When we look around us at the world of the living, “protection” appears to be an essential component of survival. Animals are equipped with various mechanisms to protect themselves from the harms of the environment or other predators. Cats have claws and fur to avoid cold, chameleons use camouflage, a skunk gives off an odor for defense, and a turtle has a hard shell to protect its vital organs. The peel of an orange keeps its inside fresh until consumed. While other animals are born with defense mechanisms and quickly learn to use them, humans are the weakest in self-defense for a long time after birth. However, using our intellect, we can make clothing and build shelters to protect ourselves from the cold or heat. Defense mechanisms seem to prevail and vary throughout the universe. Did you know that our planet Earth also has a defense mechanism like a jacket or a windbreaker that keeps us safe from a damaging storm?

It is now well-established that space is not entirely empty or inactive. In fact, there are strong winds of particles, mainly composed of electrons and protons, that fly out from the Sun and travel throughout space. This phenomenon is called “solar wind” and it reaches our planet Earth. This wind of high-energy charged particles travels at very high speeds, such as 500,000 km per second, and can be highly harmful [1]. In fact, when astronauts go to space, a significant factor they need to take into consideration is the “space weather” which is largely dictated by the solar wind. If these particles reach the Earth, they can cause static electricity to build up everywhere, disrupt communications, and interfere with electric power distribution. Over time, these winds are estimated to cause serious health effects on humans, such as cancer or death. Since we have not actually been subjected to this wind directly, we don’t exactly know the level of the harm; but even in the most optimistic scenario, life on Earth would cease to exist in a relatively short amount of time.

So, how come we are never impacted by this high-speed storm and never even feel its existence? Our planet has a defensive tool provided by the Earth’s magnetic field. A magnetic field can be considered like invisible lines of forces surrounding an object, acting like a magnet. For instance, consider the everyday magnets that we hang on the sides of our refrigerators at home. These magnets attract or repel certain metals through a force we call magnetic force. This magnetic force is active even without physical contact between the magnet and the metal.

Physicists explain this force in terms of the concept of a “field”– a field can be thought of as invisible lines surrounding an object. Consider the magnetic field of a regular magnet. If a magnetic material, such as a metal, enters this region of the field, the interaction between the field and the metal produces a force based on the laws of electromagnetism. This force results in the attraction or repulsion of the metal by the magnet, depending on their orientation.

In essence, our Earth is a giant magnet, with a magnetic field running around it from the South pole to the North pole. This is how compasses work: the tiny needle in a compass is pushed by the Earth’s magnetic field until it aligns with the field direction. Since the Earth’s magnetic field always points toward the North pole, so does a compass needle. That is why a compass needle always point towards the geographic direction of North.

A key feature of a magnetic field is that it acts on particles with electrical charge, such as electrons or ions. For example, when an ion gets close to a magnet and enters its magnetic field, the ion is subjected to a force that changes its direction of motion, causing it to follow a different path. This effectively diverts the ion from its original trajectory. This is exactly what happens when the solar wind approaches us, the Earth. The ions that make up the solar wind travel at extremely high speeds and would otherwise have a significant impact. However, when they enter the magnetic field of the Earth, they are pushed away from their original path, preventing the solar wind from reaching the surface of the Earth. Essentially, the magnetic field of the Earth acts like a protective jacket or windbreaker that repels the solar wind and safeguards life on Earth.

Lorentz force equation

Interestingly, as the charged particles are diverted from their initial path by the magnetic field, they mainly enter the atmosphere near the poles. This is an obvious result of what is called the “Lorentz force equation” which forms the foundation of electromagnetism. As part of the solar wind enters through the poles, they ionize the air and free up electrons which in turn recombine with other atoms. This process releases energy in the form of light at different wavelengths (colors) which forms the spectacular aurora borealis sometimes called “northern lights.” The sky is filled with beautiful colors forming an image pleasing to the eye. Basically, the Earth’s magnetic field not only impedes the storm but also transforms it into a colorful image as if it is trying to transform even harmful phenomena to the benefit of humans.

To see how crucial a magnetic field can be, consider our neighboring planet Mars which is believed to have retained a magnetic field similar to that of ours. It is now accepted that Mars lost its magnetic field about 4 billion years ago. Although the exact mechanism leading to the disappearing of Mars’ magnetic field is not evident, there are theories asserting that the loss was mainly due to the changes in the chemical structure of the planet’s core. This loss made Mars vulnerable against solar winds which consequently stripped the planet’s atmosphere and evaporated the oceans and all the water that would be crucial for life. [2,3] This alone proves us how vital the Earth’s magnetic field is as it is one of the many factors that make life possible on our blue planet.

The fact that our Earth has been assigned with such a shield by a “Protector” is a good enough reason to be thankful.

Lord of the heavens and the earth, and everything between them; and Lord of the Easts. We have adorned the lower heaven with the beauty of the planets. And guarded it against every defiant devil. (As-Saffat 37:5-7).

References

• https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/nmp/st5/SCIENCE/solarwind.html
• Nature Communications, Volume 13, Article number: 644 (2022)
• Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 117, No. 50 (December 15, 2020), pp. 31558-31560

Enveloping our body like a piece of clothing, our skin is a miraculous organ that both forms a barrier against potential invaders and plays a crucial role in the maintenance of vital functions. It is a mirror that reflects our experiences, memories, and fate with the lines and marks on it. With a surface area of 1.72 square meters and a weight of approximately 9.6 kg, including the fatty tissue under it, the skin is the largest organ in our body and life cannot possibly be maintained without it.[1] It is through the skin that we learn knives cut, fire burns, and our mother has very soft hands. We don’t even realize, but the skin quietly carries out other numerous functions such as sweating toxins out of the body, maintaining body temperature, and synthesizing vitamin D.[2] Some of these functions are related to the sun and the protection of our body from it.

The sun emits all kinds of rays across the electromagnetic spectrum. The lethal ones among these rays are filtered by the atmosphere that envelops the Earth, so very few of these dangerous rays reach the land.[3] The rays that reach Earth are visible (wavelengths of 400-700 nm) and ultraviolet (wavelengths of 100-400 nm) rays. Ultraviolet radiation comes in three types: UVA, UVB, and UVC.

Having wavelengths of 320-400 nm, UVA rays make up 90% of the UV that reaches Earth’s surface. Regardless of whether it is cloudy or sunny, the same amount of these rays reaches Earth and penetrates as far as the lower layers of the human skin. UVA rays damage the connective tissue under the skin, causing the skin to get old and the formation of free radicals, which indirectly cause DNA damage, hence terminal skin cancers or melanoma. Rays that come in these wavelengths are also largely responsible for allergic reactions on the skin.

With wavelengths of 280-320 nm, UVB rays make up 5-10% of the UV radiation reaching Earth. These rays help with the synthesis of vitamin D but also cause sunburns and the synthesis of melanin in the skin. UVB rays also have a role in mutating genes that prevent growth of tumors, thus leading to the development of skin cancers other than melanoma.

With wavelengths of 100-280 nm, UVC rays are harmful to living things. When they reach the Earth’s atmosphere, UVC rays interact with the oxygen atoms here. This interaction leads to the formation of the ozone layer, which prevents UVC rays from almost never reaching the ground. These dangerous waves have been put into humankind’s service by being employed in the creation of the protective ozone layer.

Ultraviolet rays and the harmful effects of visible light on the skin

There are short-term and long-term effects of UV rays on the skin.

The short-term effects are sunburn, heat stroke, allergic reactions, suntan, and viral diseases such as herpes, which are usually felt shortly after exposure to the sun and can be triggered by suppression of the immune system. The long-term, accumulative effects are photo-aging (the skin getting wrinkly due to solar rays), sunspots, cataracts, and the development of skin cancers.[4]

On the other hand, our skin is not entirely unprotected against the dangerous effects of the sun. The keratin layer in the epidermis, the uppermost layer of the skin, absorbs or disperses light, so the amount of light penetrating into the layers below is significantly lowered. Beta-carotene in the skin along with some enzyme systems reduce free oxygen radicals released after exposure to the sun and thus eliminate solar damage. Likewise, melanin, which gives our skin its color, lies above the nuclei in skin cells and acts as an umbrella that protects the cellular DNA from solar radiation.[5]

Six subgroups of skin types have been determined according to color of the hair, eyes, and skin, as well as the skin’s reaction to solar rays. This classification is widely accepted for identifying risk groups and determining specific protection measures.[6]

Although the number of melanosomes, or melanin-producing cells in the human skin, is the same in all humans, the color of the skin is determined by the genetic differences in the type, amount, and size of melanin pigments. Melonosomes in Europeans are small and light, while those of Africans are larger and darker.[7]

The importance of protection from the sun

The frequency of skin cancer has been increasing, which is precipitated by the fact that the ozone layer has gotten thinner and people are not well informed about UV protection. Many people take beach vacations and sunbathe, do mountain sports, have tanned skin, work in open air professions (such as construction workers, lifeguards, and tour guides), and they do so without much care.

For protection, we should first know that harmful effects of solar rays accumulate over time. The damage caused by the sun is stored in the body, just like change we save in a piggy bank. Unfortunately, we accumulate 40-50% of the total damage we are exposed to in a lifetime in the first quarter of life – that is, during childhood and our teenage years.[8] The skin’s natural protection mechanisms are not fully developed during these periods, nor is our understanding of protection. A research study carried out in Australia has shown that the rate of malign melanoma seen in young people can be reduced by 73% through effective solar protection methods.[9]

The major reason for wrinkles, the primary and fundamental indication of aging skin, is not in fact our age but the sun. UVA and UVB rays break down the connective tissue below the skin, disrupt the skin’s repair mechanisms, and cause skin aging (or photo-aging). Therefore, photo-aging takes place faster and earlier in people who work outside.[10]

{Picture: Photo-aging visible on one side of a truck driver’s face}[11] 

It’s imperative that we begin teaching children and adolescents about UV protection: having suffered five sunburns in childhood and early youth increases the risk of developing melanoma by 80%.[12] Children shouldn’t spend long hours in the midday, summer sun. 

Solar damage isn’t just more likely in children and teenagers, but also in people with skin type 1 or 2 (light skin), red hair, and/or colored eyes (blue); people, especially light-skinned people, with many skin moles; people whose family members have or had skin cancer; those who have a skin disorder triggered by the sun (lupus, dermatomyositis, rosacea); and people who have innate light sensitivity (albino, xeroderma pigmentosum, etc.). All these groups must be particularly careful about protecting themselves from the sun.

What are some ways to protect ourselves from UV Rays? Well, because UV radiation bombards the Earth most intensely at noon during the summer, staying indoors is greatly recommended between the hours of 10:00 am and 4:00 pm.  Additionally, the reflection rate of solar rays is higher by the seaside and in snowy environments.[13]

Wearing appropriate clothes is still the most effective and the least expensive method of sun protection. Clothing can have a solar protection factor (SPF) of 15-30. The level of protection is determined by the type of fabric, number of pores, and type, color, and thickness of weaving. The best clothes are made from cotton, silk, and denim and are unbleached and woven tightly. Wet clothes are more permeable. The use of wide hats, sunglasses, and umbrellas are also important for protection.

In addition to these measures, sun protection creams should also be used. The idea that protection creams will prevent the synthesis of vitamin D, voiced frequently lately, should not prevent the use of sun protection because the solar rays we receive during the day from the face and hands are sufficient for the synthesis of vitamin D. A person should pick a sun cream appropriate for their skin and apply it in sufficient amounts 20 minutes before going out. Babies should be protected through natural means, and physical sun protection should be used for children and pregnant women. A person should reapply sun protection products every two or three hours while outside, and, if planning to swim, they should choose water resistant products.

Besides physical protection that blocks, scatters, or reflects solar rays, there are also skin-absorbable chemical protections with cosmetically accepted formulations that eliminate light by absorbing it.

Generally speaking, a good sun protection should protect against both UVA and UVB rays. It should be cosmetically acceptable, non-toxic, water and perspiration resistant, and at the appropriate SPF (sun protection factor) level. However, because reapplication is required every two to three hours, protection above SPF 50 is the same. Therefore, it is no use buying a more expensive, higher protection product.[14] For people with type 3 skin (darker white skin with gold tone), SPF 30 is sufficient. For light skinned people, children, and pregnant women, however, SPF 50 is recommended.

SPF is the number indicating by how many more times a sunscreen protects the skin against UVB than the skin itself. Skin type is very important in sunscreen choice. The natural protection period of a person with type 1 skin is 5-10 minutes, while it may go up to 90 minutes for a person with type 6 skin. In other words, a light-skinned person gets a sunburn in 5-10 minutes of exposure, while a dark-skinned person may not get one at all. Therefore, these people should not choose products at the same SPF level. For example, if the skin’s self-protection duration is five minutes, a sunscreen with a SPF of 30 provides the same protection for 150 minutes.

Apart from sun protection creams, oral products can also help with sun protection. For example, oral zinc intake is proven to prevent cellular and DNA damage caused by UV radiation. Vitamin C is effective at preventing UVA rays due to its antioxidant properties and vitamin E at preventing UVB rays. In addition, the intake of beta carotene (a precursor of vitamin A) and bioflavonoids (also called vitamin P which generally has effects similar to vitamin C), found in orange and red fruit, protects against UV damage. Polyphenolic compounds in green tea also display protective properties against UV radiation.[15]

Finally, we should remember that using a sun protection product is a small part of our attitude toward your overall protection from the sun. Considering the role of the ozone layer in filtering the sun’s harmful rays, we should protect the perfect balance in the universe and re-evaluate our responsibilities and future actions for the maintenance of this balance.

Notes

[1] livescience.com.

[2] Gilchrest BA. “Sun exposure and vitamin D sufficiency,” Am. J Clin Nutr. August 2008, Vol. 88 # 2 570S-577S.

[3] Understanding UVA and UVB. skincancer.org.

[4] sciencelearn.org.nz.

[5] “The Protective Role of Melanin against UV Damage in Human Skin.” Photochem Photobiol. 2008; 84(3):539-549.

[6] laserdocs.co.uk/easy-way-to-find-out-your-fitzpatrick-skin-type/

[7] Ibid.

[8] Adele CG, Sarah C Wallingford and Penelope M. “Childhood exposure to UV radiation and harmful skin effects: Epidemiological evidence.” Prog Biophys Mol Biol. December 2011, 107(3): 349-355.

[9] Green AC, Williams GC, Logan V, Srutton GM. “Reduced Melanoma after Regular Sunscreen Use: Randomized Trial Follow-Up,” Journal of Clinically Oncology. 20 January 2011, Vol. 29 # 3:257-263.

[10] Fitzpatrick’s Dermatology in General Medicine.

[11] www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMicm1104059.

[12] Markovic SN, Erickson LA, Rao RD, et al. “Malignant Melanoma in the 21^st Century, part 1: Epidemiology, risk factors screening, prevention and diagnosis.” Mayo Clin Proc, 2007; 82: 364-380.

[13] Skin cancer prevention and early detection. www.skincancer.org.

[14] www.dermnetz.org.

[15] Halliwell B. “Free radicals, antioxidants and human disease.” Lancet 1994; 344-:721-724.

The harmful foodstuff eaten is spat out quickly through vomiting and so damages of such foodstuff is minimized. Occurring upon taking of any poisonous food or alcohol, vomiting directly contributes to treatment by ensuring a quick disgorge of the harmful stuff. Variations in amounts of estrogen and progesterone hormones during pregnancy helps in noticing even the least amount of toxins (poisons) found in the blood by way of increasing sensitivity of the chemoreceptor trigger zone within the brain stem. When this zone of the brain takes notice of toxins in the blood, it immediately activates feeling of nausea and vomiting. Margie Profet, a researcher from the University of California at Berkeley was the first person who drew attention to this issue in 1995. She asserted that food craving is a divinely merciful mechanism aiming at protection of the miraculously developing embryo against probable dangers within the human body. She also asserted that food craving protects the embryo from natural toxins in foods. Vomiting may also happen to travellers and sufferers of migraine. Certain psychological factors such as unpleasant smell and excessive fear may result in vomiting as well.

If, however, vomiting recurs and turns out to become a habit, one should be careful, for vomiting causes new problems such as electrolyte losses and dehydration while irritating the alimentary canal, throat, mouth and teeth through which vomited matter passes. In addition to these, regurgitating might be inadvisable and indeed should be avoided in certain cases of poisoning which develop due to ingestion of petroleum products and burning chemicals like hypochlorite and ammonia which are used in house cleaning. The reason for this is because petroleum products may cause pulmonary infection of chemical origin in the lungs and burning chemicals may cause scalds on the tissues they touch during regurgitating.

Just like all the systems that our bodies are equipped with, vomiting also happens in accordance with a plan and program during which a wonderful co-ordination is displayed. The vomiting center in the brain is responsible for such co-ordination.

Rapid increase in salivation and nasal secretion prior to vomiting plays a key role in alleviating damages of the highly acidified vomited matter over the interior surfaces of the mouth and nose. Increased salivation helps with the protection of tooth enamel too. The pushing process of the foods eaten normally occurs from the intestines towards the bowels during the course of digestion. However, it reverses and occurs from the intestines towards the stomach during which the muscles of gastrointestinal tracts relax, open and the contents of the intestines are thus gathered in the stomach. Taking deep breaths prior to vomiting decreases the need for breathing during vomiting and blocking of the air passage by vocal cords’ converging prevents aspiration, that is, the passage of contents of stomach to the lungs. If such mechanisms did not exist, every vomiting attack might have ended catastrophically. Breathing attempts apply negative pressure on the rib cage and convulsion of stomach muscles applies positive pressure within the abdomen in spite of the converging of vocal cords. A pressure decrease is observed in order for contents of the stomach to be regurgitated. Muscles of the gastrointestinal tract tighten while muscles of the gate between alimentary canal and stomach relax just before vomiting. So, regurgitating via alimentary canal occurs without passage of stomach contents to intestines. Upon completion of vomiting, there is the disappearance of abdominal convulsions and the secretion of endorphin in the blood, so a person breathes sigh of relief.

In conclusion, although vomiting is perceived as something which is seemingly unpleasant, it is indeed a fine product of Divine artistry like all other systems and mechanisms of our body. Vomiting, as one of the proofs that God has created nothing useless and unnecessary, is certainly a great blessing bestowed upon us.

References

• “Sickening sounds – research to make your ears cringe.” University of Salford. January 28, 2007.
• Lunsden, K, and Holden WS. 1969. “The act of vomiting in man.” Gut 10: 173-179.
• Margie Profet (1995) Protecting Your Baby-to-Be: Preventing Birth Defects in the First Trimester. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. pp. viii, 312.
• Flaxman, S.M. and P.W. Sherman 2000. “Morning sickness: A mechanism for protecting mother and embryo.” Quarterly Review of Biology June 2000. 75:1-36.

Nowadays, forgetfulness has become a very common problem among both young and older people (Bambroo, 2010). There are various elements that lead to forgetfulness and poor memory; carelessness, not knowing the principles of memorization, and not using information are some of them (Tarhan, 2007). Therefore, the factors that cause weakness of memory are extremely critical. This article elucidates the causes of poor memory from emotional aspects such as depression, stress, and a confused mind as well as the behavioral aspects of alcohol and drug addiction, and alternative religious inspirations to help tackle the causes of bad memory.

Firstly, depression and a stressful lifestyle are deeply critical causes of bad memory and can lead to forgetfulness (Bambroo, 2010). Today depression has become a very common disease that can occur at any age. There are many reasons causing depression. Events like loss of a beloved person are usually accompanied by depression and result in problems with memory (MYLN, 2008). In addition, all negative emotions such as anxiety and anger can hamper the ability of our brains to remember. In particular, depression is the primary negative emotion to influence our memory because it interferes with our ability to concentrate (Edmonds, 2009). Some people might keep forgetting things, even though they need to concentrate to be able to work or study. Turning negative emotions that come from depression into a positive philosophy of life will aid the memorization ability.

Secondly, a confused mind is one of the most significant reasons for poor memory. Every day we get new information from everywhere, and we are exposed to more knowledge than we need. Even though some of them can be beneficial, most are useless to the effect that they dominate over the useful ones. Some scholars support the idea that mental pollution is one of the main reasons for poor memory nowadays (Gülen, 2007).

Next, some experts highlight that neglecting the emotional dimension is another reason for poor memory. A theater actor perfectly memorizes his role because he learns to pretend the emotions. Interest enhances emotional power, therefore it is said that interest is the teacher of learning. The left part of the brain does logical functions; however, the right part of the brain carries out emotional and artistic functions (Tarhan, 2007). In addition, Prof. Robert Ornstein, from the University of California, explains that people who use both parts of their brain in a balanced way, have five times more brain capacity than others (Tarhan, 2007). Therefore, using only the left hemisphere of the brain and neglecting emotions can result in having a weak memory, as well as forgetting information in a short time. For example, if we memorize five words without using emotional dimension, we can save them for a little time; however, if we create connections and acronyms among them or produce a story, these kinds of emotional aspects help us to save them for a long time.

Furthermore, alcohol and drug addiction can weaken the human memory. It has long been known that cannabis (an illegal drug, “marijuana,” made from the dried leaves and flowers of the hemp plant) causes memory loss by acting on the hippocampus, which is the area in the brain that rules most of our cognitive functions (Hood, 2009). Moreover, according to scientific research, heavy alcohol use clearly damages retrospective memory, namely, the learning, preservation, and recovery of previously presented materials (Buddy T., 2006). Furthermore, excessive alcohol consumption can result in blackouts-periods of temporary memory loss or amnesia. When a person consumes alcohol, the body immediately starts to break it down. The brain receives less oxygen when alcohol is present, and alcohol has a damaging effect on the central nervous system (Wellness Trader, 2010).

Religious inspirations, as well as religious life can help us cope with poor memory. According to Shatibi, an Andalusian Muslim scholar, there are five main purposes of the religions. They are protection of religion, protection of life, protection of progeny, protection of the mind, and protection of wealth. All religions and nations may observe these higher objectives (Shatibi, 1388). In this respect, all actions that might harm the mind are prohibited by Islam, and all activities that lead to the development of mind are recommended. Alcohol use and drug abuse are prohibited because they damage the mind. Moreover, the depression and stresses that often accompany modern day life can be overcome by remembering to place trust in God in every situation regardless if it is good or bad. As Bediuzzaman indicates “Those who attain true belief can challenge the universe, and in proportion to their belief’s strength, be relieved of the pressures of events. Relying on God, they travel safely through the mountainous waves of events in the ship of life. Having entrusted their burdens to the Absolutely Powerful One’s Hand of Power, they voyage through the world comfortably until their last day” (Nursi, 2010).

Hakan Coruh is a PhD student in Qur’anic exegesis at ACU National, Melbourne, Australia.

References

• Bambroo, C.J. (2010, May 10). Forgetfulness, a growing problem. Retrieved June 01, 2010, from http://www.hindustantimes.com.
• Buddy, T. (2006, July 09). Alcohol Damages Day-To-Day Memory Function. Retrieved June 01, 2010, from http://alcoholism.about.com.
• Edmonds, M. Top 10 Ways to Improve Your Memory. Retrieved June, 2009, from http://health.howstuffworks.com.
• Gülen, M. F. (2007, May 28). Mefluç Dimaglar ve Unutkanligin Reçetesi. Retrieved June 01, 2010, from http://www.herkul.org
• Hood, M. (2009, August 2). Pot shot: Scientists find cannabis trigger for forgetfulness. Retrieved June 01, 2010, from http://www.physorg.com.
• Mayda, A. (2010, January – February). Memory and Forgetfulness. The Fountain Magazine, Issue: 73, Retrieved June 01, 2010, from http://www.fountainmagazine.com.
• MYLN. (2008, December 2). 6 Ways To improve memory. Retrieved June 01, 2010, from http://www.manageyourlifenow.com.
• Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said. 2010. The Words, NJ: The Light, Inc., p. 330.
• Shatibi, E. Al Muvafakat. Al Maktaba Al Ticariyye Al Kubra, v: 2, p: 10.
• Tarhan, N. (2007, July 27). Beyin Sagligi ve Unutkanlik. Retrieved June 01, 2010, from http://www.aktuelpsikoloji.com.
• Wellness Trader Tm. (2010). Alcohol and Memory Loss. Retrieved June 01, 2010, from http://www.memory-loss.com.

Hierarchy of hematopoietic stem cells

The blood system, also known as hematopoietic system, has enormous regenerative capacity to maintain functional mature blood cells that arise from highly proliferative but short-lived progenitor cells. Those progenitors in turn are generated from very rare blood stem cells called hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). HSCs are one of the most studied stem cells in our body which has greatly shaped our thinking on the features of adult stem cells. These stem cells are kept at the bone marrow in close proximity to bone cells and other supporting cells forming the specialized home known as niche. In several aspects, a niche resembles a cellular stronghold that a queen lives in a safe and protected environment.

The interaction of stem cells with the niche is crucial as this prevents exhaustion of stem cells from uncontrolled cellular divisions and proliferation. While active progenitors account for the generation of mature blood cells, hematopoietic stem cells function as a reserved cell population. Interestingly, we observe the importance of the balance between those two cell populations in the aging process. Although the number of HSCs increases in aged animals, there is a decline in self-renewal of HSCs.

Other protective mechanisms include the low proliferation rates of HSCs in a relatively quiescent state, residing in a low oxygen environment [3], a relatively low degree of metabolism and preferential use of glycolysis as energy source, and additional protection mechanism against oxidative stress.

Low in oxygen but a good place to be!

Stem cells as the cell bank of the body are protected against internal and external insults by a number of mechanisms. Stem cell niche not only provides an environment that they can survive but also poses the lesser degree of internal and external insults. Those possible stresses on cells include, but not limited to, UV exposure, radiation, toxic chemicals, and free oxygen species that cause various damages in the cell including mutations in DNA (Fig. 3). Cells respond to those external and internal issues by various ways such as senescence (loss of stem cell activity), cell death or DNA repair. For example, blood stem cells mainly house in the bone marrow next to osteoblastic lining (blood-forming cells) and endothelial cells where they form the hypoxic (low oxygen tension) endosteal region. This hypoxic niche of HSCs provides lower levels of oxygen so that there are lower levels of free oxygen radicals that mainly arise from electrons leaking from mitochondria during oxidative phosphorylation. In addition, it has been shown that HSC express higher levels of hypoxia inducible factor-1α, a master regulator at low oxygen tension with hundreds of downstream targets regulating various aspects of metabolism including defense against oxidative stress and survival at low oxygen environment. It has also been shown that hypoxia increases self-renewal abilities of HSCs, thus keeps them healthy and functional for longer periods.

Protection from detrimental effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS)

Excess amounts of reactive oxygen species are detrimental to cells. ROS are found to cause hematopoietic stem cell defects as shown in mouse lacking FoxO and Atm genes. In those mutant mice, the hematopoietic defects could be rescued by the use of an antioxidant N-acetyl-cysteine. Anti-oxidants are one of the scavengers that diminish unwanted effects of reactive oxygen species. A number of fruits and vegetables such as beans, blueberry, strawberry, and apple are known with their high content of anti-oxidants. It is amazing to observe anti-oxidants being placed into our sustenance just as much as in some special genes (such as SOD2 and Hypoxia Inducible factor-2α) that provide additional protection for cells. Amazingly, stem cells show high levels of ROS scavenger genes.

Low metabolism provide protection for stem cells

Recent studies demonstrate that hematopoietic stem cells have lower rates metabolism as measured by lower oxygen consumption, lower ATP content and higher lactate production (an end product of cytoplasmic glycolysis) [4]. This means that stem cells produce and consume lesser energy (ATP) compared to more differentiated cells and the by-products of the energy production are kept lower. As higher energy demand brings higher rates of internal insults like production of ROS which is associated with aging and cellular damages, HSCs are granted with another protective mechanism by preferential use of glycolysis (anaerobic) instead of oxidative phosphorylation (aerobic).

Hematopoietic stem cells are quiescent

Another defense mechanism is the quiescence of stem cells which is associated with slow cell-cycle progression. Quiescence of stem cells means that they are kept at a resting, inactive state thus sustaining a self-renewing HSC compartment for life. Because when cell divides, they have to undergo thousands of chemical reactions including making a copy of the three billion letter long DNA, which puts cells at risk to get mutations. Thus, they don’t undergo division unless there is a stimulus. In addition, it has been found that HSCs divide only once every 145 days on average.

There are a number of studies indicating that there are signals in the niche that keeps HSCs in a quiescent state. Tie2/Ang-1 signaling, for instance, has been demonstrated to contribute to the maintenance of HSCs by inducing quiescence. While Ang-1 is expressed in the mesenchymal/stromal cells of niche, its receptor Tie2 is expressed at HSCs. In addition, it has been shown that Ang-1 can inhibit HSC division in culture and promote quiescence of HSCs in the bone marrow [5].

It is also reported that the cell adhesion molecules that allow physical interaction between stem cells and their niche components may participate in regulation of stem cell quiescence through a process called contact dependent inhibition of proliferation. For instance, it has been found that cell adhesion molecules such as N-cadherin, β1-integrin, and osteopontin might be involved in the regulation of cell cycle status of HSCs [6].

One advantage of quiescence of HSC comes from the lower susceptibility of slowly proliferating cells to radiation than other cells due to the expression of cell cycle inhibitors like p21 and anti-apoptotic (controlled cell death) machinery like ATM in HSCs. In addition, studies in p21 (a cell cycle inhibitor gene) knockout mice suggest that maintaining cell cycle quiescence is directly linked to self-renewal of HSCs [7].

Toxics are exported from hematopoietic stem cells

There are other issues concerning external insults against toxics and unwanted chemicals. An HSC population described as side population has been equipped with a number of transporters such as ATP Binding Cassette (ABC) transporters, P-glycoprotein (P-gp/ABCB1) and Breast Cancer Resistance Protein (BCRP/ABCG2) on their membrane providing high efflux ability [8]. They play an important role in the excretion of drugs and endogenous compounds. Those transporters work actively when there is an entrance or excess of such chemicals thus keeping damage minimal.

HSCs are placed in such an environment that even minimum damages by internal and external insults are prevented by different defense mechanisms including residing HSCs in the hypoxic niche, expression of ROS scavenger genes, preferential use of glycolytic metabolism, quiescence nature of HSCs, and removal of toxins by ABC transporters. It is very wise to home such an important cell in a place where it can prosper with a carefully balanced rate of cell division and metabolism. Hypoxic niche seems key to the protection of hematopoietic stem cells by supporting self-renewal and preservation of hematopoietic functions both at the same time. The presence of these protective systems that are graciously placed in our cells with perfect measurements provides an elusive mechanism to ensure healthy life-long reservoir of HSCs.

Ali Fethi Toprak is a PhD candidate at Southwestern Medical Center, Texas University.

Selected References

1. Kobayashi, C.I. and T. Suda, Regulation of reactive oxygen species in stem cells and cancer stem cells. J Cell Physiol, 2012. 227(2): p. 421-30.

2. Li, L. and H. Clevers, Coexistence of quiescent and active adult stem cells in mammals. Science, 2010. 327(5965): p. 542-5.

3. Eliasson, P. and J.I. Jonsson, The hematopoietic stem cell niche: low in oxygen but a nice place to be. J Cell Physiol. 222(1): p. 17-22.

4. Simsek, T., et al., The Distinct Metabolic Profile of Hematopoietic Stem Cells Reflects Their Location in a Hypoxic Niche. Cell Stem Cell, 2010. 7(3): p. 380-390.

5. Arai, F., et al., Tie2/angiopoietin-1 signaling regulates hematopoietic stem cell quiescence in the bone marrow niche. Cell, 2004. 118(2): p. 149-61.

6. Yamashita, Y.M., D.L. Jones, and M.T. Fuller, Orientation of asymmetric stem cell division by the APC tumor suppressor and centrosome. Science, 2003. 301(5639): p. 1547-50.

7. Cheng, T., et al., Hematopoietic stem cell quiescence maintained by p21cip1/waf1. Science, 2000. 287(5459): p. 1804-8.

8. Huls, M., F.G. Russel, and R. Masereeuw, The role of ATP binding cassette transporters in tissue defense and organ regeneration. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 2009. 328(1): p. 3-9.

9. Antioxidant Riches Found in Unexpected Foods. Retrieved from http://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/news/20040617/antioxidants-found-unexpected-foods, January 31, 2012.

Scientifically known as Daucus Carota, carrots categorically are in the same family as fennel, cumin, dill, celery and parsley. They mainly originated in geographies of Central Asia and Middle East and their original flavor were somewhat different to the contemporary ones. The carrot as a plant stores its foodstuff in its roots. Besides their common use for consumption, they can be juiced or grated. They bring a distinct flavor when used in salads and meals. Although generally considered to be orange, yet carrots’ color can be as diverse as green, red, white and even purple.

Some astounding medical benefits

Created rich in Vitamin A carotene, carrot is an excellent source of antioxidant for the treatment of cancer and protection from some cardiovascular diseases. They are also instrumental for the regulation of sugar in our blood. The findings of a survey conducted on 1,300 patients, reveal those who eat carotene-rich foods such as carrot or squash, at least once a day, have about 60% less risk of cancer than those deficient in their carotene intakes. In specific terms, while the regular consumption of carotenoid reduces the risk of post-menopause breast cancer by an estimated 20%; on the other hand esophageal cancer, bladder cancer, uterine cancer, prostate cancer, colon cancer, throat cancer and lung cancer are believed to reduce the risk by an astounding 50%.

Scientists state that the risk-reducing influence of the carrot comes not only as a result of its beta-carotene ingredient but also from its alpha-carotene and some other elements.

How does carrot improve the quality of vision?

Unsurprisingly carrots are known for the goodness they bring to the eyes; particularly valuable for improving night vision. The beta carotene has been made to play a pivotal role in this respect. An incredibly sophisticated process eventuates as Vitamin A is converted in the liver into beta-carotene and is then carried to the retina of the eye. It is here when beta-carotene is converted to rhodopsin, imperative pigment that aids night vision. It is with rohdopsin that vision is sharpened and sight becomes possible in darker environments. On the contrary however, when there is Vitamin A deficiency in the body, night sight is adversely impacted. Moreover the antioxidant in beta-carotene has been equipped with an additional protective role against macular degeneration as well as cataract.

Carrot’s falcarinol and colon’s well being

The natural pesticide (falcarinol) found in carrots is believed to reduce the risk of cancer. In order to ascertain this relationship between falcarinol and cancer risk reduction, the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, conducted an experimental study on the subject. Three different groups of laboratory animals had been given precancerous colon lesions. The first group was fed with standard diet, the second group with freeze-dried carrots that contained a natural level of falcarinol while the third group was exclusively fed falcarionol/g derived from carrots. After 18 weeks period, the number of lesions which were given to potentially increase the class size, significantly decreased in those rats fed with one of the two experimental treatments. The finding demonstrated that dietary treatments with carrot’s falcarinol caused delay and in some cases the retardation in the development of large tumors.

This established a significant relationship between those critical endowed carrot contents and the risk-reduction of cancerous tumors.

Carrots and lung protection

Overtime a number of studies have been conducted and research have established direct link between Vitamin A and its role in the protection of lungs. The scientifically established relationship between Vitamin A, pneumonia and emphysema, found that the benzo(a)pyrene, the main carcinogen in cigarette smoke causes the Vitamin A to diminish. This is especially true when long term smoke addicts who have also had poor Vitamin A diet, causes more cancer-related diseases and emphysema.

Earlier studies have also demonstrated that a diet poor in Vitamin A causes emphysema. Subsequent studies have further substantiated that a diet rich in Vitamin A can help reduce emphysema. Indisputably carrots are rich in their Vitamin A reserves. Carrots have been also made with the capacity to aid and protect our lungs.

Experts are therefore of the opinion that carrot is stomach and intestines’ close friend. It can be said that their overall benefits can range from blood-formation, to strength, from diarrhea control, to being laxative, to their help with bile discharges and the strengthening of the liver brings to attention the remarkably latent benefits within carrots and makes them an indispensable vegetable beyond the immediate value of taste and color.

This discovery about carrots, amongst innumerable other vegetables, virtually makes the earth a mighty pharmacy which is orderly fashioned with numerous therapeutic qualities in the form of vegetables and herbs spread out in abundance. Quite substantially it appears that not only do they attract with their beauty and color the gazes of our eyes; not only do they afford us with innumerable varieties of tastes and flavors but in addition with the use of their innate given potentials they work extraordinarily and in remedial manner whilst in our bodies.

All this appropriately recalls to mind the Might and Power of God Almighty as eloquently expressed in the Quran “Who is it that provides for you from heaven and earth?” (Quran Al-Yunus, 10:31)

The Madina Charter is a constitution that essentially established the Madina city-state. The Charter was the first written constitution in Islam and arguably the first constitutional law in society. Before Prophet Muhammad’s arrival from Makka, Yathrib (later known as Madina) had a population of 10,000 that was organized into approximately 22 tribes. Approximately half the population was Jewish and half was Arab. Regardless of religion, tribes sought power through military dominance over other tribes, with the numerous alliances forged between warring tribes greatly contributing to the aggression. Constant warfare was taking a toll on the tribes. While some sought external military assistance for the conflicts, many were making preparations for the enthronement of a leader from one of the tribes. However, it was unclear whether each tribe would acquiesce to the leadership of a single leader from one of the tribes and if such a leader would be able to establish political organization, create military defense for the city, reconcile tribal hostilities, and define local rights and obligations as well as address the issues of the growing immigrant refugee population from Makka.

God’s Messenger was requested by the tribes in Yathrib to act as a third-party mediator to try and help resolve the on-going conflict between them. He had a reputation for being an able mediator as he had helped to resolve conflicts in Makka and was able to fill the leadership void that existed in the area. It was also common practice of Arabs at that time to refer their conflict to outsiders, and the Prophet had already been given the title, “The Trustworthy” by the residents of Makka. Finally, while drafting the Charter, he consulted the leaders of each tribe, thereby demonstrating his willingness to listen to the needs of all tribes.

The methods God’s Messsenger made use of in the creation of the Charter are similar to trends that have emerged in modern conflict resolution techniques. These methods provide an important source for understanding the concepts of mediation and conflict resolution in Islam, and subsequently, can also offer effective means with which to approach dialogue with and within Islamic societies and among non-Islamic societies.

The Charter, which was the first declaration of the area of Madina as a city-state, established rules of government and addressed specific social issues of the community in an attempt to put to an end the chaos and conflict that had been plaguing the region for generations. The Charter outlined the rights and duties of its citizens, provided collective protection for all citizens of Madina, including Muslims and non-Muslims, and provided the first means of seeking justice through the law and community instead of via tribal military actions.

The Madina Charter, which contains 47 sections in total, addresses the power structures that contributed to the conflict in Yathrib. The Charter expressly identified the parties involved in the conflict; the first 23 sections of the Charter address the Muslim immigrants from Makka and the Muslims of Yathrib, while the second half of the document is directed towards the Jews of the community. Prophet Muhammad also identified immediate physical issues in Yathrib. In the second section, the people of Yathrib are defined as one community to the exclusion of all others. Prior to this proclamation, the boundaries of Yathrib were indistinct, each tribe occupying a certain territory, with the whole of the tribal territories in the area not being considered as one, united city. Once Yathrib was established as an integrated community, The Prophet addressed issues of community justice and protection. The Charter established the course of law for Yathrib. The right to seek justice was shifted from individuals to the central community. The Prophet’s arrangements for community justice and protection encouraged collective responsibility. The Madina Charter was also the first acknowledgement of religious divisions within the Yathrib tribal system. Though he did little to change the organization of inter-religious tribes, the Prophet called upon the deeply instilled values of Islam and Judaism to fortify the agreement. These stipulations enabled the participants of the agreement to look once again beyond tribal alliances, thus making tribal lines indistinct.

Along these same lines, the Charter focused on relationships rather than group dynamics: the Madina Charter eliminated tribal hostilities by realigning residents, shifting the focus from militaristic rivals to allied religious followers. In the event of religious dispute, the document continued to decree that the participants of the agreement must act in good faith with one another Finally, interaction goals, including specific desires to maintain one’s sense of self-identity, were left intact by shifting the alliance from tribes (which were hostile) to religion, enabling participants to abandon tribal hostility without loss of face.

Before the Charter, Yathrib was a community of constant tension between independent, hostile tribes. The Prophet addressed these power struggles by establishing common goals that would serve the whole community. The Charter specifically advises mutual influence with the declaration that the Muslims and Jews “must seek mutual advice and consultation, and loyalty is a protection against treachery.” The Charter binds the parties of the agreement to helping one another against any attack on Yathrib. It dictates behavior for a specific instance of mutual influence. If the Jews “are called to make peace and maintain it they must do so; and if they make a similar demand on the Muslims it must be carried out.” Also, reference to a higher authority was repeated in both sections. The Charter also explicitly pronounces that future disputes “must be referred to God and to Prophet Muhammad.” The participants had placed a power that was external to their group that they would be able to draw upon in the event of their own power being or seeming insufficient. The power of the agreement was uniquely balanced due to its direction towards God. The Madina Charter addressed potential power complications by focusing the participants on their interdependence. The Madina Charter prohibited independent contention by participant groups that claim God’s protection, and states that the peace of believers is as one. Once again, the idea of being one community was emphasized and the participants of the agreement were made to recognize their power as a unit.

The solutions presented in the Madina Charter can be applied to questions concerning dialogue and conflict of today’s world: the Charter was created to address problems present in and created by a pluralistic society, the main characteristic of today’s globalized system. The constitution of the Charter created a federal-type structure with an authority that was centralized in matters of state security, yet provided the tribes a certain level of autonomy in social and religious issues. Prophet Muhammad only made final decisions in cases where tribes could not resolve disputes between themselves, and these decisions were based on the laws laid out by the Charter. The Madina city-state, while granting every citizen equal rights, protection against oppression, and a voice in the government, declared itself a brotherhood of believers, extending financial help to its citizens. Laws were also enacted to punish criminals, such as prohibiting help being given to a murderer. Finally, as prescribed in the teaching of the Qur’an, freedom of religion was guaranteed for each member of the community.

For a peaceful world, individuals must live within the boundaries of the lawfully created universe. In this modern age of science and technology, the Madina Charter could be a source for answers to questions about how to live together and how to solve and prevent conflicts between groups based on differences in culture and belief. The Madina Charter represents the principles of law and good and right reason, which is higher than any individual man. On the charter, God’s name comes first, as God represents the highest good and the highest principle of right reason. Thus, the Madina Charter can be a good model of ways to create and sustain dialogue in a pluralistic society, and of ways to build and conduct political and social relationships among different groups.

My aim here is to describe the legal instruments under international laws and conventions, to see how far they do secure protection of individuals’ rights, and to compare them with corresponding Islamic notions which have been around for 14 centuries. I will focus mainly on the rights and protection available in Europe. Finally, I will compare the different perspectives of an Islamic approach and of modern international law on protecting individuals’ rights from abuse’ by police authorities and agencies. Some of the legal instruments mentioned are non-binding in character -they are nonetheless relevant in establishing the perspective of modern international law.

The Declaration on the Police affirms the necessity of rules of conduct for the police (Preamble para. 2) and condemns any police officers who have violated human rights as unfit to be police officers (Preamble para. 3). The commentary accompanying Article 2 of The Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials (adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979) clarifies the phrase ‘human rights’ as meaning those rights protected by national and international law. Article 3 provides that: ‘Law enforcement officials may use force only when strictly necessary and to the extent required for the performance of their duty.’ Article 5 prohibits the use of torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment. Another instrument, Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials (adopted by the 7th Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders) recognizes that ‘law enforcement officials’ must include all officials, whether appointed or elected, who exercise police powers (specially powers of arrest and detention), and regardless of whether a country is under civil or military rule. It is obvious from all of these declarations that effective limitations must be placed on arbitrary, lawless behaviour by the police, and that appropriate rules and training procedures be adopted to ensure that police behave professionally and protect individual rights and liberties. They are more likely to do so if the police are themselves well-versed in those basic rights and liberties.

The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) seeks to balance individual rights and the public interest. In their case law, the Commission and the Court have sought to define the public interest and indicate the limits which authorities such as the police should not transgress even when obliged to restrict the individual’s rights and liberties. ECHR Article 2 addresses the question of what circumstances justify the use of force, and how much, by law enforcement officials.

In the Stewart case, the Commission stated that the principle that ‘everyone’s right to life shall be protected by law’ obliges governments not merely to refrain from taking life intentionally but also to safeguard life. The Commission further stated that ‘the use of force must be shown to have been absolutely necessary’ and to be ‘reasonable’ in the circumstances. But what is ‘reasonable’? The Commission, though avoiding any statement on the meaning of ‘reasonable’ force in the Stewart case, made it clear that the standard is to be rigorous: an assessment must be made as to whether the interference with the right is proportionate to the legitimate aim pursued.

The Camargo and De Guerrero case is a clear cut instance of disproportionate force. The case was decided under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) by the Human Rights Committee. The Committee found no evidence that the action of the police was necessary in their own defence or that of others, nor that it was necessary in order to effect the arrest or prevent the escape of the persons concerned.

The doctrine of necessity (which can be likened to the concept of the ‘public interest’ in Islamic Law) is of central importance. It sees the restriction of individuals liberties as exceptional, as only justifiable in the wider interest: ‘If the necessity of uncovering the truth and of doing justice requires limiting some or all of these rights, an exception will be recognized to the principle but only if it does not go beyond the dictates of necessity’ (Bassiouni, 1982, p.100). Restriction of individual liberties is checked by restrictions on the authority of those investigating a particular case. Islamic Law does not set out a specific list of rights that may be restricted if necessary nor how far and under what conditions. It delegates the decision to those in government who may decide according to their perception of the public interest (Bassiouni, 1982, p.100).

The United Nations Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment of 1984 is binding on the signatories to it. The Convention provides that the signatories shall outlaw torture in their internal laws and explicitly prohibits using ‘higher orders’ or ‘exceptional circumstances’ as excuses for acts of torture (Article 2(2) and 2(3)). The Convention has two new elements. Firstly, it provides for extradition of alleged torturers for trial in any of the signatory states. Secondly, it provides for an international investigation in the state concerned of reports of alleged torture by a Committee against Torture to be established under the Convention. However, the fact that the signatories may withdraw from this latter provision is a weakness.

The Convention requires prohibition of torture to be part of the training of all personnel involved in law enforcement, detention, interrogation or general handling of prisoners or detainees (Article 10(1)). It also provides that the signatories shall ensure legal measures for protection and compensation of torture victims. Individuals are further protected against other forms of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, as defined under the Convention.

The European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment is, by contrast, an instrument of a more preventive nature. It supplements the protection already given by Article 3 of the ECHR, by providing a non-judicial mechanism to investigate the treatment of persons deprived of their liberty in order to secure or reinforce the proper protection of their rights. A committee is established under the Convention for this purpose (Article 1).

Articles 3 and 5 of the ECHR impose particularly rigorous restrictions. Article 3 puts an absolute prohibition on torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment by the police forces, terms defined in the judgement in the Ireland v UK case. Also, the conduct of the victim is not accepted as a justification for derogating from Article 3, however heinous it may be alleged to be.

Islamic Law explicitly outlaws torture, beating, and other cruel and inhumane treatment. The Prophet, upon him be peace, said: ‘God shall torture on the Day of Recompense those who inflict torture on people in this life’. The prohibition can be deduced also from practice of the early Caliphs and other Muslim rulers. Most jurists agree that no prisoner should be insulted, humiliated, beaten, tortured or chained, regardless of the offence. Islamic Law affirms that any confession obtained by coercion, torture or unlawful detention cannot be used to sustain a conviction. The Prophet set a practical example for treating the accused humanely and so enabling him to speak freely, when he addressed a defendant in these gentle words: ‘I do not think you stole. Did you?’

Article 5 of the ECHR, designed to protect individuals against arbitrary treatment, has generated a substantial body of case law. Anyone apprehending or arresting another person must respect due process of law. Not only compliance with national law, but also compliance with the principles of the Convention, as defined in the case law of the Commission and the Court, must be observed. Under Article 5(l), Suspicion must be reasonable to permit an arrest (Article 5(1)); the arrested persons must be told why they have been arrested (5(2)); detention should be of strictly fixed duration (5(3)) and, the detainee brought before a judge or other officer promptly and without having to ask. These provisions obviously have to do with police powers exercised under legal authority. In the Bozana case, the Court concluded that the expulsion of Bozana had turned into a ‘disguised extradition’ measure, designed to circumvent an appeal, and was therefore unlawful within the meaning of Article 5(1).

In the Brogan case, the Commission took the view that the struggle against terrorism may require some sacrifice of individual liberty for collective security ad so justify a flexible approach to the period of detention. The Court did not agree with this line of reasoning. It allowed that bringing to trial ‘promptly’ might be flexibly construed but insisted that there is a maximum period of detention compatible with the Convention. Tanca commented: ‘admitting longer police custody for those suspected of terrorist offences would alter the balance in favour of the police authorities, conferring on them more sweeping powers and the authority to decide when to use them’. The Convention also clearly requires that any officials with power to hold someone in remand must have judicial authority to do so. This position was further clarified in the Schiesser case in which the Court held that those officials must be independent of government and political parties.

Under Islamic Law, preventive detention is considered a serious restrictionof personal liberty and an exception to the general rule that no-one shall be deprived of their liberty except for the enforcement of a lawful sentence. Some Islamic jurists including Abu Yusuf opposed preventive detention on the grounds that neither the Prophet nor his immediate successors maintained a prison. One school of Islamic jurists, however, is of the opinion that it is permissible, under the proper conditions and with safeguards to balance the interests of the defendants and law enforcement authorities. (These jurists base their position on the teaching of the Prophet who detained a man accused of a crime.) But in any case, Islamic jurists were very cautious in its application and laid down very strict conditions as to duration, those authorized to impose detention and in what circumstances (Al-Saleh, 1982, pp.74-5).

Another police activity which infringes fundamental human rights is the search of private premises. Article 8 of the Convention guarantees the right to privacy of family life, of home and of correspondence. Any interference with this right must be ‘in accordance with the law’ and ‘necessary in a democratic society’. In an emergency, additional measures derogating from Article 8 may be taken, provided these are strictly required and respect the other procedural and substantive requirements of Article 15.

An individual’s home and private life are regarded as inviolable in Islamic Law, in accordance with the Qur’an (24.27-8) and the instruction of the Prophet, upon him be peace, in his ‘Farewell Sermon’. But that right is conditional on the absence of reasons requiring its restriction or suspension. It is significant that Islamic Law prohibits the search of person or home, and the invasion of privacy for the purpose of verifying the occurrence of a crime unless there is independent corroboration thereof. Any restriction of the right to privacy may not exceed the limits as determined by the purpose for which the exception is being permitted, namely to uncover the truth.

The Islamic perspective

The Qur’anic verse O mankind, worship your Lord who created you from a single soul … (4.1) is the ground rule which determines the Islamic perspective on this issue. It gives ‘Muslims a consciousness of their belonging to a broader, larger and all-encompassing universe, rather than to consider themselves a parochial subdivision of a greater part with which no intercourse is invited’. However, the development of international law remained totally alien to the Islamic Law of nations which preserved the ethical basis and moral source of its norms and statutes. In Europe, as a result of religious wars and distrust of the clergy, religion and morality were replaced by more pragmatic powers and necessities of state, though Christian concepts remained influential. The Treaty of Westphalia of 1648 was based on the concept of cuius regio, eius religio, which sealed the separation further. The Western view is that mechanical conformity to the pattern of conduct, prescribed by the law of the state or by international law, is sufficient to secure public order and universal peace. Western law aims ‘to proceed to influence from outside the inner condition of man and somehow it believes that institutions, social, economic, political etc., have a way of influencing the individual character… Islam, on the other hand, begins by inviting man to accept the paramountcy of the power of the Lord, his own servitude and bondage to the will of his Master who is the Sovereign Ruler of the universe; in the last resort it redeems him by prescribing upon him norms of behaviour by which he is to regulate his life’. The only real sanction for the moral law is, in the last resort, the authority of religion. Morality cannot be effective without religion. Morality tells us what is right and proper to do, while the law enforces those moral principles as have a direct bearing on the regulation of the individual vis A vis his fellow human beings. If the law is secular the enforcement of it can only be on the secular plane, whereas, if the law is religious, its enforcement takes note of deleterious consequences of criminal acts not only in this life but also in the life to come. International law may have come a considerable way towards urging the protection of individual human rights against abuse general. But the reality is that these instruments and mechanisms have not been successful on their own. Therefore, we tend to argue that any attempt or any solution on the protection of the individual against such abuses will only be successful, if there is a religious dimension to it. That is the function of the morality.

Sources

• AL-SALEH, Osman Abd-eI-Malek (1982) ‘The rights of the individual to personal security in Islam’. in Bassioni. M. C. The Islamic Criminal Justice System. Edited by Bassioni, M. C. London: Ocean. Publication, London.
• AWAD, A. M. (1982) ‘The rights of the accused under Islamic criminal procedure’, in The Islamic Criminal Justice System.
• BASSIOUNI, M. C. (1982) ’The rights of the accused under Islamic criminal procedure’, in The Islamic Criminal Justice System. Edited by Bassioni, M.C. London: Ocean. Publication, London.
• BASSIOUNI, M. C. (1982) ‘The Sources of Islamic Law and the Protection of Human Rights’ in The Islamic Criminal Justice System.
• BROHI, A. K. (1982) ‘The Nature of Islamic Law and the concept human rights’, in Human Rights in Islam, International Commission of Justice, Geneva, pp. 55-56.
• ICJ (1982) Human Rights in Islam, International Commission of Justice, Geneva.
• TANCA, A. (1990) “Human rights, terrorism and police custody: the Brogan case”, European Journal of International Law, 1, pp.269-77