To attain happiness and to avoid mood disorders, which should we pursue

The messages of modern society are all too familiar to us: buy more, eat more, sleep more, take more pictures, and care less about the effects of our actions. We are encouraged to maximize pleasure while avoiding anything that inconveniences us. We cloister ourselves with our material goods and social media habits, promoting self-centeredness. This induces a fluctuating happiness in which phases of pleasure and displeasure repeatedly alternate, which can result in various mood disorders and has been linked to decreases in well-being. In this article, we are going to analyze self-centeredness and its consequences and also interpret its role in a variety of mood disorders and various areas of life.

The Self-centeredness / Selflessness Happiness Model (SSHM) is a theoretical model proposed by Dambrun et al. in 2011 [1]. This model represents different sorts of happiness that are dependent upon the self, particularly the structure of the self. They claim that self-centered psychological functioning derives from how someone perceives themselves and the belief that they are powerful, permanent, and independent. This functioning causes fluctuating happiness and afflictive affects which are also the roots of many mood disturbances. This is heavily contrasted by the perception of the self as flexible which leads to selfless psychological functioning and is a crucial factor at attaining more authentic/durable happiness [1].

After proposing this model, Michael Dambrun conducted a study in 2017 that built upon this model. According to this research, self-centered psychological functioning allows individuals to fluctuate between joy and sorrow, a vacillation that results in afflictive affects. Conversely, selfless psychological functioning gives the individual more emotional stability and feeling of harmony with the environment. They tested these hypotheses in two studies consisting of a heterogeneous sample of citizens (n=547). Analyses of these two studies indicate that self-centeredness (measured by egocentrism and materialism) and selflessness (measured by transcendence and connectedness to others) were two different psychological constructs rather than strict oppositional ideas.

In addition to showing the distinct functioning, these analyses also revealed that self-centered functioning is significantly associated with fluctuating happiness that is the root of afflictive affects. However, selflessness is linked to authentic/durable happiness, which is the result of perceiving the self as flexible and harmonious with the environment and universe. These associations are mediated by distinct psychological processes. For self-centeredness, afflictive affects play a crucial role in the correlation with fluctuating happiness in self-centered individuals.

In contrast, selfless individuals attain authentic-durable happiness that is partially mediated by emotional stability and perceiving themselves as harmonious with others and the universe (2). In our view, individuals who are more concerned about their happiness are more susceptible to mood fluctuations and disorders, while individuals who have more significant interest for the happiness of others attain more robust and durable emotions.

These studies also suggest that self-centeredness causes problems in society; as such, we will to analyze the results later.

Fluctuating happiness in the self-centered individual

The idea of the self as a real, permanent entity with its distinct boundaries results in self-centered psychological functioning. Laborit’s [3] study suggests that each organized structure in the form of an entity seeks gratifications that positively reinforce it and avoids things that risk its homeostasis. The hedonic principal is a major ruler in self-centered functioning and is deeply associated with egoism, egocentrism, an exaggerated importance given to the self, and ego inflation (through material possessions, for example) (e.g. Higgins,1997) [4].

The hedonic principle and its associations are also correlated with some personality disorders, particularly narcissistic personality disorder [5]. This principle induces the individual to focus on attaining pleasure and avoiding displeasure. Feelings of temporary happiness, joy, and gratification are the result of impulsive actions for attaining pleasure and avoiding displeasure. However, only the presence or absence of certain stimuli reinforce the individual and only give temporary pleasure and happiness (Wallace & Shapiro, 2006 [6]). The experience of pleasure depends on circumstances, is an unstable condition that may soon become neutral or may be displaced with displeasure. (i.e., hedonic adaptation, e.g., Brickman, Coates & Janoff-Bulman, 1978; Lyubomirsky, 2011 [7]). Focusing on attaining more pleasure and avoiding displeasure lead an individual to recognize and realize the impossibility of attaining valued objects, durable pleasure, and cause them to repeatedly vacillate between pleasure and displeasure and the arising affects such as frustration, nervousness, anger, hostility, or jealousy, all of which damage their well-being and health (e.g., Miller) [8]. Contrarily, altruism, also called selflessness or focusing on others’ happiness, is significantly associated with a higher quality of well-being, health, and longevity [9].

Self-centeredness cause depressive symptomatology

A self-centered lifestyle may cause not only mood disorders but also social problems that also increase the prevalence of different mood disorders. Loneliness is a big problem in contemporary society, though we mostly live in crowded cities adorned with skyscrapers. As the title describes, a study conducted in 2017 shows loneliness and self-centeredness have a reciprocal effect that cause depression and various mood disorders, as well as health and social problems [10].

Loneliness increases not only the motivation to repair or replace deficient social relationships, but also the implicit motivation for self-preservation. John T. Cacioppo et al. reported a cross-lagged analysis of 10 waves of longitudinal data (n=229) on loneliness and self-centeredness (as gauged by Feeney and Collins’s measure of choric self-focus) in a representative sample of middle-aged and other adults. Loneliness increases the implicit motivation for self-preservation, and loneliness in the current year anticipates self-centeredness in the following year beyond what is reasoned by current-year demographic variables, self-centeredness, depressive symptomatology, and overall negative mood and emotions. Their study also revealed that self-centeredness in the current year foretells loneliness in the subsequent year, a reciprocal relationship that could potentially contribute to the maintenance of loneliness [12].

Generation Me and its consequences on human mood

An increase in narcissism with some indicators of increased self-focus in Americans born after 1970 leads authors to describe that generation as “Generation Me” [5, 12]. This narcissism and self-focus are also intimately related to self-centered psychological functioning since both are formed by an exaggerated importance given to the self, ego-inflation, and so on. We think self-centered psychological functioning may also be considered as a part of this dynamic, thus being a member of Generation Me may be one of the major risk factors for narcissistic personality traits and disorder [2, 12].

Narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) is a personality disorder in which there is a long-term pattern of abnormal behavior characterized by a grandiose self-view, unrealistic sense of entitlement, exaggerated feelings of self-importance, and a lack of understanding of others’ feelings [13, 14]. Narcissists who consider themselves to be superior to others, and also have unrealistic expectations for the future, become angry and aggressive when in trouble, take more resources for themselves and leave less for others, and value money, fame, and image over family, helping others, and community. Though narcissism has some benefits, like public speaking, it has lots of adverse effects on human mood and behavior and comorbidities with psychological disorders [15].

Selfless functioning

The principle of “harmony” has a primary role in the selflessly functioning individual; harmony directs all mental activities (conation, motivation, attention, emotion, cognition, behavior). Harmony and emotional stability are associated with empathy, benevolence, compassion, and deep respect; all of these have a beneficial effect on behavior and a reduction of psychological distress [2]. Many studies have revealed the results of altruism on happiness and health and have consistently found a deep and intimate connection between altruism and current and future health and well-being.

References

1. Dambrun, M., & Ricard, M. (2011). Self-centeredness and selflessness: A theory of self-based psychological functioning and its consequences for happiness. Review of General Psychology, 15 (2), 138-157.
2. Dambrun M. Self-centeredness and selflessness: happiness correlates and mediating psychological processes. Hung T-M, ed. PeerJ. 2017; 5:e3306. doi:10.7717/peerj.3306.
3. Laborit (1979) Laborit H. L’inhibition de l’action: biologie, physiologie, psychologie, sociologie. Edition Masson; Paris: 1979.
4. Higgins (1997) Higgins ET. Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist. 1997; 52:1280–1300. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.52.12.1280. [PubMed] [Cross Ref]
5. Jean M. Twenge The Evidence for Generation Me and Against Generation We Vol 1, Issue 1, pp. 11 – 16,First published date: March-01-20131177/2167696812466548
6. Wallace & Shapiro (2006) Wallace BA, Shapiro SL. Mental balance and well-being: building bridges between Buddhism and Western psychology. American Psychologist. 2006;61:690–701. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.61.7.690. [PubMed] [Cross Ref]
7. Brickman P., Coates D., Janoff-Bulman R. (1978). Lottery winners and accident victims: is happiness relative? J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 36, 917–92710.1037/0022-3514.36.8.917 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]
8. Miller et al. (1996) Miller TQ, Smith TW, Turner CW, Guijarro ML, Hallet AJ. A meta-analytic review of research on hostility and physical health. Psychological Bulletin. 1996;119:322–348. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.119.2.322. [PubMed] [Cross Ref]
9. “altruism (n .)”.Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. Retrieved 19 September 2014.
10. Cacioppo JT, Chen HY, Cacioppo S. Reciprocal Influences Between Loneliness and Self-Centeredness: A Cross-Lagged Panel Analysis in a Population-Based Sample of African American, Hispanic, and Caucasian Adults. Pers Soc Psychol Bull.2017 Aug;43(8):1125-1135. doi: 10.1177/0146167217705120. Epub 2017 Jun 13.
11. Twenge JM. Generation Me: Why today’s young Americans are more confident, assertive, entitled—And more miserable than ever before. New York: Free Press; 2006.
12. PubMed Caligor, E; Levy, KN; Yeomans, FE (May 2015). “Narcissistic personality disorder: diagnostic and clinical challenges.”. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 172 (5): 415–22. PMID25930131. doi:1176/appi.ajp.2014.14060723
13. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5(5th ed.). Washington [etc.]: American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013. pp. 645, 669–72.
14. Cai H, Shi Y, Fang X, Luo YLL. Narcissism predicts impulsive buying: phenotypic and genetic evidence. Frontiers in Psychology. 2015;6:881. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00881.
15. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5(5th ed.). Washington [etc.]: American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013. pp. 645, 669–72.

Over time, the pressures that accumulate from our commitments and responsibilities can affect our mental health. Through prolonged periods of stress, cortisol and adrenaline poison our body, which can lead to anxiety disorders. To maintain our emotional and mental health, we must consider the state of our spirituality and be mindful of the metaphysical aura which is in continuous interaction with our physical body.

Our cardiovascular system meticulously delivers oxygen and nutrients to body tissues and in turn removes carbon dioxide and waste products. The average rate of contraction is 75 beats per minute, meaning that a human heart contracts 108,000 times a day, more than 39 million times in one year, and nearly 3 billion times during a 75-year lifespan. However, this magnificent center of our being is not only related to our physical, but also our spiritual, well-being. The blood that our heart pumps contains more than just oxygen and nutrients for the body. It acts as both a radiator of goodness from the spirit (ruh) and evil from our carnality (nafs). The Arabic language has eight different translations for the word “soul,” with each of them accounting for a different element of the soul, including the heart, reinforcing the link between the physical and metaphysical.

Basic cardiovascular physiology denotes that deoxygenated blood returns to the right ventricle, which pumps it into the pulmonary trunk and then to the lungs, where carbon dioxide is released and oxygen is absorbed. Oxygenated blood then travels back to the left side of the heart into the left atrium, then into the left ventricle from where it is pumped into the aorta and subsequently the arterial circulation.

Based on this circulatory system, one may speculate about an interaction between our heart and soul. The right ventricle, where our deoxygenated or “dirty blood” returns, might be the location point of our evil-commanding carnal soul or nafs-al ammara. In contrast, the left ventricle, which pumps clean, oxygenated blood, might be the locus of the presence of our spirit (ruh). Thus, one can think of the heart as a tool of the soul, and the soul as a mirror of the heart [1]. If the mirror is kept clean, one can see. If it is dirty, then we are blinded. In this way, the state of the heart affects the soul; the two are in a directly proportional relationship.

Long before the advancement of modern psychology, emotional and mental well-being were highlighted in the Qur’an. The verse “And We have already created man and know what his soul whispers to him, and We are closer to him than his jugular vein,” (50:16) is a perfect example of the spiritual psychology that is immanent throughout the Qur’an. Not only does it demonstrate the proximity of God to His servants at times of inner turmoil, but it also sheds light on the notion of delusion, or whisperings of the heart (waswasa), and that He is aware and understanding of moods of doubt.

Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) also refers to the relationship between the heart and soul: “Truly in the body there is a morsel of flesh which, if it be sound, all the body is sound and which, if it be diseased, all of it is diseased. Truly it is the heart” (Bukhari). This hadith refers to the close relationship between the bodily organs and the subtle psychic organs of the human soul; the spiritual heart is the center of human consciousness and is interrelated to the bodily, physical heart.

Our conscience, or mind, must acknowledge and make sense of all the thoughts, feelings, and sensations that arise. Muslim scholars describe possible sources for inner voices to be God, the angels, the devil, and the physiological body [2, 3]. With the appropriate depth of perception, self-regulation and spiritual expertise, one can distinguish between them. While waswasa has a negative connotation and usually refers to the whisperings from the devil and our nafs, we can also receive sources of inspiration from other metaphysical beings such as angels [4]. The mind’s ability to see the world through patterns and metaphors are the workings of the heart, and a gift from God to help us see the meaningful connections in life and to learn by reflecting upon experience. In this way, mindfulness provides an innovative approach to treat mental health issues. By having awareness and a clear comprehension, one can pay attention with patience and care to what happens and try to resolve it accordingly.

It is an understatement to say that we have an incredibly complex and dynamic aura, where the interaction of the metaphysical and physical matter that make up the human body are continually interacting. We’re constantly receiving input from other existing beings around us. There are mechanisms of action we can adopt to make a protective shield against these forces, some of which can have a negative impact on our soul.

The most obvious constituent of this shield is being immaculate in performing prescribed worships. These “must-do’s” are a reference point for us. If we slack off in our worship, our protective shield against waswasa is inevitably weakened. The ablutions we take throughout the day, even before we sleep, are another protective mechanism, while in the remembrance of God (dhikr), our hearts will “find tranquility and satisfaction” (13:28). However, even saints have lamented over periods of “dark nights” when the believer is tested by God who, for a short period, withholds from the devotee all delight in prayer and worship. Sufis describe this state of the soul as qabd, literally meaning being grasped by hand. This causes distress and makes one suffer from spiritual blockage. On the other hand, the soul can also reach a state of bast, or openness, expansion, development, or relief, when one is freed from spiritual blockage and develops inwardly. Thus, “God contracts and expands” (2:245) and believers must make both of these states fruitful by being thankful during openness and seeing contraction as an effective remedy for the sickness of the soul.

Trying to solve psychological problems solely with spiritual therapies is a mistake. Mainstream, pharmacological therapy can be necessary, just like in physiological disease. We rarely hesitate to see a doctor when we have an allergic reaction or the flu, but a psychological disease is assumed to be resolved through worship. While prayer is an incredibly powerful metaphysical tool that eases and lessens mental health problems, it might not be enough to completely cure a person of their condition. Psychological problems can be considered a cancer of the soul and should be treated with the appropriate therapy – that is, professionally. While prayer will undoubtedly have an anesthetic effect on the patient, going to see a psychologist would be the active prayer. Only then can you leave the outcome to God, after having done your part of fulfilling both verbal and active prayer.

As Imam al-Ghazali said, “Knowing the definition of these diseases, their causes and their cures, and remedies to fix them, is personally obligatory on every Muslim” (Al-Majmua). Thus, we are obliged to not only realize what is going on in our hearts and our conscious minds, but also to cure ourselves from any of the diseases that may have a negative impact on our mental or physical health.

Notes

1. Aysel, M.; Yavas I.; Akdag, M. 2016. Ruh ve Psikolojisi. (unpublished draft).
2. Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said. 1926, The Words, the Second Station of the Twenty-First Word.
3. Gülen, Fethullah. 2008. Varligin Metafizik Boyutu, Istanbul, 2008, pp. 322-336.
4. Aysel, M. 2018. “The Dynamic Vesvese Model,” Association for Psychological and Spiritual Sciences. (unpublished draft).

Discussions over personal liberty and government intervention are as old as modern governments, as J.S. Mill’s writings show.

John Stuart Mill was among the many philosophers, both before and after, who attempted to determine when government intervention in the private lives of individuals was legitimate. The authoritarian regimes of 19^th century Europe triggered thinkers to study citizen’s rights and state powers. Mill attempted to regulate the actions of these authoritarian regimes by distinguishing between legitimate and illegitimate government intervention in his book On Liberty. Mill’s ideas were one influence among many on the structure and laws of the modern nation state. Using his ideas on freedom and government as a starting point, we can discuss psychological harm, human fallibility, and social responsibilities.

Mill, in On Liberty, identifies two mechanisms for determining legitimate government intervention: the harm principle and utilitarianism. The harm principle states that government can only legitimately interfere with the actions of individuals if the actions of the individuals harm others against their will. Thus, if an action does not harm another against their will, the government cannot interfere. Notice that an individual can harm themselves or even other people with the appropriate consent. Effectively, the harm principle constitutes an absolute bar to government intervention on unharmful private action.

The second mechanism, utilitarianism, comes into play after government intervention is considered to be legitimate due to harmful consequences of private actions. At this point, the government must do a utility calculation, or a cost-benefit analysis, in which it must determine whether government intervention will result in more harm than the private action it will attempt to stop. If the analysis indicates that government intervention will result in more harm, government intervention would be considered illegitimate, and vice versa. Thus, while the harm principle constituted an absolute categorical bar, the utilitarianism mechanic requires a case-by-case determination of the legitimacy of government intervention.

In order to apply the harm principle it is important not only to know what the principle is, but also what constitutes harm. The broader the definition of harm becomes, the larger the pool of actions that the government can interfere with becomes. In general, the classification of physical damage to body and property as harm is generally accepted by society as well as by Mill. However, the definition of harm can include things other than just physical damage. In order to properly apply the harm principle, it must be determined whether psychological harm and failure to act can be classified as harm, warranting government intervention.

Psychological Harm

Can feeling distress, being upset, or experiencing psychological harm due to another individual’s actions be categorized as harm? If one were to accept distress as harm, then the definition of harm has effectively been broadened to include every instance in which one feels discomfort or is upset by another’s action, expanding the sphere of legitimate government intervention.

Mill does not determine distress or psychological harm to be harm. The distress or psychological harm Mill refers to is one originating from a disagreement of values between two individuals. For example, one individual may like the color blue while another dislikes it. The distress, anger, resentment, or any other negative feelings the other may feel when the first wears a blue shirt is the psychological harm that Mill refers to. A more consequential example would be the distress that a Democrat may feel about the ideas expressed at a Republican rally. The views expressed at the rally are clearly contrary to the individual’s beliefs, yet the distress originating from this ideological difference cannot be categorized as harm. If it was categorized as harm, then the government could intervene whenever actions or speech was contrary to the ideology and beliefs of the most powerful or the most vocal.

Mill, in On Liberty, states that “unless we are willing to adopt the logic of persecutors, and to say that we may persecute others because we are right and they must not persecute us because they are wrong, we must beware of admitting a principle of which we should resent as a gross injustice the application to ourselves” (1). Here he attempts to stop the use of the harm principle in attempts to impose beliefs or one’s own moral values on others. He argues that imposing views on another is wrong, because one would not want others to impose their views on them. Additionally, Mill emphasizes the fallibility of human reasoning and preferences, stating that despite one’s conviction in one’s own position in an argument, there is always the possibility of error.

Admittance of the fallibility is not only a sign of humility and recognition of possibilities, but also a very real demonstration of understanding one’s own limitations inherent in being human. This principle has been recognized and applied by many scholars and thinkers in addition to Mill, like Socrates and Said Nursi. For example, in The Republic, Plato quotes Socrates as exclaiming “[a]s for me, all I know is that I know nothing” (2).

Similarly, Said Nursi demonstrates the same recognition of the fallibility of human beings in his Risale-i Nur and attributes true knowledge only to God. This is clearly displayed in his use of text from the Quran at the beginning and ending of all the chapters in The Words. Thus, Nursi begins his work by drawing from what he considers the true source of knowledge and ends with that same infallible source.

Lastly, English philosopher Thomas Hobbes seems to support Mill’s position against persecution by arguing in Leviathan that “do not that to another, which thou wouldst not have done to thyself” (3). Hobbes’ view is in effect a version of the golden rule, limiting social interaction to only actions one would deem acceptable if done to him/her. In congruence with Hobbes’s golden rule, Mill argues that imposing one’s views on others is wrong, and that feeling upset due to the failure of others to conform to those views is not harm. Thus, even if the actions of an individual upset or cause psychological harm to others, the government cannot legitimately interfere.

Failure to Act

Though Mill prevents distress or psychological harm from being used to legitimize government intervention over an individual’s actions, he permits failure to act to be classified as harm. In situations where a failure to act causes a negative or harmful outcome, government intervention would be legitimate. For example, the government may prosecute a firefighter if his negligence allowed a building to burn down. However, classifying failure to act or inaction as harm is dangerous, because people are not capable of infinite actions in a moment. The jurisdiction of government intervention is expanded tremendously by this classification. Why would Mill, who constructed a mechanism for limiting government intervention, expand government power in this way? And what restraints can be applied to the failure-to-act classification?

Socrates’ ideas, as expressed in The Republic by Plato, provide some insight into answering the previous questions. After examining Plato’s views in The Republic, it is possible to claim that Socrates would agree with Mill in including the failure-to-act as harm. His definition of a just society is a society in which everyone is doing their job or role in society (4). From this, one can assume that a just action within a society would be whatever action is in accordance with the job of the individual as determined by his soul and position in society. Thus, failure to perform one’s job would then be classified as an unjust action by Plato, open to government intervention for the restoration of social justice.

Socrates’ view seems to emphasize the nature of the action that the individual is failing to do. If the failure to act involved the failure to do one’s job in society, then the failure to act would be considered unjust. On the other hand, if the failure to act involved inaction about an issue that was not the individual’s responsibility, then it is possible to conclude that the failure to act in this instance is not an unjust action. Thus, this approach distinguishes between a firefighter who chooses not to stop a fire from a regular citizen who chooses not to stop a fire. The firefighter neglects his responsibility, opening him to criminal prosecution, while the regular citizen’s inaction is not open to prosecution. By allowing the failure to act to be considered as harm, Mill avoided conflicting with the conditional nature of determining whether the failure to act is just or unjust as extrapolated from Plato’s views.

Socrates’ and Mill’s analysis regarding the failure to act is based solely on the legal and formal responsibilities of the individual. The police have a responsibility to stop crime, and parents have a responsibility to take care of their children, etc. Each nation’s unique constitution and laws make legal responsibilities country-specific and unique. For example, many European states, like Germany and France, require citizens to provide assistance to persons in danger (5). However, the duty to rescue those in peril does not exist in other countries, like the United States (6). Of course, most people call the authorities for help and attempt to provide first-aid, but the fact remains that in most of the United States, there is no legal obligation to rescue. Each country determines the legal responsibilities of its citizens, some choosing to expand and some choosing to restrict the extent of responsibilities.

For many people, informal responsibilities extend beyond formal responsibilities; these are often based on the individual’s religion, culture, and ethics. While government intervention may not be legitimate for failures of informal responsibilities according to Mill, informal responsibilities constitute an important piece of the society. For example, children have an informal responsibility to care for their parents, especially during their old age. If children ignore this responsibility, the government cannot and should not intervene. After all, the government is not the ultimate solution for every social problem, and each member of the country may not believe in the same informal responsibilities due to different culture, religion, and ethics. Instead, the true solutions to failures in informal responsibilities are education in social values and decency, social structures, communities, and institutions.

Mill’s principles on government intervention in the lives of free people provided a platform to discuss psychological harm and social responsibilities. Government can provide solutions for certain social issues, but not for all. In recognition of this, Mill wrote of an alternative limited government to the authoritarian regimes of his time. In this alternative, conflicting and controversial ideologies could co-exist, and government would only regulate formal responsibilities. The burden rests on the society to care for the informal responsibilities.

Notes

1. Mill, John Stuart. On Liberty, 155
2. Plato, The Republic, (Plato 354c, book 1)
3. Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan. Pt. 1, Ch. 15, para. 35
4. Kara, Mahmut. “Rethinking Plato: Philosophical Idealism and Political Totalitarianism.” Fountain Magazine, April-June 2001.
5. Weinrib, Ernest J. “The Case for a Duty to Rescue.” The Yale Law Journal , Vol. 90, No. 2 (Dec., 1980), pp. 247-293 Published by: The Yale Law Journal Company, Inc. URL:<http://www.jstor.org/stable/795987>.
6. Yania v. Bigan, 397 Pa. 316, 155 A.2d 343 (1959)

40 percent of smokers begin between the ages of 15-19. According to researchers, the intensity of spiritual-psychological and social problems between the ages of 13 and 19 puts youths under a higher risk of starting smoking. Smoking as an adolescent can be related to low self-esteem and academic problems. It is an established fact that teenage smoking is the most influential risk factor for adult smoking. A young person looking for a role model can be influenced by one’s parents, teachers, and friends. Family structure and social environments are influential regarding smoking and other addictive behaviors. Keeping away from smokers reduces the likelihood of smoking.

It is reported that light depression increases smoking, and that regular smokers’ have higher incidences of depression and suicide when compared to non-smokers. Smoking rates are higher with those who do manual labor, who have smokers among family members or close friends, who live in urban centers, who have a high income, who work under difficult conditions, who have a history of social problems, and who are male. It is also reported that 94% of people who smoke more than three cigarettes a day at the beginning become addicted in the long run.

Why do people insist on continuing a behavior they know to be harmful or that they cannot give up easily even if they wish to? There are various reasons for this. First of all, human beings do not only make decisions and act within the control of reason, logic, willpower, and conscience. Cigarettes contain addictive chemicals that stimulate the brain’s pleasure center. Developing an addiction weakens willpower. When individuals realize how dangerous this addiction is, it is mostly too late to give up, since it takes significant willpower. We act not only based on logical information, but on intense feelings, too. Thus, a person continues to smoke in spite of knowing the dangers. A person’s degree of psychological and spiritual “hunger,” the strength of their feelings, and a failure to meet other healthy goals can be contributing factors to an addiction.

The World Health Organization defines dependence syndrome as “a cluster of physiological, behavioral, and cognitive phenomena in which the use of a substance or a class of substances takes on a much higher priority for a given individual than other behaviors that once had greater value.” Considering cigarette dependence, the person may find it really hard to break free from a vicious cycle beginning with thought, gaining velocity with feelings, and ending with the execution of a certain act.

In terms of the human brain and neurotransmitters, smoking causes nicotine to react with nicotine receptors. As a result of long-term nicotine intake, a neuro-adaptation increases the number of nicotine receptors in the brain. The brain develops tolerance to certain effects of nicotine. After a person has become neuro-physiological dependent, they begin to crave nicotine.

The effects of nicotine on the human body depend on the dose and have two aspects. The reduction of nicotine in blood causes symptoms of depravation, and its increase causes symptoms of poisoning. If a person smokes more cigarettes, and has free access to them, the amount required to achieve stimulation grows; their tolerance gets higher. Because nicotine is a psychological and spiritual stimulant, it often gives a feeling of temporary relief, which helps the smoker to forget their problems. This causes the smoker to draw a connection between smoking and a lack of worries, thus further affecting their reasoning and will power. Researches have shown that as the daily number of cigarettes increases, the habit shifts from the critical phase to the supercritical, and that psychological dependence turns into neuro-psychological dependence. 75-80 percent of smokers wish to give up smoking, and one third of dependent smokers attempted to give up smoking at least three times.

Phases of treatment

The purpose in treatment is making the smoker give up the habit in the long run. The first goal is to get the behavior under control by reducing the amount of cigarettes, and then, finally, cutting them out completely. A set of psychological thresholds smokers need to overcome are defined. Each of them is passed by overcoming different psychological and social obstacles.

1. Not being aware of the damage and not taking any steps for change: At this phase, the smoker does not calculate the possible harm of smoking and thus does not wish to give it up. When the subject is mentioned, it is dismissed by means of certain defense mechanisms. Those who wish to help the smoker must know this situation, and they should never engage in a dispute about smoking; by using soft spoken words, they should patiently try to make that person feel the grim realities of smoking.

2. Beginning to think about giving up smoking: At this phase, the person states that he or she will give up smoking whenever the subject is mentioned. The person also expresses being aware of the dangers and being in need of help to give up. However, taking action can sometimes take months, or even years. At this phase, the person should make a self-evaluation for the sake of putting one’s knowledge to real life practice, and to help them face their conscience. Those who wish to give up smoking had better prepare a list of the advantages to not smoking. Sincerity and empathy shown by the person to help the smoker are the most influential help; a single look or word might have an adverse effect and cause a relapse.

3. The preparation: The person is ready to give up smoking. At this phase, it will be useful to prepare a practical plan by benefiting from the tips of those who gave up smoking successfully. The date to give up should be set, preferably a meaningful day for the person, such as a birthday or anniversary. For spiritual support, it can be useful to previously announce the day to give up smoking to the person’s friends and family.

4. Action: The person has quit smoking. Having a small ceremony can be beneficial, as it creates a sense of psychological and social obligation; in the interest of these obligations, it’s important the person receive social support throughout the process. The person should keep away from people and places that make them feel like smoking. Exercise is a good way to combat any urges. When the person feels an urge to smoke, one must take a deep breath, and then release it slowly after holding it for some time. They should know that an intense urge to smoke only lasts for two or three minutes and soon subsides.

5. Continuing the newly acquired good behavior: At this phase, the person must be resolved not to relapse. At this point, the issue depends on the person’s freewill. It will be useful to reward ones’ self for not having started again. One of the most important components of treatment is helping the smoker develop proper interests and hobbies so that they are not tempted to start smoking again. Others around the person can provide positive psychological support. It is narrated that one drunken man came to visit Rumi, but his disciples tried to get rid of him with harsh treatment. On seeing this, Rumi remarked: “He drank the toxicant, but you have become intoxicated.” In the same way, we must also act with magnanimity, tolerance, and a feeling of responsibility to save our friends from such a dangerous habit.

Smoking is a habit that can be given up and treated

Is it a wise strategy to give up smoking all of a sudden? Is it possible? Is it advised to give it up gradually? Answers to these questions differ from patient to patient. First and foremost, giving up smoking depends on the person’s own wish, resolution, and willpower. It is possible to give up this habit. According to the WHO, treating smokers are among a doctor’s duties. It is known that as a consequence of anti-smoking campaigns and activities, millions of people gave up smoking. As the average rate of success remains under 10% for those who receive no help, we need to provide as much support as possible and encourage people to be healthy.

None of the methods for giving up smoking are 100% successful on their own. The best results are obtained when medical treatment supports the psychological, mental, and spiritual processes. Medical treatment include symptomatic treatments that target the feeling of deprivation that arise after giving up smoking and using other drugs to lessen the wish to smoke.

References

• Heatherton, Todd F. et al. 1991. “The Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence: a revision of the Fagerström Tolerance Questionnaire.” British Journal of Addiction 86:1119-1127.
• JC Norcross, Krebs PM, Proschaska JO. 2011. “Stages of Change.” J. Clin. Psychol. Feb. 67 (2):143-54.
• World Health Organization http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/index.html. Accessed March 9, 2013.

In the twentieth century, like other religious communities around the world, Muslims had to come to a resolution regarding the compatibility of their religion with science. Today, at least at the fundamental level, this is not an issue, however, the same pattern of questioning is extended to the use of the products of science: is it permissible to donate one’s organs? Under what conditions is abortion permissible? Can a person perform daily prayers (salaat) while onboard vehicles? etc. Along the same line of thought, psychology is under scrutiny in terms of its use for understanding mechanisms of cognition and behaviors, character education and methods of therapy.

Putting Islam and psychology into a perspective

Islam aims at the prosperity of humanity both in this world and in the next. As its prerequisite, Islam requires a conscious and willful submission from its followers. In this brief description, the key words are conscience and will. Without a healthy conscience and free will, human beings can neither be responsible for their actions nor submit to Islam. Therefore, at the fundamental level, Islam calls for action in order to foster the development and exercise of conscience and free will.

Psychology is a discipline that is intended to understand behaviors. It is the study of not only the problematic ones but also the everyday behaviors such as how we remember or forget, learn a language, make selections, or adjust to a society. In this sense, a healthy psychology means a soul in good health that can exercise its free will and associate their actions with their conscience.

The two previous paragraphs imply that essentially psychology is a useful body of knowledge for practicing Islam. With this perspective, there should be no conflicts or compatibility issues between Muslims and psychology. Furthermore, due to their religion that promises to satisfy all faculties of human existence, Muslims should have a completely healthy psychology. Now, let’s think about the Muslim world with this idea in mind.

Journey to ground zero

While reading the cases below, imagine yourself in similar situations. While reading we have to bear in mind that many of these cases are not exclusive to Muslim societies, and their reasons have diverse economic, political, and socio-cultural dimensions (please read footnote 1 for more explanation):

– The near past of the contemporary Muslim world contains wars and sectarian conflicts. There are children in those places whose parents, siblings or friends are dying in the clashes. There are consequences of these traumatic events in the development of their psychology.

– In other places, there are Muslims who feel an obligation to hide their religious practices in order not to be an outcast from the society. The children and the adolescents in such atmospheres are likely to develop a feeling of guilt or inferiority.

– In some parts of the Muslim geography, there are girls who are forced to marry someone that they did not want to, or forced to marry an old man. They struggle for emotional survival, and in the meantime, they try to raise their children. There are many suicidal cases among them, and their yearning for revenge is transmitted to their children.

– There are children who barely hear words of appreciation from their fathers, or have almost no one-on-one time with them. There are children who rarely see their mother being treated respectfully by their father. Such children are likely to establish families in which they use their children as race horses to achieve certain goals in life, and in which the wife is treated very much like a loyal servant.

Due to these unfavorable situations, some Muslims who were victims of these situations face various psychological challenges, which can lead to real problems. These problems are not necessarily acute schizophrenia or paranoia, but more subtle things that penetrate the individual and social life thoroughly, such as excessive self-assertion or self-annihilation, negligence in parenthood, malpractices in the family life, gourmandism, back-biting, obsession and compulsion. In such conditions, people have more difficulty in exercising their free will towards what is taught in Islam; because they develop several psychological immune responses for protection. Hence, their free will is no longer as free as they think.

Atop the ivory tower

One of the premises of science is that the gained knowledge must be objective, i.e. independent of the person. In fact, when we consider the human behavior at a broad level, it is possible to reach some universal rules as well. However, the rise of the social sciences in the past century and the consequent accumulation of knowledge severely challenged the premise of objectivity in the humanities. Innate variations in perceptions of the same phenomenon, diversity in the ideals for humanity, various interpretations of the meaning of life are only a few among many reasons that rendered social sciences rather subjective. Being one of the social sciences, psychology is no exception to this subjectivity. As such, the meaning and applications of psychology in different communities exhibit distinct properties.

Modern psychology as a branch of science has been mainly developed by Western scholars. In doing so, they based their statistical works on their own communities. Thus, the observations and conclusions made by them were reflective of Western societies. At a first glance, one can say that humanity shares a lot in their innate character, and so this knowledge base is useful for everyone. True, but when it comes to building characters, one needs to define an ideal and come up with ways to achieve that ideal, given the conditions of the society. The differences in the definition of an ideal bring an essential subjectivity to the table. Aside from this, the difference of the settings in each society necessitates a special focus and a deeper understanding for each and every group of people.

Richard Nisbett, one of the most cited social psychologists, confesses that as a built-up science over the years, psychology was wrong in assuming human cognition to be the same everywhere. He says that these differences are even scientifically measurable. According to Nisbett’s studies, the world is more complex to Easterners than to Westerners, and everything is considered “in relation to one another in no simple and deterministic way.” Therefore, harmony is almost everything in the East. If something is considered as a breaker of “the harmony,” it tends to be refused even if blind conservatism would be the result. In the West however, self sufficiency is valued over dependency and individuality is preferred over conformity. So, psychological treatments that aim to help people become “their best” and “shine their egos” are misfit to the Eastern social context. This is only one example showing that the studies in the Western world do not entirely represent the Eastern world. Still, the rest of the world is copying what the Western world finds in the psychological studies, even though it is known that the dress does not fit the rest.

Another issue with the modern psychology is the position of faith and religion. To modern psychology, religion is nothing more than statistics that say, “Religious practices can be good for recovering from mental and bodily problems, and an adherence to a faith enhances the protection against certain troubles” or, “religious disciplines may lead to psychological complications.” Along the same lines, God is either a concept that is out of concern or is no more than a product of our brain. The entire body of spiritual development for that matter, e.g. Sufi practices, is nothing more than a beneficial cultural activity. A vast majority of psychologists would diagnose with schizophrenia a person who is experiencing some spiritual perceptual aspects, which are not counted as hallucination in Muslim society. Thus, although modern psychology may respect a patient’s beliefs in God, angels, afterlife, etc., it would not necessarily be able to suggest a cure that can resonate within a Muslim mind.

Focusing on errors

As a consequence of the aforementioned elements of psychology that are not compatible with Muslims, some Muslims make erroneous assumptions about psychology, often triggered by a motive to take pride in their religion.

For example, many Muslims would know Freud only due to his obsession with sexuality as the underlying motive for all human activity. Another erroneous example is towards behaviorism, which establishes deterministic action-reaction patterns of behavior; thus denial of the free will.

A final example to this matter is the emphasis on ego expression and its use in the motivation of the individual. As a daily life application of psychology, self-improvement techniques have been developed and are exported to Muslim societies. These techniques are originating from scientific research mixed with ancient mysticism. One can admit that there is useful information in those sources, but they have been interpreted and organized in such a way as to address the Western individual. And what is more, the picture of ego favored in the resultant teachings is clearly not justifiable with the truths of Islam.

The above examples do not necessarily represent all schools of psychology or the situation of all Muslims or psychologists. However, these are enough materials for the uneducated minds to shun psychology.

Stabilizing on Islam, the middle path

Despite the unfortunate picture drawn above, it is possible that the body of knowledge within psychology can be useful for Muslims. For this, one needs a pragmatic perspective gained through the Qur’an and the practice of the Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him; the sources uncontaminated by cultural interference.

In the context of Islam and Muslims, something that is not a perfect-fit for the norms of some Muslim communities or contradicts them, can be acceptable in Islam (e.g., coexistence and cooperation of Muslims and non-Muslims). Conversely, something that is accepted and appreciated by some Muslim communities can be unjustifiable in Islam (e.g., status of women in social life). Given that guidance and counseling activities are adjusted according to the cultural norms, such activities unaided by the Qur’an and the practice of the Prophet are only likely to sustain the status-quo, without necessarily improving the state of the people in an Islamic manner. With the help of those two sources however, guidance and counseling activities can step outside the cultural norms and provide an improvement in an Islamic spirit.

For example, take the internal conflicts between different groups in a society. In original Islamic understanding, “unity within multiplicity” is taken as a basis in society. This understanding requires diversity under unity, or discrepancy in a harmonious way. Briefly, unity within multiplicity leads to “both/and” thinking style, instead of “either/or.” Therefore, claiming to be members of the final and universal religion, Muslims must be able to accommodate the variances among people instead of leveling them off completely under the banner of “unity.”

The same view leads to embracing the methods of psychology that agree with or serve Islamic ideals. For example, how many people would know Freud as the person who established a psychoanalytic theory in which the importance of childhood memories is emphasized? More importantly, who would know that he proposed a dynamic understanding for the subconscious? The analysis of childhood memories and tracking how they evolved in the subconscious throughout the life of the individual are things that are not in contradiction with the teachings of Islam. What is more, they can be key concepts for the Muslim world to remove their non-Islamic habits.

Similarly, it is well-known that both the Qur’an and the practice of the Prophet recommend rewarding laudable behavior to strengthen it and punishing evil action to curtail it. Behaviorism, thus gives hope to Muslims to change towards what is right using the right methods when they believe hopelessly that there is no way to become a good person after all wrongdoings. Therefore, conditioning-related phenomena, hence behaviorist methods in this sense, can be of importance within the Islamic educational framework.

Achieving the “perfect human”

Once the issues mentioned in this article are addressed, the psychological methods could be well-suited complements for becoming perfect Muslims. Then, issues like conflict resolution, social justice and poverty are going to be much easier to address. Self-improvement and personality development techniques are going to become a different way of servanthood through reliance on God and destiny. Above all however, for the realization of such goals, Muslims need to be educated about psychology in an Islamic spirit and need to use their free will to change themselves as necessary.

Sumeyra Tosun is a forensic psychologist and graduate student at Texas A&M University. Seth Mette is a postdoctoral fellow at West Virginia University.

“Who am I?” People from all backgrounds, experiences, and ages find different responses to this complicated question. Understanding one’s self is probably the greatest intellectual challenge for human beings. A simple answer to this question can be found via basic states of belonging: professional status, family membership, social status, and so on. However, such simple responses do not help us to resolve the underlying existential problems. The so-called question, in other words, seeks for an answer about the “self” itself, rather than for different social labels that are embedded in the self.

Early psychologists attempted to define the “self” in various ways. One basic definition relies on the physical body as the boundary between the self and others. This simplistic understanding of the self was extended by Gordon Allport (1961) to include psychological components, such as self-esteem. A further conceptualization of self regarded other people and prior experiences as parts of the self. William James, who had an important influence in the history of psychology, defined the self in three dimensions. Material or bodily self refers to one’s possessions, including everything one owns, the social self implies our social roles within the social environment, and the spiritual self includes thoughts and feelings about who we are (James, 1890).

Interestingly enough, psychologists after William James have tended to focus on the first and second components of the self. Today, psychology has developed branches, such as neuroscience, social psychology, and transpersonal psychology, which can be regarded as a continuation of the material, social, and spiritual self, respectively. More specifically, however, the third dimension, as transpersonal psychology and the psychology of religion, is not regarded as being part of mainstream psychology. Accordingly, the psychology of religion has been studied in university theology departments rather than psychology departments. This should not come as a surprise, because the search for an understanding of the “self” intensified among psychologists during the twentieth century, a time when religion was on the wane. The philosophical roots of this perspective can be seen even in the dualism postulated by Descartes as the body-mind distinction. Thus, we can view William James’ definition as a resistance against the understanding of that period.

Today’s popular conception of the self has evolved into another three-dimensional definition that is similar to that of William James: the individual self, which is defined as differentiation from others, the relational self, referring to assimilation with others, and the collective self, achieved by inclusion into larger social groups (Sedikides & Brewer, 2001). Although this perspective is functional in understanding the individual within the context, it reduces the existence of the “self” to a simple interaction between the individual and others (social environment); but this is a purely profane approach and excludes the spiritual self. Today, psychologists use instruments of self-concept or self-esteem; these have been standardized with national norms to compare respondents to others and judge them as having high or low self-esteem. The psychological norms are, therefore, defined based on societal norms, which are, by their very nature, arbitrary. I call this kind of conceptualization a “horizontal perspective,” as it lacks the complexity and richness of the inner world of human beings and reduces the self to the result of relationships with the other selves that surround it.

On the other hand, the conceptualization of the self with the inclusion of a spiritual component can bring about alternative perspectives. In this perspective, the “self” is basically defined in terms of a relationship between human beings and God. Moreover, the existence of the self can be explained directly with the existence of God. I call this a “vertical perspective.” Let’s delve into an example from religious thinkers who dealt with self from spiritual aspects. Said Nursi (1951/2007), an Islamic scholar, provides a striking point that exemplifies the relationship between the self and God:

An absolute and all-encompassing entity has no limits or terms and therefore cannot be shaped or formed, or determined in a way that will allow its essential nature to be comprehended. For example, light undetermined by darkness cannot be known or perceived. However, light can be determined if a real or hypothetical boundary line of darkness is drawn. In the same way, the Divine Attributes and Names (e.g., Knowledge, Power, Wisdom, and Compassion) cannot be determined, for they are all-encompassing and have no limits or like. Therefore, as their essence cannot be known or perceived, a hypothetical boundary is needed for them to become known. In order to make Himself known through His Attributes and Names, God Almighty has drawn a hypothetical line before His all-encompassing Attributes and Names. This line is the human [self]. By reflecting all of His Attributes and Names on it and thereby making it an essential dimension of human existence, the self has become a Divine trust, an arena in which the manifestations of Divine Attributes and Names are reflected in order to mirror the Divine Being. The self imagines within itself a fictitious lordship, power, and knowledge, which are reflections of their Divine counterparts, and thus posits a boundary line, hypothesizing a limit to the all-encompassing Divine Attributes, saying: “This is mine, and the rest is His.” The self thus makes a division. By means of the miniature measure it contains, the self slowly comes to understand the true nature of the Divine Attributes and Names. The self obtains a degree of understanding of God’s Absolute Knowledge through its partial knowledge and can intuit the Exalted Fashioner’s primary, originative art through its defective, acquired art. For example, the self says: “I have built and arranged this house, so there must be One Who made and arranged this universe.” (Nursi, 1951/2007, p. 552)

Unlike the definition of the self in psychology, the vertical perspective, which is defined as the self in relation to God and the rationale behind the existence of the self, is regarded in religion as facilitating one’s knowledge about the names of God. This perspective has some practical implications. For example, it challenges the overuse of psychological concepts, such as self-esteem and self-confidence, which have often been emphasized and are regarded as the key to success in life in many textbooks concerned with psychology and education. In today’s competitive world, superiority to others is appreciated. There is a mechanism of social comparison that forces us to rank ourselves in comparison to others who belong to the same society. It comes as no surprise that such a vicious cycle will create extremely individualist and ego-centric personalities. The self as represented in the concepts of self-esteem and self-concept becomes misleading, because this perception equates the self with egoism and self-centeredness. As a result, the gap between “the self” and “knowledge of self” is increasing (Wickland & Eckert, 1992). As scholars attempt to develop “knowledge of self” with the horizontal perspective, deviations from the real “self,” the essence of “self” that can be recognized through understanding God, can never be known.

This spiritual perspective offers us the opportunity to become acquainted with the self through trying to understand the reflections of God’s names (or attributes) in the Universe. This perspective is concisely represented with the statement “Whoever knows oneself, knows God,” an expression attributed to different persons in history (Al-Arabi, 1980). Above all, as the pseudo-selves that we assume are based on our subjective ranking in comparison to others, the example given above encourages human beings to find the essence of the self through attempting to understand God. Attaining the goal of self-actualization becomes possible because personal development is a perpetual endeavor and individuals do not restrict themselves to their rivals. There is always a further target to reach, since the individuals are guided by “the absolute and all-encompassing.”

Nevertheless, the prevalent concepts of the self do not cover the spiritual aspect of human beings. Individuals are forced to survive within a system that determines winners and losers, and this in turn can motivate people to attain their goals in different ways. While the so-called biased consideration of self-the horizontal comparison-is restrictive in nature, the vertical perspective, which does not include a comparison but rather a connection, provides an unending, unlimited, and satisfying journey throughout one’s lifetime.

The modern view of the self, which is devoid of any spiritual aspect, has incurred some negative results in the fields of religion and psychology. The field of psychology, except for Carl Jung, who appreciated the significance of the religious understanding of self, as well as a few psychologists who have recognized that the spiritual dimension makes people’s lives more meaningful, valuable and purposeful, has ignored a source of wisdom that has been generated over the centuries.

Conceptualization of the self merely within the individual and social aspects falls short of explaining and resolving many psychological phenomena, such as suicide, depression, eating, and anxiety disorders. Such problems can be regarded as a consequence of an over-investment in particular aspects of the self, and the neglect of deeper mechanisms, such as the conscience, benevolence, transcendence etc., which all together constitute the spiritual self. However, there are a number of psychologists who have acknowledged this problem. Here is an example: “The more we invest in the self, the more we have to lose… Indeed, the most successful and outwardly perfect self may produce the greatest inclination to escape [from the self], because higher standards create greater vulnerability and hence greater stress.” (Baumeister, 1991, p. 31). According to this argument, “outwardly perfect selves” who have enough self-esteem and social status without spiritual richness cannot avoid such problems as suicide, binge eating or masochism, which are several of the ways to escape the self. Hopefully, the following decades will reveal how the consideration of the spiritual self, as well as other conceptualizations, can improve our understanding of the self and simultaneously pave the way for understanding “self-actualization.”

Zekeriya Ozsoy is doctoral student studying educational psychology. For correspondence with the author: ozsoyzekeriya@gmail.com.

References

• Ibn al-‘Arabi (after 1229/1980). Fusus al-hikam (The Bezels of Wisdom), ed. A. Affifi, Cairo, 1946; trans. R.W.J. Austin, The Bezels of Wisdom, New York: Paulist Press.
• Allport, G. (1961). Pattern and growth in personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
• Baumeister, R. F. (1991). Why escape? – The burden of self. In Escaping the self: Alcoholism, Spirituality, Masochism, and Other Flights from the Burden of Selfhood. New York City: Basic.
• Goldstein, K. (1934/1995). The Organism: A Holistic Approach to Biology Derived from Pathological Data in Man. New York: Zone Books.
• Holy Bible: New International Version. (1978). New York: American Bible Society.
• Nursi, Said. (1952/2007). The Words: Reconstruction of Islamic Thought and Belief. New Jersey: The Light, Inc.
• James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. (2 vols.). New York: Henry Holt.
• Maslow, A. H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review. 50, 370-396.
• The Qur’an with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English by Ali Unal (2006).
• Sedikides, C., & Brewer, M. B. (2001). Individual Self, Relational Self, and Collective Self. Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
• Wicklund, R. A., & Eckert, M. (1992). The Self-knower: A Hero under Control. New York: Plenum.

How does Islam view the idea of psychological projection developed by Freud? First of all, it is appropriate to highlight the writings of Said Nursi in which he tells the story of two travelers with different states in their hearts. One was serene and optimistic and viewed the world in positive ways while the other one was anxious and pessimistic, seeing the world as all negative. Both went to similar places, where ordinary lifestyles could be observed. The former one saw the place as beautiful with many good things existing there. However, it was different for the latter; wherever he looked he saw negative things.

According to Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, this difference of perspective between these two travelers is actually rooted in the state of their heart. The first traveler had no unnecessary anxiety in his heart; he was serene and content because he had relinquished all to God. He knew that whatever God had decided upon for him was best for him and he was never frightened of the future, because as long as he did the best he could, God would give him the best. Therefore, as a result, he had nothing to be depressed or worried about, as he knew that everything was taken care of by God.

The second traveler, however, had not put his trust in God enough to believe that everything was already under His management. He believed that he had the power to change things, but also believed that he did not have enough power to control everything, which in turn led to his insecurity and ego. In his heart, anxiety kept haunting him and he was worried about almost everything. As a result, in order to control his anxiety, he turned to drinking and other sins. When the two met, the first one commented that the second had perceived of everything in a negative light because he had no certainty in his heart.

There is one difference in the concept of psychological projection as coined by Freud and that from the Islamic perspective. For Freud, psychological projection happens when someone needs to suppress their negative thoughts or feelings. Considering the examples given above, lying and stealing are bad deeds and the feelings of guilt are that which the doer desires to repress. However, in Islam, projection can happen with both positive and negative feelings, as explained metaphorically by Bediuzzaman Said Nursi in his book.

Projection of this kind from an Islamic point of view can be related to a hadith regarding the heart, “…In the body, there is a piece of flesh. If it is good, the whole body is good, and if it is bad, the whole body is bad; truly, it is the heart.” This hadith underlines the importance of having a good heart to reflect well on the outer world. To apply this to the story of the two men, an insincere, insecure, worried heart reflects the similar world for the second man, while the contrary is true for the first man.

Realizing this aspect of the human psyche makes an impact on Muslims as preachers. Technically, all Muslims are in some way a preacher, regardless of their professions. Be they an engineer, educator, psychologist, policeman or officer, these professionals are entrusted by God to enjoin the good and forbid the bad. Being a good preacher might require us to filter our thoughts from unnecessary projections to those we are preaching. For example, a good Muslim psychologist who works as a counselor, and who also happens to be a single parent, must not perceive his or her client from his or her own point of view. This includes not jumping to conclusions too soon, for example, saying the client is lonely (as he or she feels, as a single parent) and deciding that all the problems of the client are rooted in loneliness. A good preacher must understand the nature and background of the audience and make an analysis that is as objective as possible.

Another impact of projection is the importance of cleansing the heart in order to construct a more optimistic view of the world. Al-Ghazali emphasizes the effectiveness of remembrance of God as a way to cleanse the heart. Performing additional forms of worships, in addition to the obligatory ones, can be a good way to make remembrance of God, for example, uttering istighfar (repentant supplication) before sleeping and engaging in self-supervision, or muraqaba. Cleansing of the heart can help a person have a more positive light in viewing this world, thus allowing more room for improvements and more opportunity to achieve something greater in life.

Psychological projection also gives us an understanding about how others might make criticisms based on their state of heart. This is important to note, because sometimes people easily succumb to the poison of criticism and cease performing correct actions merely because they are blinded by this criticism. For instance, a man is told by his friend that his good appearance when going to mosque will make others say something bad about him, because others might envy him. However, the second man’s statement may just reflect his own envy towards the first man’s good appearance. If the first man succumbs to the statement, he will try to worsen his appearance, despite the fact that we are encouraged to dress nicely when going to the mosque. By being aware of the existence of psychological projection, the first man can be more objective towards the “advice” of the second man and analyze it in the best way.

To benefit from understanding the nature of projection, we can go back to the story told by Bediuzzaman Said Nursi. From this story, we can learn that projection can be both good and bad for the self. The heart, as the core of the self, can project serenity, confidence and many other positive feelings onto real life, if it has been cleansed and is pure and reflective of the line of the religious prescriptions. A positive state of heart can be very important to lead us further and it can make it easier for us to worship God. However, if the heart is negative, this can be bad as it will project whatever negative thoughts and feelings a person has. This insecure state of heart can lead to other sins, such as drinking or other problems that are rife in today’s society.

Once again we need to emphasize that understanding projection is important for us as people, because all believers are preachers. Whether we are to help others or only ourselves, pensive reflection on our backgrounds and assessments of our lives can be made to ascertain the state of our heart, and this in turn will make it more effective in helping others. Therefore, as we can see, understanding the real nature of our feelings and thoughts can be very helpful in developing ourselves.

Taufik Mohammad, PhD, is a senior lecturer in Universiti Sains Malaysia.

References

• Reported by Bukhari and Muslim with the authority of al-Numan bin Basheer. The Hadith Software, version 1.0, Islamasoft Solutions, 2002.
• Said Nursi, The Words, NJ: The Light, Inc. 2005.

Less well known is that research is also continuing into the scent of repellents to deter pests like insects and ticks. Various plants are known for the effects of their aroma, and are in widespread use for protection, especially in very hot and humid climates where there are a great number of arthropods; for instance, it is known that mosquitoes will not approach a house that has basil plants on the windowsill.

Another plant which is well known and used commonly for its scent is “patchouli” (pogostemon cablin), the scented essential oil of which is obtained by steaming the plant and collecting the oil which emerges. The plant is a member of the mint family, and its actual origin is India, where its scent can be found even in the famous Indian ink. Patchouli leaves used to be placed between carpets and rugs made in Iran and Turkey to protect them from any harmful pests or insects before they were sent to Europe. During the Victorian period carpets, shawls and rugs exported from India were also sprinkled with the fragrance of patchouli to protect them from moth, In fact any carpets, rugs or shawls that did not have the scent of patchouli were not favored because they were believed to have been manufactured in Europe. The fragrance of the plant, which is longer lasting than most other scents, is believed by the Chinese, Japanese and Arabs to prevent the spread of infectious diseases and also used frequently in perfumes and soaps. Widely used in Europe in the eighteen hundreds, patchouli became the most popular fragrance of the generation in America in the sixties.

The research into patchouli has been limited so far and scientific observations are insufficient; nevertheless, the chemical composition of the various scents found in the oil of this plant have been identified, and the long human experiences of using this plant and its fragrance may hold great significance for scientific research in the future.

The plant contains patchouli alcohol, pogostone, friedelin, epifriedelinol, pachypodol, retusin, oleanolic asid, beta-sitosterol and daucosterol, most of which prevent nausea. It has also been found to contain alpha-bulnesene, which prevents the clotting of blood. In addition, according to an article in the 2008 February edition of the Phytotherapy research journal, since the oil obtained from patchouli essence is an effective fly killer, the oil could also be an effective as a component of insect repellents and might even be an effective arthropod and tick repellent.

Looking at these studies we clearly see other ways in which we could benefit from this substance; for instance, by adding a few drops to water we could use it in household cleaning and therefore get rid of unwanted odors at the same time as preventing insects in the home without the use of carcinogenic chemicals. The oil is also known to be used to prevent fungus, to reduce perspiration and eliminate unwanted body odors and for dietary purposes, due to its effectiveness in reducing the appetite.

Moreover, patchouli has also long been a fragrance very much sought and used as a form of treatment for its soothing qualities and positive effect on spiritual health. Martin Henglein, who was one of the founders of aromatherapy and developer of the theory of the curative aspect of the fragrances of plants, recognizes geranium, rosemary, bergamot, and patchouli as the four primary aromas, and he emphasizes that these four fragrances perform various functions. Geranium can prevent addictions from progressing and even assist people in abandoning addictions and bad habits. For instance, the role geranium plays in giving up smoking is indisputable: when the desire to smoke increases and becomes unbearable the aroma of geranium temporarily eliminates the desire to smoke. According to Henglein, rosemary improves memory while bergamot increases activity in the brain and the ability to understand; patchouli activates the mechanism which motivates a person’s energy.

Robert Tisserand, owner of a treatment center in England, believes that certain fragrances can also cure psychological illnesses, Tisserand says that these aromas have a positive effect on the signal molecules (neurotransmitters) that provide communication with the nerve cells and can help to cure psychological problems. Fragrances encourage the body to release endorphin, a substance which resembles morphine (a pain reliever) and this is why rose oil, jasmine, sage, cananga (ylang ylang), patchouli, and grapefruit are recommended for depression, to increase confidence, and to help with abnormalities of sexual function. If patchouli is used in excess, it allegedly may cause a sedative effect or may reduce sleep. Otherwise, it is claimed to have a balancing effect on the body’s energy and psychological condition, inspire a sense of calmness, eliminate laziness, support treatment of addictions, and relieve feelings of fear and depression.

Everyone knows that charming fragrances enhance positive thought and feelings, and we also know the negative aspects of bad odors. It is reported that the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, said, “I have been made to love perfume,” drawing attention to the importance of pleasant fragrances and reminding us that Jacob received the glad tidings that his son Joseph was still alive because of the scent of his shirt.

References

• Guan L, Quan LH, Xu LZ, Cong PZ. (1994): Chemical constituents of Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi. 1994 Jun;19(6):355–6, 383.
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• Luo J, Guo X, Feng Y. (2002): Constituents analysis on volatile oil of Pogostemon cablin from different collection time cultivated in Hainan. Zhong Yao Cai. 2002 Jan. 25 (1): 21–3
• Hsu HC, Yang WC, Tsai WJ, Chen CC, Huang HY, Tsai YC. (2006): Alpha-bulnesene, a novel PAF receptor antagonist isolated from Pogostemon cablin. Biochem Biophem Biophys Res Commun. 2006 Jul 7;345(3):1033–8.
• Tsai YC, Hsu HC, Yang WC, Tsai WJ, Chen CC, Watanabe T. (2007): Alpha-bulnesene, a PAF inhibitor isolated from the essential oil of Pogostemon cablin. Fitoterapia. 2007 Jan. 78 (1):7–11.
• Pavela R. (2008): Insecticidal properties of several essential oils on the house fly (Musca domestica L.). Phytother Res. 2008 Feb;22(2):274–8.
• Jantan, I. and Zaridah M. Z.(1999): Development of Environment-Friendly Insect Repellents From The Leaf Oils of Selected Malaysian Plants. ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) November–December 1999, p.1–7.

The family is the smallest unit of society and it should be a source of happiness for the individual. This is why a sound dialogue between parents and their children is so important. When we bring up our children, we should regard them as being entrusted to us by the Almighty. Treating them affectionately and inspiring confidence in them plays an important role in terms of preparing them for their future life as physically and psychologically healthy individuals.

In spite of the cozy atmosphere of the home, we might come across some problems that are difficult to solve. Some problems are apparent to our friends and neighbors, while others are known only by family members and are kept secret. In such cases, we may not know how to deal with a problem, and therefore need to seek help from an expert. Wetting the bed is a typical example of such problems. When such a problem persistently occurs it is only compounded if we hurt the child and cause them to feel bad or inferior because of this problem; what many people do not realize is that this is a problem that is easily solved.

Families with children who wet the bed while between the ages of 5 and 15, sometimes even up to the age of 20 have a serious problem. Every morning, these families wake up to find another problem. The nasty smell, changing the sheets and cleaning the pajamas are not things that people enjoy first thing in the morning.

Along with the burden of dealing with dirty clothes and sheets, the family members become worried, as they do not know when the problem will end. But it is the child who worries most. The problem is only compounded as the child realizes that they cannot have friends to stay, nor stay at someone else’s house, as this may lead to others finding about the problem; such worries only cause further problems such as losing self-confidence, inferiority complexes, shyness and poor performance at school.

Some families do not try to search for solutions, saying illogical things like, “His uncle used to wet the bed too. That didn’t go on for too long. The same will happen with our child as well,” or “It’s nothing unusual. Most children do it. It will be alright,” or “It will just stop without treatment. They say that there is no treatment anyway.”

Bedwetting is actually a common problem. What then, are the underlying reasons? How common is it in reality? Is there an effective treatment for it? Does it just stop on its own? If so, when and how does it stop? Or is it possible for someone to remain a bed-wetter all of their lives? Does the treatment have any side effects? What is the success rate of the treatment? We will try to answer all these questions.

Occasional cases of bedwetting until the age of five are considered as nothing unusual. If bedwetting continues after the age of five, then this indicates an illness known as “enuresis.” Research carried out on primary school aged children found that between 20-30% of children wet the bed in general. It is usually more common among boys. The percentage increases with children from families of a lower socio-economic background, mostly due to malnutrition.

The main causes for bedwetting

Genetic factors are accepted as playing a role, based on the fact that 70% of the children who wet the bed have close relatives with the same problem, and that there is a high incidence rate among identical twins. It is thought to be caused mostly by a lack of an anti-diuretic hormone that reduces urine production at night. There are other reasons as well.

If a person with diabetes has too great an intake of fluids before bedtime they may wet the bed. Moreover, urinary tract infections, kidney stones, parasites, anemia, a lack of calcium, magnesium, zinc, or vitamins (A, B, D, E), problems with adenoids, and enlarged tonsils may all cause bedwetting.

Anemia and adenoids cause hypoxia (a deficiency of the amount of oxygen available in the blood) and hypercapnia (the presence of an abnormally high level of carbon dioxide in the blood). If these conditions are present, then the patient sleeps too soundly and the control of the central nervous system over the other systems is weakened. As a result, the patient wets the bed as they have lost some control over their muscles.

At least half of people who suffer from bedwetting are considered to do so because of psychological reasons. If a child begins to wet the bed in spite of having had no such problem before, this indicates that the child subconsciously wants to return to their infancy when they were the center of attention. By wetting the bed, the child might be wishing to receive more care from the parents.

Wetting the bed might be a reaction to family problems or the birth of a sibling. Various types of anxiety may cause the child to suffer from depression, which is another reason that causes very sound sleep.

Bedwetting is thought to result from psychological problems if it is accompanied by problems like suffering from a tic, stuttering, nail-biting, over-jealousy, or failure at school. A child with a urinary tract or bladder infection or kidney stones may not be able to control their need to urinate during the day either. If no physical illness can be detected, then there may be a serious psychological disorder.

Diagnosis and treatment

Starting from the principle “every disease has a cause,” we should first of all search for any possible causes. We can begin with simple ways, such as urine and blood tests. If these do not provide a satisfactory answer, then the other possible causes that were mentioned above should be investigated. The kidneys and the bladder should be checked with an ultrasound, while the adenoids and chronic bronchitis, as well as the tonsils, should be examined. If no viral or organic cause can be found, then psychological problems should be investigated. When the reason has been found, then it is time to start the treatment.

After a diagnosis has been made, the parents should be informed about the cause of the problem. It should also be noted that enuresis may result from incorrect forms of toilet training.

In the treatment of psychologically-caused cases of bedwetting, taking the child to a doctor, carrying out blood and urinary tests, and the family’s efforts to treat the child (i.e. paying for the treatment, waiting at the doctor’s, etc) are all considered to be part of the treatment. The child sees that importance has been given to them, that efforts are being made and that money is being spent on them alone. Having seen that the parents and the doctor have played their part, it is the child’s turn to do what is expected of them. Prescribing the correct medicine, or if there is no physical problem, merely saying, “nothing is wrong” is the start of the treatment.

If the bladder turns out to be smaller than normal, the child is advised to hold their urine longer than normal in order to expand the bladder. The period of waiting is lengthened gradually. The child is asked to keep a record of “wet” and “dry” days and they are rewarded for the “dry” days. Drinking less in the evening may facilitate treatment.

Medication and treatment

The medication changes according to the diagnosis. For instance, if there is a urinary tract or bladder infection, then antibiotics are used. If there are psychological reasons, special pediatric anti-depressants will be prescribed. Anti-depressants cause the patient to sleep lighter. When the child does not sleep so soundly, they are able to control their urination, and wake up and go to the toilet.

There are drugs that help to expand the bladder capacity of people whose bladders are smaller than normal; these drugs can be very useful indeed. Some problems with the urinary tract or bladder can also be eliminated by surgery.

If the patient has trouble breathing due to adenoids or enlarged tonsils, these should be removed by surgery as well. For anemia, the patient is given substances such as vitamins, iron and zinc along with a prescribed diet. In cases of calcium deficiency, a calcium-rich diet and calcium tablets are recommended.

If a child shows more than one of the symptoms, then a combined treatment is followed. Laser acupuncture treatment can also be useful. Bedwetting can be prevented by using anti-diuretic hormone tablets or sprays as well. With the correct diagnosis and treatment, the success rate of such treatments is between 95-98%.

The most common occurrence is that children will stop wetting the bed after puberty without any need for treatment. However, it is not a good idea to wait for this to happen, because treatment that will help bedwetting stop occurring is available. Only 2-5% of patients continue to wet the bed after the age of twenty. Most often, such patients wet the bed due to some organic problem.

The medicines prescribed against bedwetting have been in use for about 30-35 years; they have been proven to be safe and to have no side effects.

A related study

In a study carried out in Bursa, Turkey, the records of 164 patients who suffered from bedwetting were examined. According to this study, the following data was obtained: 52 patients (32%) were girls and 112 patients (68%) were boys. 36 of the boys were aged 6-8, 48 of them were aged 9-12 and the remaining 28 were 13 years of age or older. 20 girls were aged 6-8, 16 girls were aged 9-12 and 16 girls were 13 or older.

When the causes were investigated, it turned out that 18 of the 112 boys (16%) had urinary tract or bladder infections and kidney stones, while 18 boys were suffering from cystitis, which can be diagnosed with an ultrasound, 12 boys (11%) had problems with their adenoids, chronic bronchitis, and tonsils, which made breathing difficult for them. No organic causes were found in 64 patients (57%); in these cases it was found that the cause was purely psychological. 24 out of 52 girls (46%) had urinary tract or bladder infections, while the other 54% had psychological reasons for wetting the bed.

Half of the patients stopped wetting the bed at the end of the first month, and almost all the patients were treated successfully by the end of the second month. The success rate was 98%.

After having examined this data, it is clear that the problem of bedwetting is not difficult to solve without blaming and hurting our children. When we confront such problems in life, we should not despair or panic. We should keep in mind that God Almighty has created a cure for every problem, and that finding the cure requires patience and determination.

The plumber? What bit of insight into world events could a plumber from New Jersey have?, I thought. The plumber from small-town America, driving his pick-up truck and proudly displaying the Stars and Stripes bandanna on his head, came up with an important observation: The laws of this country (America) have made us weak. Whenever we have a problem, our first reaction is to call our lawyer or someone else to take away our problems for us. This has made us weak. We have forgotten how to take care of our own business.

My teacher was in complete agreement with him. In fact, during his 11 years of living in America, he has commented frequently on this very thing. While he was growing up outside America, everything about America was cowboys and Indians and rugged individualism. America represented strength, bravery, and toughness. Now, while actually living in America, he sees a society of illness and weakness that is buried under materialism, violence, and greed. With the tragedy of September 11, the illusion of the my country’s collective consciousness that America, is somehow immune to external aggression was dealt a major blow, as was the psyche of the American public and its ability to cope with the reality of vulnerability.

What the plumber meant

The plumber’s statements alluded to a nation and people that once prided itself on its toughness, self-reliance, and pull-yourself-up-by-your-bootstraps outlook on life driven by the Protestant work ethic. Too much material success, too many lawyers and psychiatrists, and too many service industries doing everything for everyone, however, is causing America to lose its edge and. essentially, its Americanness.

If you carefully recall how America once was and then notice where contemporary American culture is heading, you can see the signs clearly. The nature, not just the statistics, of social ills in America today point to deep-seated problems and stem from a loss of soulfulness. Go to your local bookstore or turn on Oprah, and almost daily you will see some show or read some article about a social or psychological malaise affecting some man or woman, child or group. Emotionally, people are hurting, confused, and depressed. Many are shunning traditional remedies for alternative or more eastern approaches to their problems.

Sadly, Americans are suffering and America is running out of ideas about how to save itself. Take schools and education. Now, American children essentially run the schools. Teachers everywhere, particularly in inner-city schools, are scared of their students. They find it nearly impossible to control them, let alone discipline them. Parents today are more prone to back their children in contentious teacher-student situations, no matter what the child does to earn the teacher’s displeasure, than to defend the teacher. Gone are the days when parents and teachers formed a united front to teach and enforce respect and correct children’s behavior. Now, teachers are under attack, and students are leading the assault. This is an example of the social backwardness that the Prophets warned us about as we approach the end of time.

Contributing factors

The weakening of America, as put by the plumber, also is being facilitated by the never-ending lawsuits in which society is literally drowning. (In)famous cases like the woman who won $2 million from McDonald’s because she spilled hot coffee on herself while driving is just an example of how the extreme litigiousness of American society is manufacturing greed to the point where people become fixated on suing over every little thing in the hope of making a quick buck. Judges frequently are forced to throw cases out of court due to superfluous lawsuits brought about by people trying to capitalize on the slightest misfortune.

This mentality of whatever wrong is done to me means that I am owed something, which often translates into large sums of money, has added a great deal to America’s psychological fragility. It is also another indicator of an increasingly atheistic worldview, one in which there is little belief that everything happens to us for a reason, even if that thing is as mundane as spilling hot coffee on ourselves. Such a mentality represents a major step backward for those who believe in the importance of meeting responsibilities before being granted rights and privileges. American culture today, however, teaches us to demand our rights regardless as to whether or not we meet our responsibilities. We have the right to sue for huge sums of money if we act like fools and put scolding hot coffee between are legs, even though commonsense would teach us that we have a responsibility to ourselves not to do it because it is physically dangerous.

These developments, which have evolved primarily over the past half century, have been heavily influenced by Western psychology, which is atheistic, materialistic, and has no soul or spirit. This is in stark contrast to religion and the concept of spirituality, which views human being as the complex meeting point of mental, physical, and spiritual faculties. The Western psychological schools of thought and their ranks of foot soldiers have greatly influenced Western society through the systematic application of God-less psychology. With their widespread application and influence on mainstream culture, psychological schools such as Freud’s admittedly do not address such human aspects as the soul, because such concepts are outside of the measurable, positivist scientific scope. In fact, Ahmed writes, Freud and many of his followers explained religion as nothing more than the universal obsessional neurosis.

An example of this from my time spent at an academy in New Jersey is of one particular teenage boy. His parents, unable to his behavior that included drug use, alcohol use, and free sex, sent him to a psychiatrist out of desperation. But after treating the boy several times, the psychiatrist, far from helping the boy understand why he needed to be more obedient and respectful to his parents so as to help mend the family according to its correct structure, sided with the boy and told the parents that their requiring him to pray regularly was borderline abusive and excessive, and that they should let him have more freedom to do what he wants.

Although only an example, this is how people in America”children more than anyone else”are being stripped of their humanness. They are being spoon-fed the notion that they need to indulge every urge, want, and desire in order to be happy. Ironically, the opposite effect has taken hold and its proof is in the pudding. As of 1998, according to the National Institute of Mental Health, one in five American adults were considered to have suffered from some sort of diagnosable mental disorder. In addition, 4 of the 10 in America and other developed countries are such mental disorders as major depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Creating a culture of dependency

The psychic deterioration of America is thus being facilitated through the use of modern-day psychology and exaggerated notions of mental illness to make people dependent on everything and everyone but God and themselves. Although modern psychology has made some positive contributions toward understanding human behavior, its atheistic roots and assumptions often make it work against religion and the critical role of spirituality in each individual’s development. Thus, it essentially goes against our very nature as human beings. As a result, religion has been reduced from a way of life to an extracurricular activity. Christians, Jews, and Muslims alike who are avid practitioners of their faiths often get strange looks and clich d labels such as fundamentalists if they speak publicly about religion or even use the word god in a professional context.

People all over the world who are experiencing more Western culture in their daily lives have to guard against the dangers of dependency culture. This is one of the downsides to Western culture, for it promotes a way of life that encourages individuals to do less for themselves, to look away from themselves, to complain when they do not get their way, to blame others for their problems, and to shy away from critiquing the man or woman in the mirror. As a result, we start to believe that we are owed things or that certain luxuries and status are due to us, regardless of whether or not we are meeting our responsibilities, are grateful to God for what we have, and are busy with the ongoing work of self-improvement and reflection.

In many parts of the world today, we are seeing larger numbers of believers devoted to God getting sucked into the traps of dependency culture. This is precisely how God is being replaced. This is how Western cultural elites have been able to systematically remove God and religion from everyday life with atheistic and materialist psychology”by making us dependent on things and people rather than God. On the contrary, however, as human beings we must seek help in constant prayer and dependence on God in order to rediscover our essential nature. We also should know how to resist any dependency culture devoid of God and religion.

Following the Prophets

Looking back on human history, we see that those most heroic of people, the Prophets, always relied on God. They did not pursue positions, take concessions from rulers, or complain to anyone other than God about their situation and the lack of support and humiliation they were made to receive.

From one’s own personal perspective, the drive toward self-perfection can be quite a challenge at times. The idea that everything comes to us from God, and that we have to train and condition ourselves to understand this and be grateful for whatever God sends us, is truly a struggle to put into practice. Every moment we have to fight the urge to complain about this, complain about that, demand to know why this happened or why that happened, blame our misfortunes on others, and just lie down and give in to our lower selves. Believers, however, must differentiate themselves through quiet determination and resignation to the fact that God is always in charge. Naturally, this includes improving the world around us, standing up to oppression, and doing our best to correct falsehoods. It is part of our collective responsibility, and must be conducted correctly.

Conclusion

People everywhere today are being conditioned to look outside of themselves first to solve their problems, and thus are becoming more and more incapable of keeping their own houses in order. This is the formula that is creating societies replete with self-hatred and weakness, which is what the plumber from New Jersey so poignantly picked up on. The signs are there in the form of social ills growing out of control. This is surely the path to self-destruction first, and societal destruction second.

As people who understand this, we must avoid making these same mistakes and help others by bringing them into the light of God’s grace and formula for ultimate success. The results of not doing so could be disastrous for all of humanity. In addition, America must take stock of itself and see if this is really the path it wants to follow. As the world looks to it for all types of leadership, among them moral leadership, America could help solve many of these problems by resurrecting and then following the ideals that made it great: spirituality, accountability to God and self, self-confidence, and individual striving to reach one’s full potential.

References

• Ahmed, B. Islamic Values and Ethics in Prevention and Treatment of Emotional Disorders. (2001). Online at www.crescentlife.com.
• National Institute of Mental Health. (1998). Online at: www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/numbers.cfm.
• Salahi, A. Muhammad, Man and Prophet: A Complete Study of the Life of the Prophet of Islam. Shaftesbury, UK: Element, 1995, 167.
• www.crescentlife.com/articles/islamic_values_in_treatment_of_emotional_disorders.htm.
• This article originally appeared online at www.islam-online.net. Reprinted with permission.