The miracle of life appears in the form of a baby which develops from a fertilized ovule (zygote) following millions of other events. This series of events, which is almost always the same for every fetus, can be grouped as reproduction, differentiation, and development. The zygote completes its development in the womb; postnatal growth can continue until 20 years of age. Even though every event during the baby’s development seems to take place with chaotic reactions, harmony and order are there for us to discover. One of these astonishing events is the perfectly symmetric growth of the fetus/baby. Most organs in the human body appear in pairs and are symmetric. Babies are born with 300 bones; however, some bones later fuse with other bones, leaving only 208 bones in the adult human. It is still a mystery how long bones such as the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, and tibia are able to grow on both sides of the human body in a symmetrical manner.

Mechanisms that control growth in organs

In vertebrates, both internal developmental programs and the external factors which stimulate or inhibit growth play a role in the ultimate size of an organ. But the relative effects of these two mechanisms can vary significantly in different organs. When pieces of spleen from an embryo that is at a later stage of growth are transplanted to a newly developing embryo, each new piece grows, but not to the size of the original spleen. The total weight of all the transplanted spleen pieces is equal to a normal spleen’s weight. When the spleen reaches a certain weight, growth inhibiting factors are secreted, which stimulate negative feedback mechanisms that limit growth. When a spleen reaches a certain size, the density of the inhibiting factors increases simultaneously, halting growth. Growth in the liver is controlled by extracellular factors (various substances in the blood, hormones, vitamins, minerals, etc.). When a section is cut off of the liver, the section continues growing and developing until it reaches the size of the original liver. The thymus has a growth process that is executed by a cellular genetic program. When sections of a thymus taken from the embryonic period are injected into developing mouse embryos, every section grows until it reaches the ultimate size.

More evidence of cellular growth programs was acquired via an experiment that was carried out with the salamander genus Ambystoma. When the leg bud of the larger species was injected into the smaller species, it would at first grow slowly, but then it would reach the normal size of its own species (the larger species).

Distinguishing growth and symmetry from one another

Both the arms and legs have long bones. A long bone consists of two parts (diaphysis and epiphysis). The diaphysis is the middle (core) part of the long bone. It consists of hard bone tissue, and is like a tube. The hyaline cartilage-covered joint forms the epiphysis of the long bone. In a growing bone, there is a growth plate (epiphysis plaque) made of hyaline cartilage; this is located between the diaphysis and the epiphysis. The epiphysis plaque causes the bone to grow longer; when growth is complete, the epiphysis plaque ossifies (becomes bone). In other words, growth stops. There are some clues that show the existence of positive feedback mechanisms which control the symmetric and balanced development of the arms and legs while the fetus is still growing. The arms and legs grow due to the development and growth of the plaques located at opposite ends of the long bone. The ultimate size of the arms and legs are proportional to the size of the finger bones (phalanx) and the metacarpus. According to current knowledge, growth in our arms and legs is only controlled by internal growth programs and the active growth of the plaques. We do not yet know the mechanism through which how much the bone must grow and symmetrically with the organ (the other arm or leg) on the other side of the body. But even if this is discovered in the future, we will continue to appreciate the perfect and miraculous aspect of this phenomenon.

In addition, in growth-plaque transplant experiments, the development of the transplanted growth plaque is dependent only on the age and size of the donor. Growth plaques cause the bone to grow, but the plaques themselves remain the same size for years. The cartilage cells they produce (chondrocytes) exchange places with the bone cells (osteocytes) in harmony and without destroying the length of the bone. Cells from different areas of the growth plaque act differently. Stem cells are found on the upper section, near the epiphysis. Immediately above them is an area where cells reproduce very quickly. At the bottom of the epiphysis, the cartilage cells grow up to 4 to 10 times larger than their normal size (hypertrophy). Cell reproduction here is mostly due to hypertrophic chondrocytes. The chondrocytes die and break up, then change places with the bone tissue. The dynamic process of these events in the growth plaque repels it from the bone area, and as a result, the bone grows longer.

Sustained symmetry despite cell sequence and speed of reproduction

The rapid growth rate in the legs and arms during the embryonic period continues to increase until the child is three years of age. This growth rate slows down until the individual reaches adolescence. During the fastest growth period, which is from adolescence to the early 20s, the growth rate rapidly increases. For example, most people who grow between 30 and 37.5 cm during the first two years of life can grow between another 7.5 and 10 cm every year during adolescence. At the onset of adolescence, rapid growth due to a sudden change in the volume of cells is observed. After adolescence a sudden falling off in the speed of growth can be observed due to the effect of hormones on the growth plaques in the spine and other long bones. The growth plaque now fuses with the neighboring cells and growth stops. However, the fusing of the growth plaque is the result of the cessation of growth, not the cause. After growth stops, the growth plaques begin to disappear. When the reproduction potential of the cartilage cells in the growth plaque has been exhausted, the growth plaque begins to disappear.

Growth plaques in different bones can trigger growth at various rates; these rates can differ as much as seven times. In fact, growth plaques on different ends of a bone can have different growth rates, provided that this rate is consistent with the genetic program. The number of cells on the growth line is 40 times more than in other areas. The number of cells produced here can exceed 10,000 cells per day. For symmetric growth between the arms and legs to be sustained, the number of cells in the growth plaque must be the same or very close. Experiments carried out on rats show that eight cartilage cells leave the growth plaque to exchange places with cells above them every day. It can be said that the growth of the bone is caused by the increase of cells in the growth plaque (which sustains its size). The growth rate caused by the growth plaque can be calculated by multiplying the growth plaque’s cell production rate by the average length of all of its cells. Different growth plaques provide different growth rates. This difference can be caused by the difference in the size of the growth plaques, the difference in cell production rates, and/or the difference in the hypertrophy (growth) rate of every cell. The upper growth plaque in the tibia of mice generates 16,400 cells every day; the average life span of these cells is around 30 hours. Can such harmonious, symmetric, and equivalent growth in the arms and legs-despite the large number and variety of cells-be the work of pure coincidence, mindless nature, or unconscious molecules?

Do hormones play a role?

The main molecular players that organize longitudinal growth in bones during childhood are the growth hormone, the thyroid hormone, and corticoids. The sex hormones (androgens and estrogens) are programmed to influence growth during adolescence. Estrogen is the main determiner of characteristics related to increased height and an increase in bone quality, as well as adolescent-related physiology. These hormones are in charge of coordinating growth throughout the body. It is for this reason for women, after the menopause, the production in estrogen decreases and osteoporosis and brittle bones can occur. According to the current view, cartilage cells have a certain genetic reproduction potential, and when this potential finishes, growth stops. The growth rate during the embryonic period is 20 times higher than that of mid-childhood. The growth rate drops greatly during mid-childhood. If we exclude the noticeable increase during adolescence, the cells responsible for growth have begun to age. The bones on opposite sides of the body stay about the same size, despite all of these changes in growth rates. Circulating hormones and neuroendocrinal factors are believed to play important roles in maintaining symmetric growth. But there is no conclusive evidence to support this belief. Even though one can think of factors such as pressure, tension, and sports as helping control harmonious and symmetric growth of bones, no proof has been attained from controlled experiments. As a person ages, a gradual decrease in growth can be observed. Even if a growth plaque is placed into another organism, be it young or old, the growth rate of the bone does not change. This shows that symmetric growth in long bones is controlled by a program that is operated by internal factors, which is also compatible with the genetic program. When chemical-based medication is given to postpone growth, after the medication has been eliminated, the growth plaques grow faster for a short period to compensate for the lost time. These findings show that timing and the location and circumstances of the cell are critical parameters for reproduction. If the cartilage stem cells in the growth plaque have a certain reproduction potential, then it is clear that cartilage cell reproduction stops when growth comes to an end. If growth inhibiting factors slowly accumulate in the growth plaque, this might cause a deceleration of growth over time. Another possibility is some sort of “meter” in the unconscious and mindless stem cells, which keeps track of the number of cell divisions and thus controls aging. The estrogen in our body has a duty of closing down the growth plaques and speeding up the aging of cells. However, we should not forget that estrogen plays the special role of closing down all of the growth plaques at the same time. Estrogen is one of the visible causes of fertility, growth and development, and resilience. Estrogen also represents femininity and fertility at all levels.

When the signals from unconscious cells in the growth plaques and the quite sophisticated interactions among all the factors that influence growth, all of which require an all-encompassing knowledge to be executed, are taken into account, the impeccable genetic programs of different growth plaques on the two sides of the body that leads to the formation of the arms and legs, as if they have been molded in a factory, is absolutely amazing for anyone who reflects upon it.

References

• Wolpert L. (2010).”Unsolved Mystery: Arms and the Man: The Problem of Symmetric Growth.” PLoS Biology. 2010 Vol. 8(9). pp 1-3
• Extremity Development during the Embryonic Period (www.visembryo.com)

Thus, the nitrogen molecule is inert and stable. However, in spite of this fact, nitrogen molecules undergo oxidization in the presence of water; in other words, nitrogen molecules are unstable in the presence of H2O and more easily form other compounds. This is expressed in the following equation:

This reaction occurs quite slowly. If this reaction did not occur so slowly, all of the nitrogen and oxygen molecules in the atmosphere would immediately combine with ocean water to form nitric acid. If this were to occur, an extraordinarily terrifying scenario that would lead to a global catastrophe would occur: The earth’s oceans would change into nitric acid, the most powerful and harmful acid in both its oxidizing and its acidizing effects! Such an event would entirely consume the nitrogen and oxygen of the atmosphere. The only more devastating global calamity imaginable is the apocalypse and the end of time itself! Of course, this chemical reaction cannot be entirely eliminated, even if its rapid occurrence would result in a terrifying global catastrophe. On the contrary, this chemical reaction must continue to occur slowly, as it has in the past, in order to ensure the proper formation of nitrogen compounds in the chemistry of the ocean; this is crucial to the continuation of life on earth. It is interesting that this phenomenon can show us how misguided some philosophers and philosophical movements, who have not based their thinking on religious principles, are in their attempts to demonstrate that humankind is God-like.

Although humankind is the most perfect creation in the universe, we are nonetheless almost entirely helpless in the face of the dangers that threaten us. The chemical reaction, summarized briefly above, has been taken from a basic chemistry textbook. The rate of the chemical reaction we described-in which nitrogen molecules in the presence of water can result in oxidation and the formation of nitric acid-in fact occurs in such a measured way that it is beneficial rather than harmful. This fact, along with the regularity at which the rate of this reaction occurs, clearly demonstrates the helplessness of the human condition.

Fortunately, the slow rate at which this reaction occurs ensures that the terrifying global catastrophe described above does not occur. Entire oceans do not turn into nitric acid, and the oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere, which is so crucial to our survival, is not consumed in this apocalyptic fashion. Should we not, therefore, learn the chemistry behind this good fortune? Even more importantly, should not we wonder Who calibrates the rate of this reaction, and continues to ensure that this careful calibration is not disturbed?

The second leading cause of death in the United States, after heart diseases, is cancer, claiming around half a million lives every year.(1) People today are concerned more than ever about cancer and its terrible consequences. However, in the light of recent scientific findings, a very different picture can be seen: In an environment with increasing carcinogens, it is actually surprising to find most populations are cancer-free. This is because our bodies are equipped with systems to prevent cancer formation.

Cancer research over the last two decades has shown that cancer is a disease of the genome.(2) Changes in the DNA, called mutations, disrupt the regular cellular networks that control a state of delicate balance. People are continuously exposed to varying amounts of chemicals that have been shown to cause mutations in the genome which may lead to cancer formation. Exposure to harmful chemicals can occur due to being in an environment where these agents are present in the food, air or water, and also due to our own metabolism which may produce these chemicals. It has been estimated that exposure to environmental chemical carcinogens may contribute significantly to the formation of the majority of human cancers.(3)

Even though some of the mutations caused by these agents hit cancer-critical genes, cancer does not immediately develop. Furthermore, cancer is mostly seen in old age, when many mutations have accumulated in the genome. The reason why we are protected from developing cancer, even though our DNA is under numerous types of attacks everyday, is that our cells are equipped with several lines of defense against cancer formation. These built-in defenses include DNA damage repair systems, external and internal controls of cell division rate, and the programmed death of cells. All of these defenses have been given to our cells in order to protect us from getting cancer. If we were not to have these defenses, cancer would be a daily occurrence for every one.

It is possible to say that a cell’s first defense against cancer is similar to the regular maintenance of a car. One has to replace the brake pads, change the oil, etc., so that the aging of the parts will not cause failure that may lead to an accident. Similarly, chemical carcinogens from environmental pollution, ultraviolet rays from the sun, radiation from various sources, etc. all cause multiple types of damage in the DNA molecule. Therefore, our cells and genome need maintenance as well. This function is carried out by groups of proteins called DNA repair complexes. DNA repair mechanisms have been designed to correct the DNA damage before it can lead to inheritable mutations.(4)

If the DNA damage repair systems are intact, most of the damages to the genome are dealt with before they can cause problems. We observe the extent of attacks that can damage the DNA on our genome in many types of cancer where the DNA repair mechanisms are known to have been inactivated. In these cancer cells, mutations accumulate at a very fast rate, leading to more aberrant behavior. Also, individuals with defective DNA repair systems are more susceptible to developing various types of cancer.(4,5) Therefore, the first line of defense given to our cells against cancer is the ability to check and correct the integrity of our genome.

Every cell type in our body has been designed to proliferate at a certain rate that is suitable for the function of those cells. For example, neurons or muscle cells almost never divide after reaching adulthood, whereas the epithelial cells lining the interior of the intestines or under the skin divide at a fast rate continuously throughout our lives. The rate of division of a cell is mainly controlled by extra-cellular cues, i.e. a normal cell doesn’t grow or divide unless it receives growth and proliferation signals from neighboring cells.

There is a safe rate at which a cell must divide – just as a car needs to be driven at a safe speed. The requirement of cells for external stimuli in order to grow and divide is like the car’s need for someone to step on the gas pedal in order to accelerate. Normal cells cannot grow without control as neighboring cells produce growth signals when they are necessary and stop producing them in a regulated manner. A good example of the control of cell proliferation rate is seen in the wound healing process. When there is a cut in the skin, the cells adjacent to the wound are stimulated to divide rapidly by signals given from the injured cells; they divide and close the wound as soon as possible. However, when there are no wounds, there is no signal to divide and the skin cells only divide at a very slow rate, just enough to replace dying cells; this is a much slower process than wound healing. Cancer cells, on the other hand, are known to produce their own growth signals and proliferate abnormally fast and in an uncontrolled manner.(6) Therefore, the environmental control of cell division is an important barrier against cancer formation.

Cancer cells cannot divide uncontrollably unless they are independent of the external stimuli to divide. However, cancer cells can produce their own growth and proliferation signals, so they are free from external constraints. But even then, all is not yet lost. This situation of uncontrolled and rapid cellular proliferation is like a car in which the accelerator has become jammed– the car accelerates continuously and an accident is impending. In this situation the way to prevent too much speed is to step on the brake of the car. Similarly, in a cell, there are a set of genes called tumor-suppressor genes, which are responsible for stopping cell division upon excessive growth stimuli.(7) These genes act like brakes in cell division and prevent further progression into a malignant state. In many cancers,(8) it has been shown that these genes have been inactivated. If the brakes of the car are functional, you can safely bring your car to a stop and fix the problem that caused the accelerator to jam. Similarly, if a cell starts to divide too rapidly, it can stop dividing and repair the damage that caused the uncontrolled growth. Therefore, tumor suppressor genes represent a third line of defense.

If all the previous safety valves fail, there is one more defense to cancer. A situation in which a cell with harmful mutations promotes its own proliferation and cannot abort the division process is similar to one where the accelerator of the car is jammed and the brakes don’t work. In this case, in order to prevent greater damage, one can choose to hit a wall or a tree to stop the car– this will total the car, but will prevent further damage to others. Similarly, if a cell begins to grow uncontrollably and can’t slow down its rate of division, a process called apoptosis, or programmed cell death is initiated. In apoptosis, the cellular DNA and cellular compartments, like lysozomes, Endoplasmic Reticulum, and Golgi are degraded, and the cell shrinks in size. In the end, the cell dies and is absorbed by neighboring normal tissue. Therefore, the programmed death of an aberrantly behaving cell is another way that the body is protected from cancer. As expected, in cancer cells defects in this last line of defense are observed as well.(9)

These four mechanisms, i.e. DNA repair, external/ internal cell division suppression, and programmed cell death, are only the ones that we are aware of at this time. In addition to these, there are multiple levels of other redundant safety checks. All these safety features work without our knowledge or will. Findings from cancer research show that the design of cells was carried out so intelligently that even the carcinogenic environment which we produce today was accounted for within the genes of the very first human being.

Notes

1. Cancer Statistics 2006. 2006, American Cancer Society.

2. Vogelstein, B. and K.W. Kinzler, “The multistep nature of cancer.” Trends Genet, 1993. 9(4): p. 138-41.

3. Wogan, G.N., et al., “Environmental and chemical carcinogenesis.” Semin Cancer Biol, 2004. 14(6): p. 473-86.

4. Dixon, K. and E. Kopras, “Genetic alterations and DNA repair in human carcinogenesis.” Semin Cancer Biol, 2004. 14(6): p. 441-8.

5. Jiricny, J., “The multifaceted mismatch-repair system.” Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol, 2006. 7(5): p. 335-46.

6. Brattain, M.G., et al., “Growth factor balance and tumor progression.” Curr Opin Oncol, 1994. 6(1): p. 77-81.

7. Hanahan, D. and R.A. Weinberg, “The hallmarks of cancer.” Cell, 2000. 100(1): p. 57-70.

8. Coleman, W.B. and G.J. Tsongalis, “Molecular mechanisms of human carcinogenesis.” Exs, 2006(96): p. 321-49.

9. Dlamini, Z., Z. Mbita, and T. Ledwaba, “Can targeting apoptosis resolve the cancer saga?” Future Oncol, 2005. 1(3): p. 339-49.

Modern medicine, which tries to understand the biological structure of human beings, has been carrying out research in recent years that reveals the manifestations of the above fact. For instance, in classical text books the heart is introduced as a mechanical system that pumps the blood, a center to which all the organs of the body are directed; but recent research shows that there is a nerve system in the heart, just as there is in the brain, and that the heart assumes responsibility, to the same degree as the brain, in the control of the body. It has been revealed that the harmonious functioning of all the other bodily systems is regulated by the heart to the same degree as done by the brain. In recent years, the heart has been depicted as the sage and master of the palace that is the body. Alongside the abstract, analytical, and logical intellect of the brain, the heart is equipped with emotional and communicational intellect. Emotions are first produced in the heart; the signals produced in the heart are then carried very rapidly over to the limbic system of the brain. It is then through the brain that the emotional response is carried over to the body and communicated to those around it. Research which has been carried out in the framework of studying the heart-brain relationship has revealed things that may change our attitude toward the heart, as well as affecting our presuppositions about humanity and how our health can be protected.

The two-way communication system that exists between our heart and brain is one of the most complex communication systems in the world. For a start, the heart is made up of 40,000 nerve cells which pertain to it alone. This number of nerve cells is close to the average found in various centers of the brain. It has a complex and mysterious nervous system unto itself and this nervous system is defined as the “brain in the heart.” There is clear and sound proof that the heart communicates with the brain along four different pathways. The first is via the nerves (the neurological pathway); the second through the hormones and neurotransmitters (the biochemical pathway); the third is made up of the pulse waves created by blood pressure (the biophysical pathway); with the fourth being the interaction of the electromagnetic fields (the energy pathway). The sympathetic nerves that envelope the heart like a web are one of the four important communication and regulation branches of the heart-circulation system. The heart operates in a system which produces one of the most powerful and broadest electromagnetic fields in the human body. The bioelectromagnetic fields that are produced can be measured by SQUID (Superconductor Quantum Interference Device) from 50-70 cm away. The electrical field in the heart measured by an electrocardiogram (ECG) is on average 60 times greater in amplitude than the electrocephalogram measurements taken from the brain; the magnetic component of the heart is 5,000 times stronger than the one in the brain. Consequently, these forces cannot be absorbed by the tissues and disappear; similarly the blood pressure that is produced by the rhythmic activity of the heart, the sound pressure, and the changes in the electromagnetic waves are not only carried over to each part of the body, but at the same time the scattering of that field of energy is felt by the people who are experiencing it. All these observations show that the heart has been given the role of a signal station, providing and regulating the synchronicity within the entire body. When people experience different emotions (fury, happiness, fear, and despair) the heart beat changes along with the rhythmic patterns produced by the pulse (Figure l and 2). 

The Emotional State of the Heart Affects the People around

The quality of the electrical signals that emanate from the heart affect all the cells of the body in a negative or positive way. It has been observed that the electromagnetic fields produced in the heart affect the emotions and thoughts of other people who are in physical contact or 50-70 cm away from a heart that is producing these emotions (Figure 3).

This shows that the emotional state of educators in preschool environments and mothers has a direct effect on the development (especially that of heart and mind) of the children. In particular, if the people who work in preschool environments are under stress, temperamental, unhappy, or depressed, this will not only affect the educator, but also the development of the children under their care. When those who are working with children have positive emotions, are affectionate, and smile, this has a positive effect on the development and learning curve of children.

The development of the brain and heart in children is dependent on their mothers and educators having a healthy heart. For these hearts to be healthy they have to possess positive emotions (such as affection, compassion, and love). In one study carried out at Harvard University, it was observed that adults who had not received sufficient amounts of love during their childhood or who received no affection became ill more frequently and also died sooner. It is now understood that the general heath of human beings is more dependent on our living with positive emotions and having a strong spiritual dimension than on living with logical and rational thoughts. From these we understand much better the importance of controlling the emotions that emanate from the heart through a sound education. The heart is one of the centers that regulates the general health of the individual. Behavior patterns (overworking, the performing of hasty actions, anxiety, or being temperamental) are risk factors that deteriorate the health of the heart and that can lead to heart attacks. Some research shows that an intense episode of negative emotions, like fury, anxiety, or despair over a long duration can lead to sudden death related to heart disease. The risk of stress that is related to poorly managed chronic negative emotions causing cancer and heart disease is six times greater than the risk involved in smoking, high cholesterol, and hypertension. Disliking or being unsatisfied with the work that one does is also considered to be a great risk factor when it comes to heart attacks.

The Heart Rate Variability

According to messages emanating from the sympathetic nerves in the autonomous nervous system, one of the four pathways used in the control and regulation of heart activity, the heart rate and secretion of adrenal hormones increase. The stimuli that come from the parasympathetic nerves, on the other hand, slow down the beating of the heart. The balance and harmony between the two is very important for the health of the heart. The changes that are observed in pulse patterns over time are a key measure of the balance between the brain and the heart. Heart rate variability (HRV) shows whether or not the electrical stimuli in the sinoatrial knot (the group of nerve cells that are responsible for the production of the electrical current in the heart) are being regulated as they should. Since the HRV parameter forms a window through which we can measure the ability of the heart to respond to the regulating signals that travel from the heart to the brain and from the brain to the heart; in recent years the determination of the percentage of heart rate variance has gained importance. The HRV measurements are carried out via tacograms; these measure and analyze the HRV for the duration of an hour. Normally, the HRV parameter is the capacity of the heart rate to respond to changing circumstances and to adapt to the required pace. The decrease and increase in this capacity in situations such as stress, temper, excessive joy, and panic disturbs the capability of the heart to adapt; it causes a decrease in this capability and can result in the collapse of the whole system. An HRV which has decreased, due to either material or emotional causes, could be a harbinger of arrhythmic cardiac arrest, myocardial infarction, the speeding up of atherosclerosis, or heart failure. Patients whose HRV decreases may die sooner than patients whose HRV is normal or high. If the HRV does not keep within the normal, balanced limits, it is highly probable that those patients may die due to a sudden heart attack.

In the biological working of the body, the brain obeys the heart. When the changes in the heart rate are harmonious, the waves (alfa or lower wavelengths) that are produced in the person’s brain are also in synch with the rhythm of the heart. In other words, there is a harmonious cooperation and an excellent unity in the compatibility of heart beats and the relationship between the heart and the brain. The research that has been done in this field shows that the activity of the brain has been programmed in synch with the activity of the heart. For instance, in embryonic development, the brain follows the heart. While the child is developing in the womb, the heart develops before the brain. The development of the brain is completed only after a child reaches one year of age. According to recent research, when a person’s emotions change, the quality of the signals that emanate from the heart to the brain change automatically as well. In other words, if the psycho-physiological state of the individual is balanced and positive, the HRV rhythms of the heart are accordingly harmonious and consequently the electrical activity in the brain is synchronized with this balance and harmony that is produced in the heart.

Research shows that humans live 80-90 percent of their lives automatically and mechanically; in their daily lives they make most of their decisions and do most of their activities unconsciously, according to habit and subconscious directives. Consciousness and will have a very weak hold on our emotions, whereas our strong emotions (for instance passion) have a greater capacity to control and direct our will and consciousness. The automatic way of life conducted through habit is dominant over the way of life led through conscious choices and will; emotions (especially passions) have, in that sense, a natural superiority over reason and logic. This natural condition and tendency of humanity makes it essential to find the answer to the question of how one may live a life that is governed by reason, logic, and will, yet maintain health at an optimal level. The key to finding the answer to this question is to take the education of the heart (or the education of “emotional reason”) seriously and giving it priority. Education which does not take emotion or passion into account, which overlooks them, has to be abandoned immediately. In its place, an education and life philosophy that gives due importance to the heart and the emotions, a philosophy where reason and logic help emotions and show them the way must be adopted.

References

• Gulen, M.F., Key Concepts in the Practice of Sufism, The Light, Inc., NJ: 2004.
• McCraty, R., M. Atkinson, D. Tomasino, Science of The Heart, Institute of HeartMath, California: 2001.
• http://www.futurehealth.org/Freezeframe.htm
• http://www.heartmath.org.

For example, a hibernating woodchuck’s heart rate slows from 80 beats per minute to 4, and its temperature drops from 98 F (36.6 C) to as low as 38 F (3.3 C). If its body heat falls too low, it will awaken slightly and shiver to warm up a bit. If an animal lives in an area where the winter is mild, it may hibernate only briefly, or not at all.

Why hibernation-why do some animals sleep through the winter?

When the cold temperatures and ice of winter arrive, food becomes scarce for animals in the wild. Hibernation is a survival strategy, given by the Lord of all creatures; it is a technique that can be very successful in environments where food is scarce or just difficult to find during a long, cold winter season. Hibernation not only eliminates the need for food-gathering in the winter, but also lets an animal conserve its body energy by slowing down its heart rate and breathing. During the winter we are unable to see some animals, such as bears, in their usual habitat; they have retired to their dens. Since these kinds of animals have little chance to find food in their regions during that period, dropping into deep hibernation or into a torpid state allows them to use their bodies’ energy reserves at a slower rate than they would if they were maintaining themselves at their typical basal metabolic rate. Some ecologists refer to hibernation as “time migration.” Hibernation allows the animal to skip over the cold, stressful seasons and only expend itself fully in those months of abundant food and moderate climatic conditions.

How do animals know it is time to hibernate?

Although there are some apparent signs that indicate the period of hibernation is approaching, this is still a subject of research. In the weeks before hibernation or dormancy, animals prepare their winter beds.

Hibernating animals have something in their blood called HIT, or Hibernation Inducement Trigger; this works something like a clock. Recent research suggests that it is some kind of opiate, chemically related to morphine. As the days get shorter, the temperature changes, and food becomes scarce, HIT triggers hibernation. How and why it happens is still a mystery waiting to be explored.

Are all “hibernators” the same?

Not exactly. Some animals are classified as “deep hibernators,” such as chipmunks, woodchucks, box turtles, black snakes, garter snakes, and toads. Deep hibernation is a state in which an animal is inactive for many days or weeks. In deep hibernation the animal’s body temperature drops to around 41 F (5 C). Deep hibernation is also called “true hibernation.”

Other animals exhibit a less profound inactive state, called “torpor hibernation”; animals such as deer mice, black bears, skunks, and raccoons are examples of such animals. Torpor may be very short-term (during the cold hours of the night, for example) and involves a drop in the animal’s body temperature of no less than 59 F (15 C). An animal in torpor is also capable of relatively quick arousal. While some animals are given the ability of hibernation to survive, some are given other tools by our God. For example, birds do not hibernate, but most species migrate to warmer regions. Fish do not hibernate, but withdraw to deeper waters and their body processes slow down to the point where their food and oxygen requirements are a tiny fraction of the needs during the summer months. Aquatic insects do not hibernate. Most land insects die, leaving behind them their descendants in the egg, larva or pupa stages. Some insects, though, for instance

certain species of mosquito, hibernate in basements, cisterns and such protected places

Do hibernators have to hibernate?

Some hibernators display what is called “predictive dormancy.” These animals go into a hibernative state usually in response to the decreasing length of day, in anticipation of the approaching winter. “Diapause” in insects is an example of this “hardwired” hibernation response. Some poikilothermic (“cold blooded”) animals (like some reptiles and amphibians) also display obligatory hibernative responses as the day length decreases. The reliance of these animals upon warmth from their environment to maintain their body heat necessitates that they anticipate the onset of cold conditions and not be caught out of their hibernaculae by potentially lethal cold temperatures.

Other animals enter their hibernative state only after being exposed to adversely cold conditions. These animals display “consequential dormancy.” The disadvantage of consequential dormancy is that the organism is exposed to potentially damaging environmental conditions (poikilotherms in particular are especially vulnerable to the stresses of consequential dormancy). If, however, the hibernative response occurs immediately after the cold stress, then damaging exposure is minimized. A major advantage of consequential dormancy is that the animal is capable of activity right up until the time that winter conditions become excessively stressful; this means that the animal can possibly even be active all winter long if the season is particularly mild. This flexibility is especially advantageous for species living in fluctuating, unpredictable environments or in species that are expanding their ranges into either higher or lower latitudes.

Is hibernation seen only in cold regions?

Unexpectedly, not. While observing nature and learning about the world, one is astounded by the wonderful work of God Almighty. Although it is often viewed as a phenomenon of colder climates, hibernation also occurs in the desert. A classic hibernator is the desert tortoise, which heads underground into burrows with the onset of cold. In a suspended state, it drastically reduces its metabolic rate, digestion, urination, and defecation. Although some move only slightly during winter, others may take advantage of warm days and head out to bask.

Gall moth caterpillars, insects which most of us have never even heard of, typify the second group. They avoid freezing at all costs. Despite what most of us think, water can remain liquid down to -40 F (-40 C), provided that it is free of impurities, so these caterpillars purify what little water is contained in their bodies by emptying their guts of foreign food particles and bacteria.

In addition, they produce an antifreeze, much like that used in cars, but different than that used by freeze-tolerant animals, to lower the temperature at which ice forms. The combination of these two methods allows gall moth caterpillars to survive winter temperatures as low as -36 F (-38 C).

Survival during hibernation

The hibernating animal is quite defenseless when it is in a deep hibernative or even torpid state. They need to prepare a very secure hibernating den (the “hibernaculum”) to protect themselves as they are now an inactive animal. It is interesting that it is possible for an animal to live after six or seven months without eating, drinking, or passing wastes. For example, less than 1 percent of black bears die in their dens. The main threats to their lives are flooding and predators (wolves, dogs, active bears, and humans). Bears do not usually die of starvation in dens. Most deaths from starvation are before or after hibernation and involve primarily cubs and yearlings. Over-wintering black bears do other extraordinary things.For example, snoozing bears are able to gain all the sustenance they need entirely from within their own bodies. Fat tissues break down and supply water and up to 4,000 calories a day; muscle and organ tissues break down and supply protein. Bears’ bodies are somehow able to take urea-a chief component of urine that is produced during tissue breakdown and that, if left to build up, becomes toxic-and use the nitrogen in it to build new protein.

Hibernating bears also have what would seem to be dangerously high cholesterol levels.Because they live off their own fat, their cholesterol levels are more than twice what they are in summer (and more than two times higher than those of most people). But bears evince no signs of hardening of the arteries or the formation of cholesterol gallstones. Research has shown that hibernating bears generate a form of bile acid that, when administered to people, dissolves gallstones, eliminating the need for surgery. Despite being cooped up in a space about the size of a doghouse, hibernating black bears also appear to avoid muscle cramping and degenerative bone loss. How they accomplish this remains a mystery. Even though a hibernating bear drinks no water, it does not become dehydrated. If we can learn how this metabolic feat works we can use the information to help treat people suffering from chronic kidney failure. During this time, the amount of urine entering the kidneys drops by 95%. Disease is uncommon in hibernating animals. Most parasites of bears are adapted to their host’s hibernation cycle and reduce their demands in winter. Medical researchers are studying black bear hibernation to learn how bears cope with conditions that are problematical for people. The findings are aiding studies of human kidney disease, gallstones, obesity, anorexia nervosa, and other problems. Researchers hope that knowledge of bear hibernation may someday even aid space travel. Another mystery goes by the name of delayed implantation.A female will carry a fertilized egg in her womb for many months.The egg is ready to attach itself to the uterine wall and begin developing into a fetus.But it does not do so until the female’s body gives a signal; it is still unknown precisely what this signal is.This adaptation allows bears to time the birth of their cubs, so they’re not born too early or too late. It also gives the mother a way out if food is scarce. If she has not accumulated enough fat by the time she settles into her den to hibernate, the egg will spontaneously abort. Some biologists see this neat trick as a natural mechanism to control the population. Evidence is mounting that hormone-like substances in hibernating bears may control all these physiological tricks.When injected into other species, both those that hibernate and those that do not, these substances engender hibernation-like effects. In conclusion, we can say that what we know about hibernation may not contain even one half of what is to be known. Hibernation is a sign of the Lord’s existence in the world and His ceaseless protection of creatures.We know that hibernators do not decide to hibernate at will; they are put in that position by their All-Merciful Protector. And all of them are doing their job as actors in a great scenario in the World Theater of God.

ATM is currently one of the most attractive technologies in the digital data communications field. In ATM, information is transmitted in short fixed-length blocks that are called cells (Figure 1). An ATM cell consists of a header and a data field that carries the actual information-either video, voice or data. The cell header contains a label denoting the routing address.

Not only was ATM created to overcome the difficulties in existing transfer methods but also to allow the creation of a Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network (B-ISDN).

Transmission speeds up to the physical limits (e.g., 622.05 Mbps signaling rate nowadays) are achievable with ATM. By contrast, there are limitations to the upgrading possible, with the most popular traditional Local Area Network (LAN) topologies (e.g., Ethernet and Token Ring), to higher bandwidth, which means incapacity to support current and of course future real-time applications.

Although the connection-oriented ATM was initially designed for Wide Area Networks (WANs), its unique features including flexibility, scalability, high transfer capacity and support for multimedia applications, also fired the imagination of the LAN vendors in the early 1990s. Since ATM is suitable for both LANs and WANs, historical separation of traditional LANs that are connectionless and WANs that are connection-oriented will eventually disappear. This will form a universal platform for data communications as well as replace the conventional LAN topologies. With full deployment of ATM in design, manufacturing and maintenance of the future networks, the overall costs will be relatively smaller.

The traditional LANs use a shared media-access (e.g. bus) method. That means all stations of the network have to share one transmission medium and have to contend for access. The limitations of shared media-access method are overcome by the ATM’s new approach of switching systems based on central media-access management (Figure 2). Since each user has a dedicated connection to one of the ATM switch ports, users no longer need to contend for access as opposed to the legacy LANs. Moreover ATM LAN users are provided WAN services through another port on the LAN switch. On the other side, the traditional LANs have no direct wide-area capabilities-they must depend on a separate piece of equipment to convert the LAN rates and protocols into WAN-compatible format.

Problems that arise in transmission through the current networks of voice, video and data simultaneously (or in real-time) could well be prevented by using ATM.

With its low-cost networking and technology ATM will soon provide scientist and engineers greater global freedom to exchange data, images (e.g., medical imaging applications) and models in real-time. Beyond the physical boundaries of classrooms, students (especially disabled) will be able to be part of a class and interact with others just as though they were there using high-speed and reliable ATM networks.

GLOSSARY

B-ISDN: A high-speed (above 1.544 Mbps signaling rate) network standard that grew from traditional narrowband ISDN.

Connection-oriented: A network (e.g., WANs) that establishes, either permanently or on a call-by-call basis, a specific circuit path for transmission.

Connectionless: A network (e.g., legacy LANs) in which no particular path is established for the transfer of information.

Ethernet: A LAN using 10 Mbps signaling rate.

LAN: High-speed network connecting personal computers, printers, and other data equipment within an office or campus.

Mbps: Mega bit per second

Token Ring: A LAN using 4 or 16 Mbps signaling rate.

WAN: High-speed network connecting communications equipment nationally and internationally.

References

• PARULKAR G. M.: ‘Local ATM Networks’, IEEE Network March 1993, p.S-9.
• VENIERIS I. S., ANGELOPOULOS J. D. & STASSINOPOULOS G. I.:
• ‘Efficient Use of Protocol Stacks for LAN/MAN-ATM Interworking’, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications October 1993, 11(8) p.1160-1170,.
• KIM B.G. & WANG P.: ‘ATM Network: Goals and Challenges’, Communications of the ACM February 199538 (2), pp. 39-44.
• The ATM Forum: http:/ /www.atmforum.com/

So-called ‘new’ viruses most probably derive from existing viruses; in general, viruses of today have ancestors and relatives. However, as viruses show great variety, and many of the viruses of gravest concern mutate rapidly and unpredictably, it is not always possible to trace their ancestry with any great confidence. A ‘new virus may be genuinely new or a major evolutionary variant arising from genetic processes such as mutation or recombination. Their rate of mutation is so high that controlling them, or predicting their behaviour, is well-nigh impossible. High mutation rate means that no RNA (ribonucleic acid) virus population is a single entity, but rather a ‘quasi species’. Introduction of a virus from one species to another and dissemination from a smaller to a larger population are also among the basic mechanisms by which viruses emerge.

The emerging viruses are surfacing from ecologically damaged parts of the earth. When viruses come out of an ecosystem, they tend to spread in waves through the human population. Among the most notorious are: Lassa, Rift Valley, Oropuche, Rocio, Q. Guanarito, VEE, Monkeypox, Dengue, Chikunganya, the Hanta viruses, Machupo, Junin, the rabies like strains Mokola and Duvenhage, LeDantec.

AIDS: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a more difficult case compared to, for example, influenza, itself a great killer – the influenza pandemic of 1918-9 in China caused some 20 million fatalities. We do not know the origin of HIV, but a probable primate origin is often suggested, and appears highly plausible. HIV-2 (one of the major strains of HIV) may be a mutant that jumped into humans from an African monkey known as the sooty mangabey, perhaps when monkey hunters or trappers touched body tissue. HIV-1 (the other strain) may have jumped into man from chimpanzees – perhaps when hunters butchered chimpanzees.

HIV attacks the type of lymphocytes known as helper T-cells that stimulate the activity of B lymphocytes that produce antibodies. After an HIV infection sets in, helper T-cells begin to decline in number and the person becomes more susceptible to infections.

The AIDS virus mutates rapidly and constantly. It is a hyper-mutant, a shape-shifter, spontaneously altering its character as it moves through individuals. It mutates even in the course of one injection.

The drug AZT has been found to be helpful in prolonging the lives of AIDS patients. Also, it has been shown that administration of Interleukin-2 and AT-538 can prevent viral replication in cells in the early stages of the infection.

The Filoviruses

Marburg and Ebola viruses were recently elevated to family status as the Filoviridae. The name, ‘thread viruses’, is based on their morphology. These viruses made their appearance in the 1960s and 1970s in the form of frightening nosocomial and occupational outbreaks, initially among polio vaccine production workers in contact with Ugandan green monkeys and their kidney tissues, then in independent hospital epidemics of devastating proportions during 1976 in the Sudan and Zaire. Mortality from these infections can range to nearly 90%, that is 90% of infections, not just of clinical illnesses.

The incubation period of a filovirus in a human being, is from 3 to 18 days during which time the number of virus particles climbs steadily in the bloodstream. Then the suffering begins.

Marburg was the first filovirus to be discovered. It erupted in a factory producing vaccines using kidney cells from African green monkeys. Thirty-one people caught the virus. Seven infected persons died in pools of blood in just two weeks. This fatality rate of one in four makes Marburg an extremely lethal agent, yet it is the mildest of the filoviruses. No vaccine is available.

Ebola Sudan

The next indication of the existence of filoviruses came from an extraordinary pair of epidemics in 1976. In the Sudan the initial focus was a cotton factory in Nzara, and several of the earliest recognized cases worked there in a single room. Travel to nearby Maridi introduced the virus into the medical care system, with subsequent latrogenic dissemination that devastated the Maridi hospital. In this outbreak, 150 out of 280 infected people died.

In 1979, it recurred in Nzara, Sudan. The index case had worked in the same room in the cotton factory identified in the earlier epidemic. Twenty-two out of 34 infected patients died. When it first erupted, the medical stuff had used dirty needles which facilitated the spread of infection. Again, no vaccine is available.

Two months after the start of the Sudan emergence in 1976, an even more lethal filovirus emerged. The Ebola Zaire, a new strain was nearly twice as lethal as Ebola Sudan. The fatality rate of Ebola Zaire is 9 out of 10. Staff at a hospital which had been at the epicenter of the epidemic were almost all wiped out: 13 out of 17 of the doctors and nurses died. The disease erupted more or less simultaneously in fifty-five villages near the headwaters of Ebola River.

This epidemic was clearly dependent on the use of unsterilized needles and syringes for its major dissemination between villages, although multiple later generations of cases occurred among family contacts without any defined exposure route.

Ebola is distantly related to measles, mumps and rabies. It is also related to certain pneumonia viruses, to the parainfluenza virus which causes colds in children, and to the respiratory syncytial virus, which can cause fatal pneumonia in a person who has AIDS.

Ebola kills a great deal of tissue while the host is alive. It triggers a creeping, spotty necrosis that spreads through all the internal organs. The liver bulges up and turns yellow, begins to liquefy and then it cracks apart. The kidneys become jammed with blood clots and dead cells, and cease functioning. As the kidneys fail, the blood becomes toxic with urine. No vaccine is available.

Ebola does in ten days what it takes AIDS ten years to accomplish. In principle Ebola-like viruses could spread out all over the world in just one month and a half. Richard Preston, the author of Hot Zone argues that AIDS may be the first step in a natural process of clearance. What is being cleared is human beings: the earth’s immune system, so to speak, has recognized the presence of our species and is starting to kick in and signal its potential to rid itself of an infection by human beings. There can be no excuse for failing to reflect radically on the way we manage our economies, our societies and our lifestyles. We have no absolute right of tenure of this planet, nor does our collective intelligence or our science and technology afford a reliable immunity from vulnerability, whether as individuals or as a species. We do need to be fearful perhaps, though not to panic – so that we redress the balance in favour of humility in our attitudes and activities, so that we become more caring and careful in using our God-given faculties to prevent the worst before it happens.

References

• MADER, S. S. (1992) Human Biology, WCB Group.
• PRESTON, R. (1993) Hot Zone, Random House, New York.
• MORSE, S. 5. (1993) Emerging Viruses, Oxford University Press, New York.
• DOWDLE, W. (1993) ‘The Origins of Plagues’, Science, 261 (September 17).
• GRIFFIN, B. E. (1994) ‘Live and Let Live’, Nature, 368 (March 3).

The environmental crisis humanity faces at this stage in their development is an outward manifestation of the internal crisis arising from the break with traditional beliefs and values, and their surrender to the disease of ‘problem denial’ characteristic of modern urban, industrialized societies. This state of mental and spiritual sickness takes man down a vicious and destructive spiral. Human-centred, short-term gain and economic surplus-oriented societies have led people to put their trust in science and technology to solve their problems, regardless of the cost to ‘others’. This way of life is not sustainable and creates new and worsening problems, doing perhaps inevitable long term damage to ‘other’ people, other species, the environment as a whole.

Industrialization has led to a simplified, throw-it-away world view which encourages people to dominate and manipulate all available resources in a frantic race for growth in levels of self-indulgence. The causes of environmental overload or degradation are pollution of water, air and land, and depletion of resources. Urbanization and industrialization where large amounts of pollutants are concentrated in small volumes of air, water and land have led to the overloading and disruption of the natural dilution, breakdown and recycling of the chemicals essential for life. The effluent of fertilizers, pesticides, toxic heavy metals, and (partly or wholly) treated industrial waste, is allowed to run off into lakes and streams. The effects are already very tangible: nauseating smells and tastes, smog causing reduced atmospheric visibility, corrosion of metal work, erosion of buildings; reduced tree and crop production; a decrease in biodiversity-each year at least 51,000 species in all become extinct, often as direct consequence of human activity; serious damage to human health-as in the spread of infectious diseases, irritation and diseases of the respiratory system, genetic and reproductive defects, and cancers (for example of skin and liver).

The scale and rate of environmental degradation demand serious and urgent reform. We desperately need to change our attitudes and concepts conform more with the laws of nature as ordained by God. Only if we do it so can we hope for true success in this world and the Hereafter.

As noted, excessive and wasteful use of material resources is a major factor in environmental degradation. We have three types of material resources. First, deep-mined non-renewable (exhaustible) resources such as petroleum, coal, natural gas, and minerals such as copper, aluminium, iron, and uranium which are purified from ores supplied by the earth’s crust. Fossil fuels are finite and could be exhausted quite quickly at present rates of consumption; further, when burned, these fuels are converted to waste heat and exhaust gases which are serious pollutants.

Second, there are perpetual resources, namely solar energy, wind power, geothermal energy, and flowing water. These must become our main future sources of energy.

Third, the potentially renewable resources so-called because, they can be replaced through natural processes on a human life-time scale. Examples are trees in forests, grasses, wild animals, fresh surface water, in lakes and streams, and most ground water, the earth’s most valuable resource. If these resources are used at a rate that does not reduce their availability, they can yield a sustainable source of energy. However, when the natural replacement rate is exceeded, then the supply is depleted and environmental degradation results. Some examples are typified by the covering of productive land with water, concrete, asphalt, or buildings to such an extent that crop growth declines and wildlife habitats are lost. Excessive removal of fresh water from aquifers and from surface waters leads to water scarcity. Deforestation without adequate replanting causes destruction of wildlife habitats where timber-growth cannot be sustained.

Alarmingly, nearly half of the world’s original expanse of tropical forests have been cleared. Each year, about 171,000 km2 of tropical forest are destroyed. These losses reduce biodiversity because niches for thousands of plants and animals are destroyed with the trees.

Around 35% of the world’s coastal and inland wetlands have been drained, built upon, or seriously polluted (e.g. the ‘Golden Horn’ in Istanbul). Most of our wastes accumulate in the oceans. Oil slicks, floating plastic debris, polluted estuaries and beaches, contaminated fish, are just a few of the ugly scenes that result. However, man’s carelessness not only affects other species: world-wide, an estimated 16 million people lose their homes and land due to environmental degradation alone.

Resource depletion or scarcity can be absolute or relative. Absolute scarcity occurs when supplies of a resource .are insufficient or too expensive to meet present or anticipated future demands. For example, the world’s finite supplies of petroleum oil may be used up within the next 50 years decades at present rates of consumption. Relative scarcity occurs as a result of unbalanced and inequitable distribution of a resource which, if equitably distributed would meet the demand of everyone in need.

Relative scarcity dominates the world scene at present: industrialized economies of the West, the United States especially consume a huge disproportionate share of material and energy resources at the expense of other nations. This further widens the gap between the rich and the poor countries. It is a fact that the rate of damage inflicted upon the environment, and hence the damage to the stability and security of others’ lives, has been greater in this past century than since the beginning of man’s history. The Muslim World today, once the pioneer of true civilization is being steadily corrupted by serving the lifestyle of the Western powers. The balanced, traditional lifestyle which conforms with the law of God and hence is more environment-friendly nature is being eroded at alarming speed. The Muslims and other victims of modern civilization lack control over their lives, once self-sustaining, and are forced into the global ‘cash economy’ manipulated by a small, cynical elite who gamble, quite literally, with commodity and stock prices without the least concern for the millions of human lives disrupted and destroyed as a result.

Mankind are heading toward an abyss of anxiety and insecurity while the natural world deteriorates around them. Unless we make a concerted and sustained effort to recover the fitrah state, a life-style that accords with the balance and order of creation, destruction and disorder on a hitherto unimagined scale await us in this life and, in the next, the torment of knowing we failed our responsibility. For in that life we shall be questioned in detail about what we did in this; each of our senses and limbs and organs will bear witness against us; and we will account even for every drop of water we used well or wasted.

Hibernators are intensely active in summer. A part of that activity is building temporary burrows for summer use only. Ground squirrels, (Spermophilus citellus) for example, can build hundreds of such temporary shelters over a single summer, on average 15 shelters in a 10m2 area of open field. These shelters have only the one nest compartment, usally between 30 and 50cm below ground level. By contrast, their shelters for hibernation, sometimes as much as 3m below ground level, are intended for long, repeated use and contain a number of compartments-one for storing large quantites of food (usally dry seeds), one for use as a ‘toilet’, and a third for sleeping.

Before hibernation, animals prepare themselves for the hardship of the very long period of cold by storing up large amounts of fat in adipose tissue under the skin, up to some 40 % of total body weight. These fats are composed of fatty acids which typically have ten or fewer than ten carbon atoms and are consturcted with some double bonds between the carbon atoms of the chain and their esters with glycerides. These compounds provide the ideal energy source needed during hibernation because lipids yield twice the energy yielded by carbohydrates and proteins. Moreover, these fatty acids need very little oxygen in their degradation/conversion to energy.

Blood circulation and homeostasis during hibernation are not well understood. The animal steadies body temperature at around 2°C to 5°C: in mammals the body temperature remains about 1°C above environmental temperature. Usally, when body temperature falls to this level, metabolic rate is increased or the animal awakes, but during hibernation this does not happen. Metabolic rate at 5°C is usually 2-5% of the rate at normal body temperature. For example, the active heart rate of the genus Myotis of bats is between 500 and 700 beats per minute. During hibernation the rate goes down to 20 beats per minute at 5°C, and 8 beats at -7°C. Two consistent and characteristic changes are found in blood during hibernation: an increased production of herapin, which may be contributing to a reduction in the risk of blood clotting during very slow circulation, and an increase in serum magnesium, for which there is no explanation as yet.

Many different types of respiratory patterns have been observed during the state of hibernation. We will mention only one example here: The hedgehog, at a body temperature of 5°C, does not breathe at all for an amazing 56 minutes.

In controlled observations, it has been found that animals which hibernate show improved retention of learned behaviour compared to non-hibernating animals. Again, it is not at all clear why this should be so.

Hibernation is not a prolonged period of constant torpor. There are periodic arousals during winter caused by the accumulation of metabolic end products or having a full bladder. The awakening process is often assisted by shivering, especially when the body temperature is very low. Awakening is a costly process because it takes as much energy to wake up as it does to stay in hibernation for ten days. The ground squirrel, Spermophilus citellus gains around 150-200 g of fat before hibernation. That is more than enough for the energy being used up during sleep; the excess is needed for the wakening up intervals which occur fortnightly.

A number of hypotheses have sought to explain how hibernation is triggered-changes in weather and climate, temperature, humidity and change of diet are among the suggestions. Apart from these causes, a protein was isolated from the blood of a hibernator bear in the USA in the 1980s which, when injected into rats appeared to induce sleeping behaviour in summer. Today it remains uncertain if this protein is the only stimulator of hibernation. If it is, we still need to know what other conditions are related to the protein level and its effect and how the level of protein is maintained at the right level during the animal’s life cycle.

What is already securely known about hibernation establishes it as a truly amazing physiological phenomenon. It tells us that the body temperature of some hibernators will passively adjust ambient tempeature from between 2°C to 32°C without causing awakening. The inevitable question is what advantage such behaviour affords the hibernating animals. Some small animals, because of their high metabolic rates are faced with an acute need for a continuously available supply of food and water. Controlled investigations show that dormant animals at cool temperatures lose much less weight than the non-dormant ones. It has also been shown that small animals can survive for at least a hundred days on the energy derived from ten grams of fat. Hibernation is, in other words, a survival technique, an adaptation to the conditions of poor or non-existent food supply during the winter months.

That is, however, something of a mechanical explanation which, even as a mechanical explanation, is far from satisfactory. The secondary question immediately arises of why this particular adaptation and not another-why not migration, for example, to areas where winter does not affect food supply so drastically? There are many birds and other animals which take this option.

A more satisfying explanation must surely consider what adaptability itself is, how it relates to the variety of life-forms, to the individuation of species and kinds, and to the overwhelming intution (which must touch any truly objective observer) that, at levels of subtlety and intricacy which defy comprehension, the survival and provision of each and every living form is minutely arranged and co-ordinated to create a whole that is thoroughly interconnected. The value of that whole is manifested in many different aspects-beauty, variety, efficiency, the rich warmth of life. Is it not impossible to resist the impression of a wonderful generosity within and behind the world of living forms?