingly well. They make a glue that lets them anchor themselves firmly to a rock and remain there-drenched by water, buffeted by the ocean’s waves. “I don’t know any other adhesive that can do that,” says Waite.6 Not only the glue, but the threads they make to attach themselves to the rocks are very significant in terms of both their composition and complexity, according to Niels Holten, who is conducting research on these systems at the University of California, Santa Barbara. These threads can elongate and relax with extraordinary mechanical flexibility under great impacts from ocean waves. The Waite group research on these thread cuticles reveals a very important aspect of material science, the significance of which has only very recently been understood: interface engineering. These threads have a very low amount, ca. 1-2 wt%, of metal ions in a polymeric matrix holding together large polymeric chains, which is possibly what gives the structure its flexibility and extensibility. Man-made structures cannot compete with the mechanical performance of these threads, especially at such a low volume of metal ion ingredients.

The ultimate goal of ongoing research is to understand the formation principles of these features so that similar structures can be made, using the same set of principles in laboratory conditions. In fact, the perfections of designs that are implemented in nature turn out to be an enormous fountain of ideas. Jewel beetles, which lay their eggs in freshly charred trees, can detect fires from miles away; the defense industry is studying these beetles for clues to design new low-cost, military-grade infrared detectors. Meanwhile, one of the leading car manufacturers is tapping the locusts’ famed ability to fly in dense swarms without colliding for a possible key to anti-collision devices in cars. And the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is funding development of a robot that can climb vertical surfaces, using the same principle that geckos use to walk up walls and saunter upside down across ceilings. There are several examples that could be given on this matter, but, due to limited space, we can only briefly summarize some of them. However, our understanding of the mechanism in nature is very limited, and it is expected that better insight will be gained with the advancement of available analytical tools. The great diversity of product designs in nature is produced from only a few common components, whereas we use a great number of materials and components to achieve new designs. Such high control and hierarchy in design in nature can only be attributed to an artist or designer who hides the perfection of his creation in the details. It is up to us to find out, see, and appreciate these perfections. Material scientists, of course, have the duty of transferring the findings from nature for the service of humankind by turning them into applicable forms in our daily lives.

Notes

1. Lotusan Paints. (2002). Retrieved 12 Nov, 2003, from http://www.lotusan.de Translated by http:// www.google.com.
2. Anvar A. Zakhidov et. al., Science, 282, 897 (1998).
3. URL: http://www.gharib.caltech.edu/bioinspired_ design/index.html
4. http://www.daimlerchrysler.com/dccom/0-5-7154-1-503504-1-0-0-503518-0-0-135-7145-0-0- 0-0-0-0-1.html
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abalone#_note-0
6. Anne Underwood, “Nature’s Design Workshop,” Newsweek, U.S. Edition, September 26 (2005).

We all know that it is essential for life. However, probably because of its abundance and simple chemical composition, we often regard this tasteless and odorless substance as being important, but quite simple and ordinary. Scientifically, it is the exact opposite. It appears to show extremely complex and unusual behavior. It is the most studied substance on Earth. Yet, scientists are still puzzled over its strange properties. Even the best computers we have today cannot simulate all of the different properties of water.

Let us look at an example of the surprising properties of water. The strangeness of water starts with the fact that it exists on Earth. Water, being composed of two fairly light atoms (hydrogen and oxygen), should be in the gas phase at the usual temperature ranges that exist in our world. In fact, all compounds that are close to it (i.e. H2S, H2Se, and H2Te) are found mostly in the gas phase. But, compared to similar substances, it melts about 100 degrees above the expected melting point and it boils about 150 degrees above the expected boiling point (see Figure 1). The result is that it is the only material that exists naturally in all three forms (i.e. as ice, liquid, and vapor) on Earth.

In addition to the example given in the previous paragraph, water has at least 40 different surprising properties (See for example the “Forty-one anomalies of water” section in Ref 1). But, what is even more astonishing is the fact that most of these anomalous properties of water are absolutely crucial for life. Simply stated, life on Earth depends on these extraordinary aspects of water. Below we will discuss some of the anomalous properties of water and their importance for life. At the end we will briefly try to explain why water behaves so differently.

1-Water Has an Unusually High Heat Capacity

Heat capacity is a measure of the ability to store heat. Formally, it is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the unit mass of a substance by one degree of temperature. If the heat capacity of a substance is high, it will store heat well, i.e. its temperature will not rise much for a given amount of heat. Water has the highest heat capacity among common substances. This has a crucial impact on our life.

It is thanks to this fact that living organisms, which are mostly composed of water, can regulate their body temperature easily. For example, the human body needs to keep its temperature between 36.1 and 37.8 °C. This is only possible because it is composed mostly of water. Since the heat capacity of water is unusually high, even if the temperature of the environment changes greatly, the heat exchange between the body and the environment does not cause a great change in body temperature.

Another consequence is the moderation of the climate near large masses of water. The heat capacity of land is much less than that of water. This is why the temperatures of oceans tend to vary much less than that of land. The temperatures in the oceans vary between -2 0C and 35 0C. On land, temperatures may vary anywhere from -70 0C to 57 0C. Compare also the Moon, which has no water. Temperatures on the Moon range from -155 0C to 135 0C.

In addition to having a great heat capacity, water conducts heat more easily than any other liquid, except mercury. This makes the temperature quite uniform in living organisms. Also, the vertical temperature profile in oceans and lakes is essentially uniform due to this fact.

2- Water Has an Unusually High Heat of Evaporation

When a liquid evaporates, it absorbs heat from the environment. This energy is used to transform molecules into gas form. The heat of evaporation is defined as the amount of heat required to convert a unit mass of liquid into gas. Water has an unusually high heat of evaporation compared to most other common substances. It is so great that you need to supply about five times the amount of energy to evaporate water that is needed to heat it from 0 to 100 0C.

This fact is crucial for the evaporative cooling system of the human body and animals. When we sweat, the sweat absorbs heat from the body in order to evaporate. Since water has a very high heat of evaporation, effectively a large amount of heat is removed from the body through sweating. That is why when we engage in physical activity we sweat. Excess heat in the muscles is easily removed through the evaporation of sweat thanks to the high heat of the evaporation of water.

The high heat of evaporation also prevents dehydration. If it were low, water would then evaporate easily from the body and we would quickly dehydrate.

3- The Density of Water Behaves Unusually as a Function of Temperature

The density of almost all other liquids decreases with increasing temperature. Water is an exception to this. Starting from 0 °C, the density of water increases, and reaches a maximum at 4 °C, decreasing afterwards. Also most other liquids become denser when they condense, but water is an exception to this as well. The density of ice is less than the density of water, which is why ice can float on water.

Both of these exceptions turn out to be extremely important for underwater life. When the weather gets cold near a lake, first the temperature of the lake’s surface starts to decrease. As the temperature of the surface cools to around 4°C, it becomes denser and can move downwards, letting the warmer water reach the surface. Therefore, before the lake can start freezing almost all of the water in it needs to be cooled to approximately 0 °C. If there was not an anomaly at 4 °C then water would begin to freeze from the surface before the entire lake cools to 0 °C. Since water has an enormous heat capacity, the necessity for the entire lake to cool to approximately 0 °C before any freezing can occur delays the freezing considerably. It is also crucial that the density maximum in water is near freezing point, not at any other point.

When the temperature finally gets to 0 °C and the water start to freeze, it will start to freeze on the surface. Since ice is less dense than water, it will float on the surface and will not sink to the bottom. And once a surface layer of ice is formed, it will protect the rest of the lake from the environment and no further freezing will occur. There would not be any underwater life if ice formed on the bottom. It would also take forever for the ice to melt if it was formed on the bottom rather than on the surface.

The fact that water expands upon freezing is also important for the formation of soils. When the water freezes inside a rock, it can easily crack it into pieces, just like a soda placed in the freezer explodes upon freezing. Therefore, one of the most important steps of soil formation is dependent on this exceptional characteristic of water.

4- The Absorption Coefficient Anomaly in the Visible Region

Another interesting property of water lies in its absorption of light. Every

substance has a characteristic absorption spectrum that shows how much light at a particular wavelength is absorbed. If the absorption coefficient is high at a particular wavelength then the material will look opaque at that wavelength. If it is low, light at that particular wavelength will be transmitted and the material will appear transparent.

In Figure 2, the absorption coefficient of water is plotted as a function of wavelength (red line). The first thing you notice is that water has a very high absorption coefficient, except for a very narrow region around 500nm. In this small region of wavelength, the absorption coefficient is ten million times smaller than the neighboring regions. What is more interesting than this enormous drop in the absorption coefficient is that this dip happens exactly at the visible part of the spectrum. The human eye can only see wavelengths between 400-700 nm. This visible part of the spectrum is indicated by a rainbow colored strip in the graph. It is amazing that this exactly coincides with the region where water is transparent. Adding to this pleasant surprise is the fact that the amount of light emitted by the sun peaks around this dip as well.

Everything is conveniently adjusted for the habitants of this blue planet. The maximum intensity of emitted sunlight happens to be in the narrow range of the spectrum that we can see. And water on the atmosphere lets this part of the spectrum through thanks to the strange dip in the water absorption spectrum. Worried about the dangerous UV radiation from the sun? This is taken care of too. Just below the visible region, the absorption coefficient of water is ten million times higher. So water vapor in the atmosphere very effectively removes most of the dangerous UV light and shields us.

The spectrum of the light from the sun, the absorption spectra of water and the visible region of the spectrum that we can see are all physically independent phenomena. Yet, it is worth noting that each of these phenomena behaves in such a way that it seems they should have a precise knowledge of each other. If you think this is too much of a coincidence, there is even more. Water is also designed to maximize our visual pleasure. You are probably astonished by the lovely color match between the blue sky and the blue sea. Most people assume that this is because the sky is blue and the sea appears to be blue because it reflects the sky. In fact this is wrong. Water is blue since its absorption coefficient is higher in red; therefore it absorbs more red and reflects the blue part of the spectrum. This can be seen in Figure 2, in which the absorption coefficient in the red colored segment of the rainbow strip is more than 100 times greater than the blue part. The sky is blue for an entirely different reason (since it is blue light that is scattered the most by the nitrogen in the atmosphere). Again two very different, independent physical phenomena are at work here, but the result is a pleasant view for us.

Why is Water so Strange?

Most of these unusual properties of water are the result of the collective behavior of water molecules. That means that one cannot understand them just by thinking about a single H2O molecule. A single H2O molecule is a polar molecule: the two H atoms are slightly positive and the O atom is slightly negative. So when you put these molecules close to each other, the positively charged H atoms are attracted to the negatively charged O atoms of the neighboring water molecules. This is called “hydrogen bonding.” Because of this, molecules tend to order themselves rather than moving randomly, even in liquid water.

Hydrogen bonding is thought to be responsible for most of water’s strange properties. This is why, for example, water has a high boiling point and a high heat of evaporation. Extra energy needs to be supplied to break the hydrogen bonds before boiling and evaporation can occur. Another example is the high heat capacity. As water absorbs heat, it stores this as potential energy by breaking hydrogen bonds without considerably increasing its kinetic energy. This leads to a small temperature increase, therefore a high heat capacity is created for a given amount of heat.

But not all of the anomalous properties of water are that simple. Some of them are not even understood today, despite a considerable amount of current research. For example, water seems to play a crucial role in protein folding. Protein folding is the process by which each protein acquires a unique three-dimensional shape. And it can only function effectively in this particular shape. Despite millions of different possible folding configurations, a certain protein will always fold into its unique structure within milliseconds. But how can a protein always find its way to the same configuration? Water comes into play at this point. It is thought that the hydrophobic (water repelling) interactions between water and protein molecules and the hydrogen bonding interactions in water are major driving forces in protein folding. The exact details of this are still not known. Understanding them is the key for understanding many diseases and developing drugs.

In summary, water is central to our lives. It accounts for a large proportion of our bodies, we drink it, fish in it, and wash and swim in it. But we usually are unaware of how remarkable it is. Here, we have given only couple of examples of the anomalous properties of water that are also crucial for life. Scientifically, our understanding of water is far from being complete. It seems, as the research continues, that the already long list of mysterious aspects of this miraculous substance will get even longer as we learn more about it. On the philosophical side, it is interesting to note that a very simple molecule (H2O) has been selected as a means to do all of these vital, complicated, and unrelated jobs, all at the same time through its unexpected and surprising properties. 

References 

• “Water Structure and Behavior,” Martin Chaplin, www.martin.chaplin.btinternet.co.uk
• Segelstein, D., 1981: “The Complex Refractive Index of Water”, M.S. Thesis, University of Missouri-Kansas City.
• www.biology.arizona.edu/biochemistry/tutorials/chemi stry/page3.html
• www.hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/chemical/water.html
• “Water – The Marvellous Molecule”, BBC TV program.
• www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/programmes/archive/030430_molecule.shtml

The widely accepted argument today is that the elements used as building blocks of life were first backed in the nuclear furnaces of stars under extra ordinary heat and pressure, undergoing a series of transformations and took their forms as we realize them on our earth. Among all the elements on our planet earth, the unique properties given to carbon and hydrogen elements has made the existence of carbon-based life forms possible.

Carbon combined with different elements in many different quantities and geometric arrangements, results in a vast assortment of materials with vastly different properties.

The molecules that are found in live organisms are created from different quantities, geometric arrangements and assortments of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, nitrogen and sulfur. The base properties of carbon are playing an important role in creating these compounds.

Each carbon atom makes four bonds. Carbon may make bonds with other carbon atoms forming chains, branching chains or rings of linked carbon atoms. These properties given to carbon are important factors in the miracle called life.

When a carbon atom makes bounds with four hydrogen atoms methane gas is obtained (CH4). If we exchange the hydrogen atoms with oxygen atoms in methane we obtain carbon dioxide (CO2). If we exchange the hydrogen atoms with sulfur atoms in methane we obtain carbon disulfur (CS2), which is a combustible and poisonous liquid.

If we exchange the hydrogen atoms with chlorine atoms in methane we obtain carbon tetrachloride CCl4. If we exchange the hydrogen atoms with fluoride atoms we obtain fluorocarbon compounds. The Teflon used in our kitchenware is a fluorocarbon resin.

When two carbon atoms each having three hydrogen atoms attached come together, the ethane molecule is formed. As mentioned before chains, branching chains and rings of linked carbon atoms can be formed this way. Some carbon compound’s molecules consist of just a few atoms; others contain thousands or even millions. This is one of the main reasons of organic versatility that is behind the scene. Attaching other functional groups to the carbon atoms in the chain increases the versatility of compounds. Some examples of these functional groups that are built up with carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus, nitrogen and sulfur coming to mind at first would be the hydroxyl functional group (OH), the carboxyl functional group (COOH), the methyl functional group (CH3), the amino functional group (NH2), the phosphate functional group (PO4), the carbonyl functional group (CO) and the sulfhydryl functional group (SH).

If we exchange one hydrogen atom in methane with a hydroxyl group we obtain methanol, which is an alcohol that damages the optic nerves. To turn methanol into ethanol, which is found in alcoholic beverages we need to add a methyl group to methanol. If we add one oxygen atom or a carboxyl group to ethyl alcohol we will obtain acetic acid (vinegar acid). Adding a nitrogen atom or an amino functional group to acetic acid we obtain amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. Looking to these examples we understand that a slight difference in the structure or order of the atoms within a compound can change the whole functionality of that compound. We realize that live systems are fragile and that very sensitive adjustments are made to create the right conditions for the existence of life and that delicate balances are kept to maintain the order of life, which we enjoy so much. Another important fact these examples can prove is that building everything from one thing or building one thing from everything is one of the aspects of creation. This aspect provides us valuable knowledge about creation.

We can explain this matter further with an analogy. To construct a building we need various materials like bricks, cement, wood and iron. Buildings with different architectures and functionalities are constructed with the same materials in different quantities and arrangements. Similarly, this amazing variety of life forms and the order of life on earth are brought to existence with only a few element types (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, nitrogen and sulfur) which are brought together in different arrangements, representing infinite numbers of different shapes in space.

Life is protected from extinction with buildup and breakdown mechanisms, which change and convert these molecules from one to another.

The popular child game called LEGO is another example that can be used to explain how this infinite variety of life forms is created by a few types of elements. Children can build different objects according to their imagination by using the limited number of plastic pieces in different quantities and arrangements. Just like this, the most merciful has created the amazing nature and every living creature in it by using the limited number of elements in different arrangements and quantities.

Natural forms of pure carbon include graphite, one of the softest minerals known, and diamond, the hardest substance known. The only difference between the two is the structure of the bonds between carbon atoms. Diamond and Graphite, being the same chemical composition, but different crystal structures, are two polymorphs of pure carbon. Another example is aspirin, gasoline and vanillin oil. All three compounds are composed of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen atoms but their properties and usage are completely different. All these examples point to the attribute of creation stating that many things are made from one thing.

Another related topic is isomers. Hydrocarbon variations that differ only in the arrangement of atoms are called isomers. Isomers are very important in biology. The preference for some isomers of molecules that are used in the base metabolism of living beings and biological systems shows us that the existence of life is not without certain intentions and willpower. For example, only the D form isomer of glucose can be used by biological systems. Similarly when the C vitamins are produced synthetically in the lab environment, 50% of those are isomers. Because only one of the isomers is biologically active, our body can use only %50 of the C vitamins we buy from the drug stores.

To stay alive, the human body needs water, air and nutrition from the outside world. It is very important that the nutrition we take has enough elements like iron, zinc ant iodine in it. These elements take place in certain enzymes and molecules, which are important for some proteins and hormones to work properly. For example not having enough iodine in our nutrition can cause an enlargement of the thyroid, which shows up as an abnormal swelling in the neck called a goiter. This illness can be seen more often in mountainous regions where the soil has less iodine because the rainwater washes it away. This reflects on the vegetation and fruits grown in the region and causes the body to not produce enough thyroid hormones. When iodine in nutrition is less than a certain amount it can even slow down the brain development. Similarly iron deficiency causes anemia and zinc deficiency causes growth retardation.

In summary, the magical order and amazing complexity in nature is based on a few molecules, which are arranged in different shapes, orders and in different quantities.

It is one of the miracles of creation that all complex organizations and structures, which even have different specifications, are made from very basic building blocks. The science of complexity (chaos theory, fractal geometries, etc.) has begun to research how God, who is able to make one thing from everything and everything from one thing, has created these astonishing complex beings from very basic and plain molecules. This research to understand how this amazing order and complexity exists will open new doors for the 21’st century science. 

References

• Crawford, M. and Marsh, D. (1989). The Driving Force: Food in Evolution and the Future. Mandarin paperbacks.. Octopus publishing Group. London.
• L. Vlasov & D. Trifonov, 107 Stories About Chemistry, Translator : Nihal Sarier. TUBITAK Populer bilim kitaplari No: 26, ANKARA.

For centuries scientists had accused religion of being a collection of dogmas and religious people of being dogmatists. However, only with the demonstration of the limitations of classical physics did they realize that they too had become dogmatically attached to their theories. As Bertrand Russell put it: ‘Newton’s law reigned for such a long time and explained so many things that no one believed that it would ever need correcting. But eventually it became apparent that correction was needed. Let there be no doubt about it, one day these corrections will need to be corrected.’ Science advances, if and when it does, by trial and error. In spite of this, Einstein’s Theory of Relativity which replaced the classical physics of Newton’s Law is treated in many circles as if it were absolute truth, and the fact that it will need revision is kept hidden from sight. It is quite probable that eventually it will give way to a new theory.

It seems that going to extremes in the pursuit of a single idea is a constant trait of human beings. Whereas, while there is a share of truth in each of these great ideas, they are not the only means nor the only expressions of truth. If we think of truth as a light at the centre point of a circle or a straight line, we see that the light will be reflected ray by ray to an infinite number of points on the circle’s circumference or along the straight line. Each point is touched by a ray of the truth and therefore each can be said to be true. However, the fact is that only the light of the truth in the centre never changes, since it is absolute in contrast to each point which is only a relative truth. What gives the relative truth its particular dimensions and properties, its relevance, is the nature of the receiving point, its own properties, time and conditions. This is true for the natural sciences, as much as for the social sciences; indeed, it also applies to fields of Islamic learning such as tafsir (commentary on the Qur’an) and fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence).

But we may ask, Is there no permanent, absolute truth? Yes, this truth exists but it does so on the spiritual rather than the visible, external dimension of things. In fact, from one view even in the principles which relate to the spiritual dimension of things there are exceptions. These principles are not absolute, universal laws because, in their relevance to the visible, external dimension, they operate as general principles, that is, they admit exceptions. In respect of this difference between absolute and general laws, even science cannot affirm its laws, for example the law of cause and effect, absolutely. For this reason scientists say, ‘If the universe is in T1 condition at this moment, it cannot be concluded that a little later it will be in the same condition.’

We have already mentioned that the difference between absolute and general principles can be seen in the social sciences and even in the Islamic sciences like tafsir and fiqh. In the Realm of Unity, single and indivisible truth opens the door to countless relative truths in this material and quantitative world. For example, the Qur’an mentions good works as being virtues, as inherently and always of value. This is so, and yet we know that what are virtues under certain conditions and according to certain people may not be considered virtues under different circumstances, at a different time, by others. An administrator’s seriousness of manner may be considered to be dignity at work, but haughtiness at home. A weak person’s self-respect before a strong person is a quality to be praised, but the same quality in a strong person before a weaker one is considered undesirable. In the same way, what is an act of sin for one person can be a meritorious act for another. For this reason it was said, ‘Pious deeds of ordinary righteous people are the sins of those near to God.’ Again, an act that earns a single merit for one person can earn a million merits for another. Again for this reason, as long as there is no conflict with the essential literal meaning of a word and the rules of eloquence are considered and the rules of the Arabic language are not violated, the understanding of every authorized interpreter of every verse in the Qur’an can be listened to with respect.

The most obvious example of the manifestation of the relative truth of general principles in history is in the sphere of justice. In the absolute, justice would see personal rights and public rights as equal. But sometimes there is such a disturbance of the peace that it is not possible to protect either the rights of the individual or of the public, let alone both; sometimes, even fundamental rights to life and Islam’s basic principles are endangered. During such times relative justice, which sacrifices the individual’s rights for the sake of the public good, becomes necessary and application of it becomes absolutely mandatory. In Turkish history the administration by sultans and even the killing of sons and brothers in the Ottoman dynasty were demanded by relative justice, which, by virtue of the necessity of compelling circumstances, gains authority as if absolute justice.

In this earthly world there is such variety and abundance of colours, shapes, properties, times and conditions, that it is not possible to avoid relativism altogether. It is a reality of this world. Having understood that, we do also need truths which are at least close to absolute so that we can guide our lives by them. The absolute truth is that in the universe there is no real effect created by causes, and everything is in Cod’s hand. It is not predictable with certainty what will happen next, and our lives and the life of the world actually consist of this moment. Living this truth consciously together with faith and surrender to God, from the perspective of free-will given to man, we have also to give due recognition to the experience that causes do operate relatively reliably, though not absolutely, in this life. Because of this, the causes wrapping absolute reality like a shawl or veil, a veil of familiarity or habit, make life livable and thereafter, all technology and sciences get constructed on this veil. This is the broad region of human actions and observations where Newton’s classical physics has precedence over Einstein’s relativity physics.

Relativity is an important matter that reminds man of his vulnerability. The highest station a person who is climbing the ladder of Divine knowledge can reach by means of his heart is the station of amazement. As the greatest human being said, ‘We did not know You as we should, O Known One!’ and ‘How could I see Him; what I saw was light.’ Similarly, the scientist solves one problem, but opens the door to many new ones, and his trust in the century-old foundations of science suddenly falls through. The moment he says that he has found the truth, he sees that everything slips from his grasp. The fact of relativity makes him exclaim, ‘The only thing I know is that I don’t know anything,’ and this leads him, like a moth flying around a light, to eternally flap his wings around the light of unchangeable truth.

Relativity shows that absolute truth lies only in Revelation and never begins with man. It can be directly known only by Revelation. Therefore it is clear that man has an absolute need for religion and definite revealed knowledge. It has been seen in innumerable fields of activity that two people cannot agree on even a simple matter; thus, absolute truth can never derive from man and can only come from God. Man’s duty is to organize his living and dying according to the God-given truth at the point of belief. Understanding that human beings can only attain partial truth is also an acknowledging of the space separating multiplicity from oneness. In pointing to and yearning for the oneness beyond multiplicity, this understanding functions as one of the important proofs of oneness.

Relativity is an important measure for managing (learning to live peaceably with) the differences among professions, temperaments, schools and sects that have arisen in philosophy, teaching methods and religions. All dispositions, sects, schools and methods have a portion of the truth and none of them are absolutely wrong or false. The important thing is for them to be able to unite around a common point. When we look to the past and catastrophes from the perspective of fate, and when we look to the future responsibilities and divine orders from the perspective of free-will and opportunity, then it is possible even to reconcile the conflict between the fatalists and the proponents of unconditioned freedom of will.

The essential thing is to live believing that absolute truth when it touches upon this world, when it becomes relevant for us, is relative to us, conditioned by the points, circumstances, conditions receiving it. In the analogy given above, countless relative truths reflect the absolute truth located at the centre point of the circle or the straight line at innumerable other points according to the properties, colour and design of each. As long as people recognize, acknowledge, and defer to their own distance from the absolute truth, and don’t go beyond their human limits, unmanageable conflicts will not arise. But when people lose this sense of proportion about themselves and their capacity to know and propose the truth, when they take what is relative for what is absolute, they fall into errors with catastrophic consequences.

There is a natural healing power in honey of great benefit to man. This is affirmed in verses 68-9 of sura al-Nahl in the Qur’an: And your Lord inspired the bee: ‘Build your homes in the mountans and in the trees and in the (hives) made by mankihd’ Then (He taught the bee) to feed on every kind of fruit (of the earth) and to follow the ways of your Lord made smooth. There comes from inside their bellies a drink of diverse colours in which is healing for mankind. Surely in this is a sign for those people who reflect (al-Nahl, 16.68-9)

It is extraordinary that the curative properties of honey are documented in the world’s oldest medical literature. The Sumerians, and Egyptian physicians around 2000 BC, used honey to treat internal and external wounds, ulcers, diseases of the eyes, lungs, skin and, in particular, diseases of the stomach and intestines. The Chinese, the Indians, the Greeks and the Romans also recorded similar practices in their traditions. Hippocrates, the so-called ‘father’ of modern medicine (460-377 BC) also used honey to treat a variety of diseases. Honey was also highly regarded as a tonic to preserve youth and prolong healthy life–one Chinese Emperor used it as a drug to obtain immortality. The great Muslim physician, Ibn Sina (980-1037) wrote dozens of prescriptions containing honey in his world-famous medical textbook ‘The Canon of Medicine’. He is reported to have included among the benefits of honey that it makes you feel happy; that it refreshes you; that it assists digestion and gets rid of wind; that it helps when you have a cold; that it increases appetite; that it improves and sharpens memory; that it eases the tongue (the faculty of speech); and that it preserves youthfulness.

THE ANTIBACTERIAL ‘SYSTEM’ IN HONEY

In 1937 H. Dold et al. reported that honey has antibacterial activity and called the active agent an ‘inhibine’. Ever since, a number of scientist have tried in vain to discover the identity of this ‘inhibine’. In 1963 J.W. White et al. suggested that the ‘inbibine’ is the hydrogen peroxide produced by the honey’s glucose-oxidase system. However, results obtained by the author and by other scientists such as O.B.O’L. James et al. in 1972 and S.S. Radwan et al. in 1984 do not agree with the attribution of the ‘inhibine’ to the hydrogen peroxide produced. This author’s researches in the laboratory have shown that the antibacterial activity of honey is owed not to a single factor but to a complex ‘system’ of factors, of which there are at list three:

1- The high sugar concentration (76 g/1OO ml)

2- The acidity (pH=3.6-4.2)

3- The organic antibacterial compounds present in honey

It was observed that undiluted honey clearly exhibits antibacterial activity. The bacterial cells dry out because of the osmotic effect of the high sugar content in the solution and bacterial growth is retarded in the acidic environment which honey provides. In diluted form neither the sugar in the honey nor the acidity in it has an inhibitive effect on bacteria. Is it then the organic compounds which are responsible for inhibiting bacterial growth? It was also observed that most of the common pathogenic bacteria which infect human beings are killed in honey. Honey therefore acts as a bactericide. The researches established that the ‘inhibine’ is not a single agent but a subtle combination of intricately related factors quite unique in their antibacterial action. Further research is necessary, and is currently in progress, to identify the chemical nature of the organic antibacterial factors in honey.

THE BIOCHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HONEY

The biochemical composition of honey is relevant to its curative properties. Beside the existence of the antibacterial ‘system’, honey is known to contain not less than 181 different compounds. These can be classified as follows:

– Simple and complex sugars

– Organic acids

– Minerals and trace elements (resembling blood composition)

– Vitamins (both water and fat soluble)

– Amino-acids (both essentials and non-essentials)

– Proteins (mainly enzymes)

– Lipids (simple, complex and wax)

– Plant flavours and colouring materials

– Hydrocarbons

– Hormones

– Pollens

– Microorganisms (yeast)

The list above shows just how complex the composition of honey is. It is then less of a wonder that honey contains some combination of elements which have proven so effective in the treatment of wounds and ulcers. Honey not only keeps ruptured cells sterile but also provides all the necessary micronutrients which are the building materials need to assist the cells’ full recovery. Although these micronutrients are present in only small quantities, they are available in the most easily assimilated, soluble forms. In addition, the high energy required for the healing processes to occur is provided by the simple sugars, fructose and glucose, in honey.

CLINICAL USE OF HONEY

To date the scientific and clinical evidences for the miracle of honey are numerous. Doctors and surgeons have used honey in their medical practice and even openly recommended its use. Among recent examples the use of honey for:

Treatment of serious gunshot wounds by Prof. S.A. Simirnov in 1948;

Treatment of breakdown surgical wounds by Dr. D. Cavanagh et al. in 1970;

Treatment of ulcers, surface wounds, cuts and abrasions by Dr. R. Blomfield in 1973;

Treatment of bacterial gastro enteritis (diarrhea) by Dr. I.E. Haffejee and Prof. A. Moosa in 1985;

Treatment of a wide range of serious long-standing wounds and ulcers by Dr. S.E.E. Efem in 1988;

Treatment of infected wounds in vulvectomy, infected perineum, infected abdominal wall wounds and breakdown of abdominal wall scar by Dr. R.J.F. Mclnerney in 1990.

In each of these cases honey was praised for its effectiveness as compared to ‘modern-conventional’ treatment. Honey was observed to kill bacteria at the site of wounds, to debride (clean up) wounds, rapidly replacing sloughs (dead cells) and so enabling granulation (scar) tissues to form. Honey also permitted epithelialization (i.e. growth of healthy cells) and the absorption of oedema (swellings) from around the ulcer margins. Honey reduced further infection, the risk of offensively smelly (seriously infected) wounds and so reduced need for skin graft treatments.

CONCLUSION

The verses of the Our’an which affirm the healing properties of honey affirm for us the mercy of Allah, Creator and Sustainer of the Worlds. It is also by this mercy that we study and research what He has created and made intelligible to us, including this miracle of honey. It is easy then to conclude our work, as Muslim scholars and scientists always used to begin their work, by praising Allah, and by saluting the Prophet Muhammad, upon him be peace, who left us this advice: Whoever licks honey three mornings in a month is saved from serious illnesses. 

REFERENCES

• IOYRICH, N. (1977) Bees and People, Mir Publishers. Moscow.
• CRANE, E. (1978) Honey: A Comprehensive Review Heinemann, London.
• WHITE. J.W., Mary. J.R.. Subers. H. and Schepartz, A. I. (1963) ‘The identification of inhibine, the antibacterial factor in honey as hydrogen peroxide and it s origin in a honey glucose-oxidase system’, Biochem. et Biophys. acta, 73. pp.57-70.
• JAMES. O.B. O’L, Segree. W and Ventura. A.K. (1972) ‘Some antibacterial properties of Jamaican honey’ West Indies Medical Journal, 21(7), pp.7-17.
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