Enveloping our body like a piece of clothing, our skin is a miraculous organ that both forms a barrier against potential invaders and plays a crucial role in the maintenance of vital functions. It is a mirror that reflects our experiences, memories, and fate with the lines and marks on it. With a surface area of 1.72 square meters and a weight of approximately 9.6 kg, including the fatty tissue under it, the skin is the largest organ in our body and life cannot possibly be maintained without it.[1] It is through the skin that we learn knives cut, fire burns, and our mother has very soft hands. We don’t even realize, but the skin quietly carries out other numerous functions such as sweating toxins out of the body, maintaining body temperature, and synthesizing vitamin D.[2] Some of these functions are related to the sun and the protection of our body from it.

The sun emits all kinds of rays across the electromagnetic spectrum. The lethal ones among these rays are filtered by the atmosphere that envelops the Earth, so very few of these dangerous rays reach the land.[3] The rays that reach Earth are visible (wavelengths of 400-700 nm) and ultraviolet (wavelengths of 100-400 nm) rays. Ultraviolet radiation comes in three types: UVA, UVB, and UVC.

Having wavelengths of 320-400 nm, UVA rays make up 90% of the UV that reaches Earth’s surface. Regardless of whether it is cloudy or sunny, the same amount of these rays reaches Earth and penetrates as far as the lower layers of the human skin. UVA rays damage the connective tissue under the skin, causing the skin to get old and the formation of free radicals, which indirectly cause DNA damage, hence terminal skin cancers or melanoma. Rays that come in these wavelengths are also largely responsible for allergic reactions on the skin.

With wavelengths of 280-320 nm, UVB rays make up 5-10% of the UV radiation reaching Earth. These rays help with the synthesis of vitamin D but also cause sunburns and the synthesis of melanin in the skin. UVB rays also have a role in mutating genes that prevent growth of tumors, thus leading to the development of skin cancers other than melanoma.

With wavelengths of 100-280 nm, UVC rays are harmful to living things. When they reach the Earth’s atmosphere, UVC rays interact with the oxygen atoms here. This interaction leads to the formation of the ozone layer, which prevents UVC rays from almost never reaching the ground. These dangerous waves have been put into humankind’s service by being employed in the creation of the protective ozone layer.

Ultraviolet rays and the harmful effects of visible light on the skin

There are short-term and long-term effects of UV rays on the skin.

The short-term effects are sunburn, heat stroke, allergic reactions, suntan, and viral diseases such as herpes, which are usually felt shortly after exposure to the sun and can be triggered by suppression of the immune system. The long-term, accumulative effects are photo-aging (the skin getting wrinkly due to solar rays), sunspots, cataracts, and the development of skin cancers.[4]

On the other hand, our skin is not entirely unprotected against the dangerous effects of the sun. The keratin layer in the epidermis, the uppermost layer of the skin, absorbs or disperses light, so the amount of light penetrating into the layers below is significantly lowered. Beta-carotene in the skin along with some enzyme systems reduce free oxygen radicals released after exposure to the sun and thus eliminate solar damage. Likewise, melanin, which gives our skin its color, lies above the nuclei in skin cells and acts as an umbrella that protects the cellular DNA from solar radiation.[5]

Six subgroups of skin types have been determined according to color of the hair, eyes, and skin, as well as the skin’s reaction to solar rays. This classification is widely accepted for identifying risk groups and determining specific protection measures.[6]

Although the number of melanosomes, or melanin-producing cells in the human skin, is the same in all humans, the color of the skin is determined by the genetic differences in the type, amount, and size of melanin pigments. Melonosomes in Europeans are small and light, while those of Africans are larger and darker.[7]

The importance of protection from the sun

The frequency of skin cancer has been increasing, which is precipitated by the fact that the ozone layer has gotten thinner and people are not well informed about UV protection. Many people take beach vacations and sunbathe, do mountain sports, have tanned skin, work in open air professions (such as construction workers, lifeguards, and tour guides), and they do so without much care.

For protection, we should first know that harmful effects of solar rays accumulate over time. The damage caused by the sun is stored in the body, just like change we save in a piggy bank. Unfortunately, we accumulate 40-50% of the total damage we are exposed to in a lifetime in the first quarter of life – that is, during childhood and our teenage years.[8] The skin’s natural protection mechanisms are not fully developed during these periods, nor is our understanding of protection. A research study carried out in Australia has shown that the rate of malign melanoma seen in young people can be reduced by 73% through effective solar protection methods.[9]

The major reason for wrinkles, the primary and fundamental indication of aging skin, is not in fact our age but the sun. UVA and UVB rays break down the connective tissue below the skin, disrupt the skin’s repair mechanisms, and cause skin aging (or photo-aging). Therefore, photo-aging takes place faster and earlier in people who work outside.[10]

{Picture: Photo-aging visible on one side of a truck driver’s face}[11] 

It’s imperative that we begin teaching children and adolescents about UV protection: having suffered five sunburns in childhood and early youth increases the risk of developing melanoma by 80%.[12] Children shouldn’t spend long hours in the midday, summer sun. 

Solar damage isn’t just more likely in children and teenagers, but also in people with skin type 1 or 2 (light skin), red hair, and/or colored eyes (blue); people, especially light-skinned people, with many skin moles; people whose family members have or had skin cancer; those who have a skin disorder triggered by the sun (lupus, dermatomyositis, rosacea); and people who have innate light sensitivity (albino, xeroderma pigmentosum, etc.). All these groups must be particularly careful about protecting themselves from the sun.

What are some ways to protect ourselves from UV Rays? Well, because UV radiation bombards the Earth most intensely at noon during the summer, staying indoors is greatly recommended between the hours of 10:00 am and 4:00 pm.  Additionally, the reflection rate of solar rays is higher by the seaside and in snowy environments.[13]

Wearing appropriate clothes is still the most effective and the least expensive method of sun protection. Clothing can have a solar protection factor (SPF) of 15-30. The level of protection is determined by the type of fabric, number of pores, and type, color, and thickness of weaving. The best clothes are made from cotton, silk, and denim and are unbleached and woven tightly. Wet clothes are more permeable. The use of wide hats, sunglasses, and umbrellas are also important for protection.

In addition to these measures, sun protection creams should also be used. The idea that protection creams will prevent the synthesis of vitamin D, voiced frequently lately, should not prevent the use of sun protection because the solar rays we receive during the day from the face and hands are sufficient for the synthesis of vitamin D. A person should pick a sun cream appropriate for their skin and apply it in sufficient amounts 20 minutes before going out. Babies should be protected through natural means, and physical sun protection should be used for children and pregnant women. A person should reapply sun protection products every two or three hours while outside, and, if planning to swim, they should choose water resistant products.

Besides physical protection that blocks, scatters, or reflects solar rays, there are also skin-absorbable chemical protections with cosmetically accepted formulations that eliminate light by absorbing it.

Generally speaking, a good sun protection should protect against both UVA and UVB rays. It should be cosmetically acceptable, non-toxic, water and perspiration resistant, and at the appropriate SPF (sun protection factor) level. However, because reapplication is required every two to three hours, protection above SPF 50 is the same. Therefore, it is no use buying a more expensive, higher protection product.[14] For people with type 3 skin (darker white skin with gold tone), SPF 30 is sufficient. For light skinned people, children, and pregnant women, however, SPF 50 is recommended.

SPF is the number indicating by how many more times a sunscreen protects the skin against UVB than the skin itself. Skin type is very important in sunscreen choice. The natural protection period of a person with type 1 skin is 5-10 minutes, while it may go up to 90 minutes for a person with type 6 skin. In other words, a light-skinned person gets a sunburn in 5-10 minutes of exposure, while a dark-skinned person may not get one at all. Therefore, these people should not choose products at the same SPF level. For example, if the skin’s self-protection duration is five minutes, a sunscreen with a SPF of 30 provides the same protection for 150 minutes.

Apart from sun protection creams, oral products can also help with sun protection. For example, oral zinc intake is proven to prevent cellular and DNA damage caused by UV radiation. Vitamin C is effective at preventing UVA rays due to its antioxidant properties and vitamin E at preventing UVB rays. In addition, the intake of beta carotene (a precursor of vitamin A) and bioflavonoids (also called vitamin P which generally has effects similar to vitamin C), found in orange and red fruit, protects against UV damage. Polyphenolic compounds in green tea also display protective properties against UV radiation.[15]

Finally, we should remember that using a sun protection product is a small part of our attitude toward your overall protection from the sun. Considering the role of the ozone layer in filtering the sun’s harmful rays, we should protect the perfect balance in the universe and re-evaluate our responsibilities and future actions for the maintenance of this balance.

Notes

[1] livescience.com.

[2] Gilchrest BA. “Sun exposure and vitamin D sufficiency,” Am. J Clin Nutr. August 2008, Vol. 88 # 2 570S-577S.

[3] Understanding UVA and UVB. skincancer.org.

[4] sciencelearn.org.nz.

[5] “The Protective Role of Melanin against UV Damage in Human Skin.” Photochem Photobiol. 2008; 84(3):539-549.

[6] laserdocs.co.uk/easy-way-to-find-out-your-fitzpatrick-skin-type/

[7] Ibid.

[8] Adele CG, Sarah C Wallingford and Penelope M. “Childhood exposure to UV radiation and harmful skin effects: Epidemiological evidence.” Prog Biophys Mol Biol. December 2011, 107(3): 349-355.

[9] Green AC, Williams GC, Logan V, Srutton GM. “Reduced Melanoma after Regular Sunscreen Use: Randomized Trial Follow-Up,” Journal of Clinically Oncology. 20 January 2011, Vol. 29 # 3:257-263.

[10] Fitzpatrick’s Dermatology in General Medicine.

[11] www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMicm1104059.

[12] Markovic SN, Erickson LA, Rao RD, et al. “Malignant Melanoma in the 21^st Century, part 1: Epidemiology, risk factors screening, prevention and diagnosis.” Mayo Clin Proc, 2007; 82: 364-380.

[13] Skin cancer prevention and early detection. www.skincancer.org.

[14] www.dermnetz.org.

[15] Halliwell B. “Free radicals, antioxidants and human disease.” Lancet 1994; 344-:721-724.

Radiation, which refers to emissions of light or particles, is a type of energy transfer. Radiation takes place at any given moment in the environment or the body. Among sources of radiation to which humans are exposed daily are sun rays, radio waves coming from devices such as mobile phones and TV sets, appliances such as ovens or irons that emit heat, and medical machines such as ultrasounds. The radiation emitted from devices and machines do not cause ionization. Ionizing radiation is made up of high-energy wavelengths or particles, and this is the kind of radiation we get from x-ray, CT, and nuclear imaging. This is used to penetrate tissue to reveal the body’s internal organs and structures. Ionizing radiation can damage DNA, and when our cells cannot fully repair the damage, this may result in DNA mutations.[1] The radiation which poses real danger to humans and has the power to ionize is when radioactive—or unstable—atoms decay and emit alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ) rays.

The earth, air, water, and all living things are more or less radioactive because radioactive atoms are everywhere. The average person is annually exposed to radiation levels of 2.6 – 10 mSv (millisievert), which is not that alarming. The maximum limit recommended for people exposed to radiation for occupational reasons is 100 mSv. The lungs of a person who smokes one pack of cigarettes a day are exposed to an annual radiation of 106 mSv.

How can we protect ourselves?

It is recommended by the World Health Organization that children younger than 16 should not use mobile phones; when they do, their calls should not exceed 10 minutes. When purchasing devices, you should also take into account its SAR (Specific Absorption Rate). Prefer devices with a SAR<1 W/kg. It is also recommended to unplug electrical devices when you are not using them, to keep electrical appliances as far away from your head as possible, use the hairdryer for short periods and in intervals, and to avoid using mobile phones for long conversations (or use headphones!).

It’s also worth reconsidering whether using radiation-emitting devices such as mammography, x-rays, or ultrasounds are absolutely necessary. In 2010, the British Department of Health and Social Care banned using tomography for screening purposes. Another study in the US found that one in ten people are exposed to high levels of radiation because of medical tests.

The average radiation rates (mSv) a person was exposed to during use of certain imaging devices is as follows:

Researchers also found that employees in nuclear power plants were exposed to amounts of radiation that far exceeded allowable amounts.

Beware of radon

The natural radiation humans are exposed to most is the gas radon. Some matter with radioactive atoms such as uranium and thorium – both present in the earth since its birth – emit radon, which seeps through the earth and into the walls of houses and through gaps in plumbing. It is recommended to air houses at least 15 minutes every 24 hours as the only way to be protected from radon.

The resistance of living things

Creatures have been created with different forms of resistance to the elements, including radiation. For example, dogs have a lower resistance than humans, while many other creatures such as rabbits, tortoises, and fruit flies have a higher resistance. And then there is the cockroach, which can survive even a nuclear attack. The lethal radiation dose for cockroaches is an incredible 670- 1000 Sv, whereas it is 6-8 Sv for humans.

Scorpions are also much more radiation-resistant than humans. They can withstand up to 1500 Sv, an amount that is 250 times the maximum dose humans can take. Studies have found a correlation between the strength of a scorpion’s venom and their resistance to radiation. The greater the amount of venom, the greater the resistance they have. The presence of the neural transmitter serotonin supports this view.

Are humans radioactive too?

Humans contain trace amounts of radioactive atoms, namely uranium (²³⁸U), potassium (⁴⁰K), and carbon (¹⁴C). An 80 kg human has natural radiation of 8000 becquerel every second, which is equal to 100Bq per kilogram. This amount is not high enough to cause any worry. The human body has 40 trillion cells on average, and every cell has about 100 trillion atoms. The proportion of the radiating atoms in the body is about 8000/4×10²¹.

Precision protection

The radioactive atoms in the body with the highest probability for carcinogenic effects are potassium (⁴⁰K) and carbon (¹⁴C) atoms. The decomposition that leads to cancer stems from mutations in genes, but the molecules that are the building blocks of genes do not have potassium atoms. The likelihood that a cell gets harmed is very low: it is necessary that the particles emitted from the radioactive potassium atom crash into the DNA molecule and harm it, which is as unlikely as threading a needle when blindfolded. The DNA is precisely protected inside the nucleus located at the center of the cell. If we consider the fact that the average diameter of a cell is about 10 microns (1 micron is one-thousandth of a millimeter), we can better appreciate how little space DNA occupies.

Radiocarbon atoms (¹⁴C), on the other hand, might be present in DNA molecules, and they are more dangerous because the emitted particles are more likely to find the target despite having weaker radioactive properties than potassium. A radioactive carbon atom turns into a nitrogen (¹⁴N) atom and may thus cause a chemical change in the DNA. In other words, the carbon atom is possibly to blame for the unexpected development of cancer.

The likelihood of harmful radioactive particles hitting a person’s DNA is low, and the protective system provided for it lowers the likelihood of developing cancer even more. New DNA molecules that form during DNA coupling are repeatedly checked by inspector enzymes. If there is an error, it is detected and then corrected. The broken code is taken out to be replaced with the correct version. Meanwhile, all these steps are checked by other enzymes assigned to the task. More errors might be made in the newly produced DNA molecule because of external factors. Yet ribosomes in the cell start to produce repair enzymes, as per the instructions from the DNA.

When thinking about all the protective factors that have been coded into the DNA for our survival against the 8000 radioactive activities that occur in our body every second, one cannot help but feel awe for the infinite mercy and wisdom that operate in our lives.

References

• http://time.com/5069317/california-mobile-phone-radiation/
• https://www.health.harvard.edu/cancer/radiation-risk-from-medical-imaging
• Choppin, G. et al., Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry, Oxford: Elsevier Science & Technology, 1995.
• www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/natural.htm

[1] https://www.health.harvard.edu/cancer/radiation-risk-from-medical-imaging

Introduction

Human beings have wrestled with questions about the origin of our existence and the fabric of our universe for thousands of years. This questioning formed the discipline of cosmology. Dr. Natarajan explores the nature of our world and shares her perspectives about how new scientific discoveries are reshaping our understanding of the universe and our place in it. Until very recently, the universe had been considered a vast empty space. But the Dark matter theory states that the universe is not empty, but rather filled with an invisible matter. As new mysteries unfold, Dr. Natarajan points out that it is our fundamental human curiosity that leaves us no choice but to explore the universe and how we fit into its grand picture.

M&B: Dr. Natarajan, you work on dark matter in the universe. What is the theory?

It turns out that the bulk of the matter in the universe is not made of ordinary atoms that you and I or the universe that we know and experience is made of, but instead made of this mysterious particle. Ninety percent of all the matter in the universe is dark matter, and we believe this is a set of particles that was created very early in the universe. These particles do not have charge, but they have mass. Since they dominate the mass of the universe, it turns out that they really form the scaffolding in the universe around which all galaxies, stars, and so on, form. They are sort of the basis or the framework within which normal atoms actually cool to form star galaxies, and then have generated us.

M&B: What is the evidence for their existence?

The reason dark matter remains a mystery, – although there is incontrovertible evidence for the existence of dark matter – is the fact that you only detect it indirectly. What I mean by that is you detect its presence because it has mass, and since it doesn’t have any charge it doesn’t couple to any radiation. So you don’t see radiation in any wavelength in the electromagnetic spectrum: no X-rays, no gamma rays, no visible light, nothing. But since dark matter has mass, it aggregates gravitationally, so they feel gravitational pull towards each other and they cluster. It’s the clustering of the dark matter, the fact that it gets compact, that we detect the effects of dark matter.

M&B: What happens near the regions where dark matter clusters? In your research papers you use the bending of the light rays. How do you observe it?

The primary evidence is the gravitational bending of light produced by these aggregates of dark matter. The universe is really composed of a smooth distribution of dark matter, with a lot of clump regions where this dark matter has aggregated, and then enabled the formation of galaxies. The presence of these large amounts of dark matter causes light from background galaxies coming towards us to bend. The actual shapes of galaxies that are behind a big clump of dark matter, which is along our line of sight, are actually distorted when we see it. The dark matter in general is smoothly distributed everywhere in the universe. But there are these particular regions that are denser. So we can look at regions in which the dark matter is not so densely distributed, look at the shapes of undistorted shapes of galaxies, and then use that to infer how much distortion we’re actually seeing when we see a lump, and infer its existence from the distortion. Because the strength of the distortion is directly proportional to the mass, you can directly infer how much mass there is between us and those objects.

M&B: Is there evidence other than the bending of the light rays?

The other evidence eludes to the fact that dark matter actually gives the basis for the formation of stars and galaxies. If you look at the motions of stars and galaxies, you find that, unlike the solar system, if you look at the velocities of the planets in the solar system as a function of distance from the sun you find that it’s falling. So the planets in the inner regions are moving very fast; they feel the gravity of the sun much more strongly than the outer planets, which are not actually moving as fast. So if you plot the velocity from the center or from the sun outwards in the solar system, the velocities are falling. Whereas if you go to a galaxy and you do the same experiment, you look at stars at different radii and you try to see what their speeds look like. They are speeding up as you go outwards. And the only way they can do that is there is something that is sitting outside the galaxy that holds it up as it were, and has gravity. And it turns out that our current picture is that most galaxies have very extended dark matter halos. The key point is that there’s a lot of dark matter sitting outside the galaxy well beyond where we see the stars.

The other compelling lines of evidence for the existence of dark matter come from larger scale observations of the universe. One of the leftovers of the big bang or relic of the big bang is this microwave background radiation that is detected today in the universe. It was a very hot radiation that has cooled with the expansion of the universe, and we are bathed in it. I mean it’s everywhere, in every direction, and measurements of the directional dependence of the microwave background shows that it’s very uniform. But in one part it’s anisotropic, so there are cool zones and hot zones in the sky. On very small scales we see these cold and hot spots. And these and isotropy’s in the microwave background are exactly predicted by this model, the cold dark matter model, which I said you know is postulated on the very early generation of the universe and these dark matter particles.

M&B: So we know that they exist. But what is their essence? What are their properties?

This is still a mysterious kind of beast. In fact, we don’t know the nature, but it appears that it’s collisionless. It’s very counterintuitive. That’s one of the things I find fascinating about the fact that it is so counterintuitive. These particles are actually collisionless. What that means is that when two dark matter particles approach each other, they pass through each other, they don’t actually bounce off of each other, so these particles don’t collide, which means they don’t have pressure, because pressure is generated by collision. So they are pressureless particles that have mass. Gravity holds them together, but they don’t actually collide.

So a current understanding of dark matter is that it’s definitely generated very early in the universe and that it clusters very strongly and it’s distributed on very different scales in the universe, so there’s like a smooth background and there are lots of clumps on top of it and so on.

M&B: As far as the mass of Dark Matter how much mass are we talking about? If there is no clustering, something like in the volume of the earth, for example, how much total dark matter mass do we have?

Well I guess the thing is at the position of the earth and at the position of the sun from the center of our galaxy. We are not really dominated by dark matter anymore, so dark matter at that radius doesn’t constitute significant portion of the mass. We are bathed in it, but the density is quite low. It’s at the innermost part of our galaxy where the density is very, very high, so we actually expect that the inner most regions of our galaxy is a very complicated, violent place where not only do you have a black hole which we know exists. This is a black hole that is not made of dark matter. This is a black hole that has gobbled gas and grown to about a million times the mass of the sun, and which is sitting at the center and it creates a very violent place for stars because it can rip them apart and so on. And this whole system is sort of embedded in this very, very dense region full of dark matter.

M&B: How is your everyday work? Where do you get data about the light rays coming near the regions with high Dark matter density?

A: I’m a theoretical person and what that means is that I actually build models but models that are guided by observations. The theory has transformed in the past 10 to 15 years because of the amount of data that technological progress has given us.

For example, the Hubbell space telescope has really transformed the kind of modeling that can be done. So I actually use data that other people have procured. They’ve cleaned it up and they give it to me. These are very distorted images of background galaxies whose shape has been distorted because of the huge amounts of dark matter that is contained in a cluster of galaxies.

M&B: The bending of the light rays is predicted by the general relativity theory. Is it what you use for your calculations?

A: It’s a beautiful theory. I think that people really have understood the iconic status of Einstein. What is most fascinating about him for me is the profound insights that he had of such despaired phenomenon. There was a way in which he was able to see connections and synthesize. You know the whole understanding that the geometry, the fate and the contents of the universe ought to be linked is a profound insight. And I think you know it’s incredible that he enabled, you know, his mind enabled him to formulate it in the way that he did, which has allowed people like me to use general relativity and the sort of elegance of general relativity because of how simple it is in fact to apply and test.

M&B: This looks like an intriguing line of work?

I want to stress that this is a particularly wonderful time for cosmology. It’s a particularly special time. I don’t want to use the sort of often abused golden age as it were, but it’s the confluence of technological progress with the kind of data that we can obtain and the level of understanding that we have built up. This is a very special time to be doing this kind of work. And while the mystery of what dark matter might be made of, you know, it may or may not get solved in my lifetime.

M&B: If you want to describe your work, what term would you use?

In a more descriptive way, I guess. What I really do is I build a story line. I build a story line for the universe. I mean, I build a story of the sequence of events of how a structure forms and assembles. The key there is that you are guided, you have a few snapshots, so you have a bit of data, but then you have to extrapolate and you make some predictions. The goal of the kind of work that I do is to make predictions, and have them be taken seriously, to either be falsified or shown to be true, and what’s exciting about this particular time is that people can falsify your theories or your models in a very short time.

M&B: Isn’t it interesting that we can actually make a story out of universe?

Well, I mean, I think that what is fascinating, and this is a personal view, what is fascinating about cosmology is the… you know it’s mystical and it’s mysterious at the same time and it’s highly abstract. It’s not intuitive because the scale that I’m working with in terms of distances, masses, and energy are just unfathomable. So there’s a real irresistible pull for certain kinds of people to do this kind of work. And I think the universe is a pretty good subject for a narrative because of the range of phenomena that occur in it. This is possibly why in all ancient civilizations there is some notion of cosmogony and this idea of fascination with where we came from. I don’t want to sound arrogant by saying that it’s the fundamental question, but you know it’s an inescapable question for anybody to ponder where we came from.

M&B: Is there a sense of awe that motivates you in your studies?

There is a sense of wonder that the universe generates and I think that you know personally for me I’m a bit of an adventurist, and I think if I can imagine myself, if I had been born 200, 300 years ago I would have been one of those explorers. And I think there are people like that amongst us always, who want to explore in different ways. I mean, there are some people who want to explore via music. And there are frontiers that they want to break through in music, and they have the creativity to do that. And I think that for a lot of us who are doing science, and cosmology in particular, there is a sense of exploration, there’s a sense of examining or grappling with things that are really at the limits of our capabilities in a way.

M&B: In some ways one of the most important fruits of the process and coming along it’s our imagination. And the human imagination is also a part of the universe.

Absolutely. It is an inescapable part of the universe and what is fascinating is the idea that we have the capability to even contemplate the origin of the universe given that we are a part of the universe.

M&B: Many people approach science in a utilitarian way and this is not what you are doing.

I think that the fact that it is not utilitarian is precisely what attracts me to it. I think it is the other side of the coin of this, which is why we probably aren’t as well funded and we ought to be better funded than we are, because this is such a fundamental human curiosity. There is enormous public interest in what we do and the level of funding that we have does not reflect that. For instance, obviously medicine is very critical. It’s critical to our existence. But the disparity in how they are funded and how the pure sciences are funded is sort of disturbing. Because I think as a culture, as a world, we can afford to indulge in understanding basic sciences partly because there are spinoffs from all the work that we do. It is unpredictable, and I think that is what’s fascinating. There are no guaranteed benefits to human kind and society today that cosmologists can bring. However, they satisfy this hunger for knowing and going beyond, you know, satisfying your hunger and thirst on a day to day basis.

Mustafa Tabanli is a producer at Ebru TV. He conducted this interview for Emmy Award winning television series Matter&Beyond.

Bio

Dr. Priya Natarajan is a Professor of Astronomy and Physics at Yale University, and an Associate at the Dark Cosmology Center, which is part of the Niels Bohr Institute at the University of Copenhagen, Denmark. Her research interests include cosmology, gravitational lensing, and black hole physics. She earned a B.A. degree in physics and mathematics at M.I.T. and her doctorate at the Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge in England, where she was a member of Trinity College and elected to a Title A Research Fellowship that she held from 1997 to 2003. She is currently on leave from Yale to take up her Guggenheim Fellowship. She is deeply invested in the public dissemination of science and is currently a member of the Science Advisory Board for the public television series NOVA.

http://www.astro.yale.edu/priya/

In this treatment, radioactive iodine atoms are administered to the patient. These are absorbed only by cells of the thyroid gland which are then eliminated by the radiation; as a result of this process, the over-activity of the thyroid gland is prevented. By the divine will of God, the All-Healing, the All-Wise, iodine is absorbed only by thyroid cells but not by any other cell-a truly wonderful phenomenon. This treatment is known as the “bloodless thyroid operation.”

After he began this treatment, my brother-in-law visited us one day. As soon as she saw him, my small daughter, who loves her uncle very much, ran to him and sat on his lap where she fell asleep after a very short while. But then she woke up within half an hour and suddenly started vomiting. We later understood that the unseen radiation being emitted from the radioactive substance in her uncle’s body first caused my daughter to fall asleep quickly as if she was anesthetized and later had negative effects on her.

Then, an article in a scientific magazine attracted my attention. The concepts of atomic (or nuclear) energy and radiation are usually perceived negatively because of the atomic bombs which were dropped on Nagasaki and Hiroshima or the accident which occurred at the nuclear reactor in Chernobyl. This negative perception has been caused by the sudden deaths of living species, great destruction and the permanent devastating effects observed in the environment after these events. However, the energy within the atomic nucleus also has many potential advantages for humankind. It is just as possible, with this energy, to illuminate houses and work places everywhere as it is to exterminate all the living beings in a city.

Negative effects of radiation

Radiation energy may directly affect molecules within a cell by causing structural disorders especially in its DNA. It also causes ionization of water molecules within a cell and releases free radicals which are harmful to the cell. Damage to molecules and genetic material within a cell may consequently trigger a process that can cause the death of that cell. Thus, it is strongly advised for pregnant women especially to stay away from sources of radiation and also not to expose the body to frequent radiation even for diagnostic purposes, such as X-rays.

Positive effects of radiation

As we consider its beneficial aspects, we realize that nuclear radiation is just one of the innumerable blessings of God. In the field of medicine, for instance, radiation is used to cure diseases like cancer, a disease which, ironically, it sometimes causes. Blood products and medical equipment may be effectively sterilized by the use of radiation. It is also useful in radiological visualization techniques.

Atomic nuclei with unstable composition (radionuclides), which disintegrate without any external interference, display features of radioactivity. The diffusion of energy-bearing rays α, β, γ as a result of this disintegration is called radioactivity and the energy-bearing rays are called radiation. The radioactive substances which are used for the diagnosis and cure of illnesses are known as radioactive medicines or radiopharmaceuticals. This kind of medicine may be composed of pure radioactive nuclei, or they may be compounds which are radioactivated by synthesizing them with radioactive nuclei.

Compared with other radioactive substances, the radiopharmaceuticals used in radiotherapy must have some specific features in terms of radiation type and energy level. Radiopharmaceuticals should be fully absorbed by diseased organ or tissue to be cured and should be applied in such a way that it disseminates the least possible radiation to the rest of the body (so as not to contaminate the body with radiation). That is, the half-life of the radioactive substance should be such that it maintains the correct level of radiation in the tissues to effect the required cure. God has created radioactive substances which emit pure β-rays so that they are ideal for curative purposes.

Radiotherapy

Radioactive nuclear therapy is a treatment for diseased human tissue, usually by the intravenous injection of a suitably formulated radioactive composition. In this treatment, the radioactive composition, when diffused within the body, is held more intensely within the diseased organs, and a kind of radiotherapy at cellular level is thus achieved. The most outstanding example of this kind of therapy is radioactive iodine treatment. This therapy is most frequently applied in cases of excess activity of the thyroid gland in patients with thyroid cancer. As iodine is mostly consumed by the thyroid gland in our body, radioactive iodine (I-131 which is the radioisotope of the element iodine) is particularly suitable for this treatment. The thyroid gland’s feature of absorbing and retaining more iodine than other organs, makes it feasible to treat this organ exclusively by this method when it is diseased. Other peptides marked with particular radioactive nuclei are used in the treatment of other types of cancer and success is observed in some cases. Nuclear therapy is also used in treatment of bone cancers and of pain caused by certain joint diseases.

Radiopharmaceuticals in palliative treatment of bone pain from metastases

The spread of cancerous cells from the diseased organ of the body to other organs is called metastasis. Damage and pain originating from osseous (bone) metastases may cause losses in activity and function for the patient. Radiotherapy has long been used particularly in the treatment of limited bone lesions. However, the side effects of radiotherapy are greater since the body areas exposed to X-rays must be increased where there are widespread osseous metastases.

Radiopharmaceutical therapy is useful for patients who have painful metastases throughout multiple osseous zones. In this therapy the patient receives an intravenous injection of suitably formulated radiopharmaceuticals. In this therapy a radioactive substance is used which rapidly leaves the blood circulation system and concentrates within the skeletal system and especially within metastized zones. Radioactive phosphorus has been used for more than thirty years for this purpose.

Radiopharmaceuticals in therapy for joint disease

Rheumatoid arthritis, also known as inflammatory joint rheumatism, is one of the most widely seen (approximately 1–2 %) of connective tissue diseases.

In this disease, medication in some cases can become ineffective in the long run and can even be the cause of serious side effects. Radionuclide synovectomy (or radiosynovectomy), which is used in some advanced cases of this disease, yields results close to those obtainable by surgical intervention. It has the additional advantages of being less costly, not necessitating the patient’s hospitalization following the therapy and being repeatable.

It can be seen that the use of this blessing for either favorable (good) or unfavorable (bad) purposes depends on human choice, as is the case for all other divine blessings. Thus, it should be our top priority to use for humanitarian causes the blessing of radiation, which has been bestowed on us for our benefit, but which can seem as if it is harmful at first sight.

Notes

1. Al-Bukhari, “Tawhid,” 55; Muslim, “Tawba,” 14-16, Ibn Maja, “Zuhd,” 35.
2. Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn ‘Uthman al-Dhahabi, Siyar ‘Alam al-Nubala’, 25 vols. (Beirut, 1992), 1:150.
3. Al-Qushayri, Al-Risala, 133.
4. In other words, one should regard Him as an All-Merciful and All-Forgiving Lord, rather than as an All-Punishing One.
5. Al-Bukhari, “Tawhid”, 15; Muslim, “Tawba,” 1; Al-Tirmidhi, “Dawa’at,” 132.
6. Al-Qushayri, Al-Risala, 134.

In order to get a sharp image, ideally one point on the image (film) should receive light rays from only one point on the object. In practice, this ideal case can not be achieved in case of a large pinhole. If we have a large pinhole, as seen in Fig. 4, the light rays emerging from one point on the object reaches multiple points on the film. Also, multiple points on the object can arrive at a single point on the film. The result of both cases is a blurry image. For a small pinhole, however, there are light rays emerging from a point on the object in all directions, and only a very small amount of light is received on the film. To produce a decent image on the film, the exposure time needs to be very long, especially when a very small pinhole is used. Of course, we can make the pinhole a little larger to capture more light. But, wait! This would make the image blurry. Therefore, for pinhole photography, the size of the pinhole sets the quality of the image and the minimum exposure time. Also, we can take the picture of a still object, but a moving object cannot be captured easily by a pinhole camera due to the long exposure time. One important question is: Can we make reduce the size of the pinhole size to increase the quality of the image? Well, physics says: “No!” Fig. 5 shows a comparison of the images of a filament taken by a pinhole camera.⁶ As the size of the pinhole gets smaller and smaller, the effects of the diffraction phenomenon are more and more pronounced, and the image becomes blurry again. We also notice that the image is barely formed with a very small pinhole, indicating that very little light is received.

How can we gather more light and still make the image sharp? Can we achieve this with just the pinhole? Apparently not. That is why we mention lenses when talking about any imaging system. This is what a lens basically does. A lens gathers more light, and still preserves the one-to-one correspondence between the points on the object and those on the image. So, a lens is very useful for imaging. Most cameras have one or multiple lenses. Our eyes have lenses. We should remember, though, a pinhole camera takes a picture, but the compromise is the exposure time. Now, we see that a lens solves the exposure time problem, but is there a price to pay? To answer this question, let’s take a look at once again Fig. 2, where we see two pictures, one taken by a pinhole camera, and the other one by a lens camera. Look at the pictures carefully, and try to understand the difference before proceeding. As you probably observed, in the pinhole camera image everything in the picture is in sharp focus, from the close-by plants to the far distant beacon, and the clouds in the sky. However, in the lens camera image, only the closest daisy is in focus, and the other daisies, only a few meters away, are blurry. Indeed, we lose the depth of field in our images when using a lens camera. Depth of field can be defined as “The distance between the nearest and farthest points that appear in acceptably sharp focus in an image.” This is actually something we live with everyday. Try to focus your eyes on a mountain far away; the objects that are very close will not be in focus anymore. So, our eyes, consisting of lenses, also have limited depth of field. A nautilus eye, on the other hand, has an infinite depth of field, as it has a pinhole eye. Therefore, the price paid for gathering more light with a lens is that not everything will be in focus.

We can understand why lens cameras have a limited depth of field while a pinhole camera has nearly infinite depth of field if we consider the focusing mechanism of a lens. Given a pre-determined film position, a lens can only form sharp images of an object at a certain distance from the lens. Other points that are farther from or closer than same section of the object will be out of focus. However, if the size of the object is not large, we usually do not notice this effect. When we want to take pictures of close-by objects, then this effect is clearly seen, as Fig. 2 (b) shows.

Actually, we can correct this problem. The image of the farther points of the object forms at a farther point on the film. So, multiple light rays coming from one point will end up on the film. If we place an aperture next to the lens, then we can block some of these light rays. If we make the size of the aperture sufficiently small, we can get a sharp image of the farther point. Our original question about the lenses can be posed once again at this point: By using the aperture we make the image sharper, but what do we lose? Of course, since we block some of the light rays, we lose the light-gathering ability of the lens. Now, if we make the aperture size smaller and smaller, we finally reach the pinhole, and an almost infinite depth of field!

Our eyes also use similar mechanism of placing an aperture. The amount of light allowed to enter each eye is controlled by the iris, a circular diaphragm that opens wide at low light levels and closes to protect the pupil (the aperture) and retina (light detector of the eye) at very high levels of illumination. As illumination changes, the diameter of the pupil (positioned in front of the crystalline lens) reflexively varies between a size of about 2 to 8 millimeters. When illumination is very bright, the pupil narrows and light rays from the side are excluded from the optical pathway.⁷ The result is a sharper image on the retina. A very narrow pupil (approximately 2 millimeters) produces diffraction artifacts that spread the image of a point source on the retina, similar to the image of the filament captured by a very tiny pinhole (Fig. 5)

In conclusion, a pinhole camera is a very instructive tool for learning about imaging concepts. A pinhole camera has an infinite depth of field and the ability to produce sharp images regardless of the distance of the objects. This comes with a price, though: the small size of the pinhole limits the amount of light received by the film, so long exposure times are needed. A lens helps to gather more light, but compromises the depth of field. These concepts are used in imaging technologies, and can be found in the eyes of living organisms.

Notes

1. E. Hecht, Optics, 2nd edition, pp. 199. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.
2. http://images.encarta.msn.com/xrefmedia/aencmed/targets/illus/ilt/T045986A.gif.
3. http://www.kosara.net/gallery/.
4. http://www.eyedesignbook.com/.
5. http://www.spylife.com/pinholecam.html.
6. http://www.umiacs.umd.edu/~ramani/cmsc426/Lecture3.pdf
7. http://www.olympusmicro.com/primer/lightandcolor/humanvisionintro.html.

It could be said that the first pollution started with the lighting of the first fire. In 1869, the declaration of the Massachusetts Public Health Committee gave the first important scientific warning that highlighted that environmental concerns had reached threatening dimensions. Today, environmental problems arise for the most part from industrialization and unplanned urbanization that is the consequence of industrialization.

Cleanliness and economy are fundamental precautions that need to be taken to protect the environment. In the Holy Qur’an and in the hadiths cleanliness is given great importance:

Truly God loves those who turn unto Him, and loves those who have a care for cleanliness. (Baqara 2:222)

In this verse, we are being told that the people whom God loves are those who regret their wrongdoings and turn to Him and those who are clean. Thus, a moral cleanliness with penitence is stressed alongside physical cleanliness.

Environmental problems are wide ranging: Global warming, the destruction of forests, erosion, desertification, the depletion of the ozone layer, the contamination of lakes and rivers, accumulation of solid waste, air pollution in major cities, electromagnetic pollution, radioactive pollution, noise pollution, etc. All those are of importance and require special attention, one by one. The most important environmental problems which face our world today are:

1. Global warming

2. An increase in the depletion of the ozone layer

The ozone layer that surrounds our world is a subject that has to be approached seriously. The Earth’s crust is the layer that consists of the atmosphere, the oceans, and the solid part of the Earth on which we live that extends 17 kilometers down. The most plentiful element on the surface of the Earth is oxygen; its mass is at a rate of 49.5%. Oxygen is found in metal ores, plants, animals, humans, water, and in the atmosphere. In its free state it usually exists in a diatomic molecule; that is O2. The molecule that consists of three oxygen atoms is called ozone. Ozone is an allotrope of oxygen, and thus has a different structure. If a certain amount of energy is given to diatomic oxygen molecules, then triatomic ozone molecules are formed, as seen in the following formula:

3 02 (g) + 68 Kcal –> 2 03 (g)

While oxygen makes up 20% of the atmosphere in volume, and 21% by mass, the average amount of ozone is 0.02% ppm by volume; that is equal to 1/10 billionth the amount of oxygen. Due to its higher oxidating effect in comparison to oxygen, a high ozone concentration would be very harmful to living beings. Ozone concentration, which in low altitudes is low, increases with altitude, until 30 km; in the stratosphere it reaches a tenfold concentration, 0.2% ppm. In altitudes that are higher than 30 km, the ozone concentration decreases gradually, with no ozone being found in altitudes higher than 80 km.

This high concentration of ozone in the atmosphere at altitudes of 30 km is what is known as the ozone layer. The ozone layer acts like a curtain that protects living beings from harmful effects of high energy sun radiation, and is therefore vital for human life. The sun protects us by filtering the harmful UV rays of the sun and preventing them from reaching the surface of the Earth. If this rate of prevention of UV rays falls below 99% the consequences in nature are critical. The most basic of such results would be an increase in cases of human skin cancer. In the long term, the high energy rays would destroy the C – H and 0 – H bonds that are found in living organisms, and thus would mean the destruction of life.

In chemistry books we can already find chemical equations that show us why ozone exists at 30 km high and why certain industrial chemicals decompose and destroy the ozone layer; we can also discover why this activity is occurring at the North and South Poles. Preventive measures are also listed in such books so that we can take to prevent this from happening.

The most important aspect of this topic for us is that it is totally impossible for these molecules to cause such consequences by their own will and choice; this is due to the great mercy and wisdom that is inherent in the creation of the Earth. While this substance is harmful to living creatures in low altitudes, its existence in higher regions of the atmosphere is vital to all the life on the Earth.

In chemistry books, the abundance of hydrogen in higher regions of the atmosphere is explained by its small molecule weight (2g), but not a single word is mentioned about the miraculous formation of the ozone layer at 30 km! But, logically one would presume that due to its being 24 times heavier (48g) than hydrogen, ozone should be found in its highest concentration nearest to the surface of Earth.

The “ozone curtain” is truly a curtain. It is a test for us: A curtain that hides the truth of a protective hand; a curtain beyond which we should try to see.

Note

1. Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, The Rays, Fourth Ray, Sozler Publications.

Asteroids and Comets

At the time when the proof that such an occurrence had already taken place on Earth was first discovered in the early 1980’s, there was a threat of a similar crash. The American physicist Luis Alvarez and his son William proposed the hypothesis that about 65 million years ago (at the end of the Cretaceous period), as a result of a meteorite hitting the Earth, the climates had changed altogether and that this had led to the extinction of many land and marine species. According to this theory, which is supported by fossils found throughout the world, approximately 65 million years ago, when a meteorite almost 10 kilometers in diameter hit the Earth, a cloud of dust formed, leaving the Earth in darkness for years; the result of this was that rays of the Sun could not reach the Earth, thereby preventing photosynthesis, and consequently the possibility of plant life. This in turn led to a chain reaction, eventually leading to the extinction of some animal species (including dinosaurs) that fed on plants and other animals. The cooling of the air, the poisonous gases that filled up the atmosphere as a result of forest fires, and the rising of the acidity of the subsequent rain might all have played their roles in the extinction of land and marine animals. It seems that 8 out of 10 species disappeared from the face of the Earth in a few thousand years, or even less. The traces of the meteorite crash can also be seen in the iridium levels found in sediments from the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary (This metal from the platinum group is found in small amounts on Earth, whereas in meteorites it is in abundance). In the quartz crystals that had undergone shock it was visible that they had been subjected to high pressure due to a crash; the nickel minerals showed that a nickel-rich meteorite had been oxidized in the atmosphere. The location of the meteorite crash was found in 1991. On the shores of the Mexican peninsula of Yucatan, under a one kilometer stratum of sedimentation, a crash crater with a diameter of 260 kilometers was discovered through gravimetric methods. Its age was found to be 65 million years. Another factor that could have led to great amounts of carbonic gas and sulfur oxide being introduced into the atmosphere would have been intense volcanic activity, which it is understood took place at the end of the Cretaceous period; this too could have contributed to the degeneration of the climate.

This was not a one-off incident. Approximately 445 million years ago (at the end of the Ordovician period) gamma rays from space could easily have been the cause of a mass extinction of two-thirds of all species on Earth. Gamma-ray explosions are the strongest explosions known. When huge stars implode into black holes at the end of their lives, they emanate very strong gamma rays as pulses at a particular frequency from their poles. If such an explosion should happen in our galaxy and should the rays head toward us, it would be very destructive indeed. It has been understood that species like “trilobites,” which continued to live very close to the ocean surface suffered great losses during this period. This could be explained only by the occurrence of a gamma ray explosion, which would affect the creatures on land and the ocean surface, but would not greatly trouble the deep-water creatures (Hecht, 2003).

Around 250 million years ago (the Permian-Triassic boundary), as a result of another mass extinction, probably 90% of marine species and 705 land species disappeared from the face of the Earth. These extinctions were attributed to the rapid changes in the climate and sudden changes in sea-levels or intense volcanic activity. To these factors was added the “cosmic cause.” In the rock sediment specimens of this period, the isotope distribution of helium and argon gases was more similar to the distribution in meteorites than to that of the rocks on Earth. In 2001 American geochemists and Australian geologists found new evidence concerning the meteorite crash.

In the 1990’s, astrophysicists understood that the balance in the solar system was very sensitive, and that it was impossible to predict the long term orbit of a heavenly body. Apart from the regular movements of planets and their satellites, innumerable comets and asteroids, at various angles to the system, are engaged in rotating motions which are impossible to pre-calculate. In 1996, the Shoemaker-Levy star fell onto Jupiter bit by bit, tearing away balls of fire as big as the Earth. So, what sort of objects can hit the Earth?

Andromeda, the closest galaxy to ours, is coming toward us at a speed of 400,000 kilometers per hour. But because it is two million light years away it is set to collide with our galaxy only five billion years later (if Doomsday does not arrive before then!) According to the information we have today, since the neighboring stars change their positions along with the Sun within the great circular movement of the Milky Way, the possibility of crashing into one of these is nearly non-existent. The planets in the solar system give us no reason for concern either. Their orbits, in which they have been excellently placed, do not intersect with that of the Earth. The Moon does not present a threat either. It is also not anticipated that any machine parts from satellites will reach an acceleration that could be disastrous as they enter the atmosphere. What threats remain are asteroids and comets that have a tendency to hit the Earth.

Asteroids are large objects that have a rock-like structure, yet are not big enough to be considered planets. Their diameters range from a couple of meters to 30 kilometers. Many asteroids that are close to us move in orbits that intersect those of the Earth. Asteroid 3753 (1986 TO), which has an orbit that has a dynamic relationship to ours, seems to be another satellite to the Earth, along with the Moon. (Wiegert et al., 1997). Comets, on the other hand, are balls of dust that have heated up as they pass close to the Sun and are adorned with bright tails. The possibility of a crash stems from these two groups. These comets revolve around the Sun in specific orbits, and it is without a doubt that they have a great significance for the system; these objects are concentrated in three major areas. The first area is a large belt between Mars and Jupiter (The Asteroid Belt). Here there are approximately a million asteroids of diameters greater than a kilometer. Further away, beyond Neptune, in the Kuiper belt, whose size is 30-100 times greater than the distance between the Earth and the Sun, it is believed that there are more than a trillion comets. Another source of meteorites is the border area of the solar system, which opens up to wider space, the sphere shaped Oort Cloud, whose diameter is 40 thousand times greater than the distance between the Earth and the Sun. (Poirier & Greffoz, 2001)

When we consider an asteroid of a kilometer in diameter and which is further away than Mars, it hardly seems bigger than a grain of sand 100 kilometers away from Earth. In 1998, NASA started a project which aims to use telescopes to identify (within 10 years) 90% of the asteroids of more than a kilometer in diameter which are moving toward Earth.

Unity in Abundance

The solar orbits of those distant bodies that cannot be identified can be disturbed by even the slightest intervention. It is enough that the orbit of an asteroid should be ever so slightly disturbed as it passes near one of the satellites of Jupiter for it to leave its orbit and start heading toward us. Our existence is bound to such vast Compassion, manifesting itself in such a fine equilibrium; this only goes to demonstrate to us that it is only He Who protects us to Whom we should be grateful, not only for our Creation, but also for every step of our life and every breath; it is He Who is Alive and Who is the Source. On the other hand, our condition of being human and our responsibility to look after what has been given into our keeping spurs us to search for apparent causes in this world. Since we do not know when or why our deaths will come upon us, we take precautions against situations that may be dangerous and try to stay alive; in the same way, as we do not know when Doomsday will come nor what its apparent cause will be, we must take precautions against risks like meteorites (without forgetting that the real affect and the final will lies always with God) in order to protect life on Earth. But we do not know what the scientists (and authorities with executive powers) who have the means to monitor the Universe with well-developed equipment feel; and with what feelings they inquire into the nature of these meteorites. We wonder if they are aware of the fact that the meteorites are in the Command of the One and Only, as are the Sun and the Earth and, indeed, the whole Universe. Can they acknowledge this fact openly, without feeling the psychological terror that the science of the “denying school” imposes? Can they see the falsity of using the word “threat” for meteorites?

What Sort of Measures for What Sort of Life?

Asteroids can reach a speed of 100,000 kph, while comets can get up to 150,000 kph. Even if the mass may be small, at such speeds a great amount of energy is produced. According to Brian Toon of Colorado University, if a meteorite crashes on to the Earth, the surface of the Earth will catch fire and the sky will be filled with very hot particles that are lifted from the ground (Hecht, 2002). The amount of damage that the crash will cause to humanity is dependent on whether the meteorite crashes into the middle of the ocean or into a city. According to researchers, if the diameter of the meteorite is less than 300 meters, then the people living in the probable crash site should be evacuated. If the meteorite is quite large, then one should send a rocket with a nuclear head toward it in order to blow it up and try to diverge it from its orbit. But this intervention could be risky; the energy of the rocket could be less than needed, and the radioactive shower could fall back down to Earth. Other options, like using rockets without nuclear heads or other asteroids, exploding the meteorite with lasers or trying to decrease its size through piercing it with drills could be attempted. But all these are technologically impossible today. It is not even known whether the time between the determination of the body”s approach toward the Earth and its probable crash time will be enough for us to determine what to do. In the worst case scenario, a great crash and massive deaths could be the result. The probable destructive force of these objects can be inferred from nuclear tests that have been carried out. But the determination and analysis of occurrences in the past has proven to be difficult. Since three-quarters of the world has been covered with water for billions of years, the traces of crashes under the seas and the oceans do not remain, and the crash sites on land are eroded away, sometimes even as quickly as in a couple thousand years.

Other Possibilities

So is there nothing else that can fall upon our heads? For instance, anti-matter. Anti-matter is composed of antiparticles, which are just like ordinary protons, electrons, and neutrons except they have opposite electrical charges and magnetic moments. When antimatter and matter collide, both are annihilated. The existence of anti-matter in the universe has been demonstrated by particle accelerators. The entry of anti-matter the size of a pebble into the atmosphere could be enough for matter and anti-matter to disappear in a great whirl of energy, greater than the one caused by the Hiroshima bomb. We cannot even imagine what would happen if an anti-meteorite with a diameter of a kilometer should hit the Earth. Nevertheless, the French astrophysicist Marc Lachièze-Rey said: ‘Had there been an anti-matter asteroid in our galaxy, it would emanate x-rays when it disappeared with the material it had around it.’ Now let us get back to usual asteroids. There was the greatest crash of the 20th century, which took place in June 1908 in Tunguska (Russia). It is believed that there a small asteroid cleared 2,000 km2 of Siberian forest. A similar incident was the strange explosion that lit up the Jordanian sky, shattering the rocks in the area on 18 April 2001. It is believed that the 100 km2 diameter of the Popigay crater in Siberia was caused by a meteorite (Bottomley et al., 1997). In the last eight years US satellites that look for nuclear explosions have determined nearly 300 optic blazes were caused by small meteorites (diameters of 50-100 meters). According to Bill Napier from the Armagh Observatory in Northern Ireland, comets present a greater danger. Comets with tails composed of gas and dust and with structures of ice are much rarer than those with a rock-like structure, and they may damage the Earth in different ways. A comet that evaporates under the rays of the Sun would leave billions of particles of dust in the orbit of the Earth. If the dust were to shower down onto the Earth, it could block the rays of the Sun from reaching the Earth, thus triggering the start of a new ice age. There are still four known objects in space with diameters of more than a hundred kilometers that are believed to be comets. There may be 2,000 more in the Oort Cloud, beyond Pluto (Samuel, 2001) In short, there are many objects moving around our planet that could end our life, and yet, life on Earth has continued for billions of years.

He Makes Us Live and Die

On the other hand, after a crater caused by a meteorite cools down, life can regenerate. Devon Island in Canada is a polar desert on which there are no plants and animals. There, the Haughton crater, with a diameter of nearly 24 kilometres, is believed to have been caused by a meteorite crash that happened 23 million years ago. As far as we can gather from fossils and other traces, there were probably thick forests in this area; the forest was lost and the shock wave that took place here destroyed most of the other living things with an explosion and the subsequent heat. About a thousand years later, life came back to Haughton. The subterranean waters were heated as a result of the crash, thus presenting a perfect living environment of hydrothermal systems for organisms that live in colonies, such as bacteria and algae. This activity has been observed in 70 of 170 crash craters. It is not know when life was created, but the first traces go back nearly 3.8 billion years. That is to say, the Earth might have been full of these hydrothermal systems at the beginning of its creation. The craters on the Moon, on the other hand, show us that meteorite crashes in the past were 15 times more common (Osinski, 2003). Thus it is impossible to explain, through reason, how life could have been created in a period of our world when it was—apparently—extremely unfavorable for life. There are other influences that reach the Earth from space. About a thousand years ago the Earth was going through its last ice-age. The Aquila star constellation, which can be observed from the Northern Hemisphere, probably went through an intense upheaval and emanated radiation in great amounts in all directions. This wave of high energy traveled through space for 20,000 years, hitting the Pacific Ocean on the evening of 27th August 1998. As far as it could be recorded with terrestrial and orbital observation, on that summer night the Earth was bombarded with gamma and X-rays for five minutes. The radiation scattered as it reached the lower strata of the atmosphere. A greater energy could have reached the Earth from interstellar space and caused destruction of matter. It is believed that this incident that took place in 1998 was caused due to the tearing up of the surface of a ‘magnetar’; this is a sort of a neutron star. It is believed that that magnetar was of a diameter measuring 35 kilometer, but denser than the Sun; a thimble-size portion of it would have weighed as much as 100 million tons. This star revolved around itself like all neutron stars and as a result created a great magnetic field. If this magnetar had been only 10 thousand light years away then the energy that reached the Earth would have been four times greater; it may have been strong enough to damage the ozone layer (Ward & Brownlee, 2000).

Conclusion

At the start of the 19th century, Georges Cuvier, a French palaeontologist and a practicing Christian, stated that disasters played a determining role in the life story of the Earth, basing this view on what befell the people the Prophet Noah. In Darwin”s model there was no space for disasters. The speculation of ‘The course of evolution’ became a dogmatic model which was taught under the name of scientific theory. Today, Cuvier”s concept of ‘disaster’ is being accepted once again in the West. Life has, now and then, been faced with sudden disasters which have affected its natural course. For 200 million years, the dinosaurs were the sovereigns of the Earth; the mammals were few. But a stone fell out of the sky and suddenly the dynasty of the dinosaurs ended. Could the same thing not happen to the false dynasty of humanity? All these possibilities of termination should lead us (and the experts) to think more carefully about our existence, life, Earth and humanity as a whole. But, unfortunately, this is not what happens, and countries which worry about meteorites only in relation to themselves have destroyed certain regions in the world with bombs, creating the effect of meteorites long before the meteorites themselves reach us; such people see nothing wrong in causing the deaths of many people. The existence of meteorites (and other cosmic phenomena) carries many divine truths. We are not alone in the time-space dimension; all these planets and their satellites, innumerable comets and asteroids move around and among us and yet they do not effect the accurate and sensitive functioning of the system; in truth, they constitute a vital part of its accuracy. They have submitted to the great Will that has created them: Do they not then look up to heaven above them how We have made it and adorned it and how it has no gaps?(Qaf 50:6) The atmosphere and the magnetosphere that surround our Earth as a token of compassion and protection serves, under Divine orders, as the shield against solar explosions that regularly take place every 11 years, against harmful cosmic radiation and particles. Otherwise, conditions that are very unfavorable to life would have been the reality, with craters pitting the surface of the Earth, just as we see on the surface of the Moon, which has no atmospheric or magnetic shields. On the other hand, the possibility of a meteorite colliding with the Earth makes us think of other things as well: How will the end of the Earth come about; through collision with a meteorite, or through more complex phenomena? This is something we cannot, and maybe do not, need to know for sure: what is more important is that the Earth will end, that the day that has been promised will come, that the day described in the Qur’an will make us shudder, and that we have to tread accordingly on this Earth. On this issue Said Nursi points to an important truth concerning faith: ‘If Earth were to explode, those servants of God with truly illuminated hearts would not be frightened—they might even consider it a marvel of the Eternally Besought”s Power. A rationalist but unbelieving philosopher might tremble at the sight of a comet, lest it should strike Earth. (This was how some Americans reacted to the recent sighting of Haley”s comet.)’ Another lesson for contemplation that the comets offers us could be the following: ‘The movements of heavenly bodies in the sky (the world”s roof), the appearance of comets and new stars while some others are extinguished, as well as solar and lunar eclipses, demonstrate that it is not stable and therefore is making its way toward a final ruin. However slow its changes are, they also show that the world is mortal and moves to its inevitable end.’ Our life has been given into our safe keeping by our Lord; and so we must try to protect it to the best of our ability. In that spirit, we can take precautions against a comet that comes toward our Earth in order to protect life; we may be able to smash it into pieces using the technology that we have. But if not today, tomorrow, or soon Doomsday will arrive; we should not forget that, just as we should not forget that rendering meteors ineffective is a gift from God Who is the true holder of knowledge and power. But will such a success lead humanity to assume a more ungrateful and arrogant position toward God, or will it end in our praising God and giving Him thanks, as did the Prophet Solomon? The last position is the following: And call not God with any other god; there is no god but He, every thing is perishable but He; His is the judgment, and to Him you shall be brought back (Qasas 28:88).

References

• Bottomley, R., Grieve, R., York, D. & Masaitis, V., The age of the Popigai impact event and its relation to events at the Eocene/Oligocene boundary, Nature, Vol 388, pp.365-368.
• Hecht, J., The End of the World, New Scientist, 2 February 2002.
• Hecht, J., Did a Gamma-Ray Burst Devastate Life on Earth? New Scientist, 27 September 2003.
• Osinski, G., Shocked into Life, New Scientist, 13 September 2003.
• Poirier, H. & Greffoz, V., Asterodes: La Menace se Precise, Science & Vie, no 1006, Juillet, Paris.
• Samuel, E., Sting in the Tail, New Scientist, 24 March 2001.
• Ward, P.D. & Brownlee, D., Rare Earth, Copernicus Books, New York: 2000
• Wiegert, P.A., Innane, K.A. & Mikkola, S., An Asteroidal Companion to the Earth, Nature, Vol. 387, pp. 685 – 686.
• Nursi, S., The Words, the Third Word, the Twenty-Fifth Word, Kaynak, Izmir: 1997.

At first, air seems to be quite simple” gaseous mixture of atoms, ions, and molecules; 78.1 percent nitrogen, 20.8 percent oxygen, and some trace amounts of carbon dioxide, hydrogen, argon, neon, and krypton, just like spice and salt for a meal. So far, nobody has disliked this meal,’ whose mysteries and secrets are revealed upon investigation.

Air as a Light Source

Air is a mirror that illuminates our surroundings. We cannot read a book or a magazine in outer space, for there is no illumination there. Outer space is a vacuum. Since it contains no molecules or atoms off which the sun’s light and heat can reflect, its darkness cannot be pierced. Since the moon has no atmosphere or layer of gaseous matter to scatter the sun’s light beams, its surface is bright but the space just above it is dark. The Creator of the sun and the eye also created the atoms and molecules in the air and put them at our disposal so that we could see.

Now let’s analyze air, since we depend upon it for our very lives. We inhale oxygen with every breath, and once in our body it burns our food and thereby provides the energy for all bodily functions and maintains bodily heat. It exits through the throat, mouth, and teeth in the form of words.

Nitrogen, the largest component of air, dilutes the concentration of oxygen and makes the air we respire more pleasant. Without it, oxygen would be hazardous and irritating to our lungs. Nitrogen also is a natural fertilizer absorbed by soil and passed onto various micro-organisms in the soil and then to plants. As a result, one of our basic nutrition source components is produced: proteins. This flow of nutrition from plants to animals to people is a fascinating example of mutual benefit and co-operation.

Carbon dioxide, another gas, has only a trace (0.03 percent) presence in air. And yet every year, with the help of plants, it is used to synthesize billions of tons of sugar in a process known as photosynthesis. Plant leaves absorb carbon dioxide, the roots absorb water, and when sunlight is added the final product is glucose, the vital food for every living organism.

Oxygen is another by-product. The resulting energy produced by burning glucose enables all bodily cells to function. Photosynthesis stores the energy from the sun as bond energy between carbon atoms in the sugar. Thus the sun is our food source, as the Qur’an points out: And if you ask them who sends down rain from the sky and gives life therewith to Earth after its death, they will reply, Allah!’ Say: Praise be to Allah!’ But most of them do not understand (29:63).

Let’s travel in the atmosphere to learn more about this Divine source of resources. Now we are 10 kms above Earth’s surface. We cannot breathe here, and so must use our oxygen tanks. At 13 kms, we start to feel a great pressure that almost causes our eyes and blood vessels to burst.

The Unfelt Load

The gases forming the air apply a pressure of 1 kg per cm2 on our skin. The resulting air pressure plays the biggest role in the meteorological events, for strong storms and hurricanes occur when there is a 1 percent change in it. All living things live comfortably and unconsciously with this pressure.

As we go higher into the atmosphere, the density of gases and atmospheric pressure decrease. Also, the pressure of our bodily fluids rises (our bodies are 75 percent water) so much so that we might wonder if they will vaporize or rush out of our bodies. The air has a great weight, although we think the opposite. Most of us do not know that air applies a pressure equal to 1 kg on a fingertip-sized part of our bodies. We do not feel such pressure”calculated to equal 15 tons of air”because its Creator balances it with an inner pressure that is equally intense. Any disturbance in this balance threatens human life. This is why people cannot live at high altitudes, why mountaineers experience severe headaches and nosebleeds, and why astronauts have to wear pressurized space suits.

Layers of Atmosphere

Scientists divide the atmosphere into several layers, each of, which is unique in terms of its heat, pressure, humidity, and the events taking place within it. The first layer is the troposphere, which extends as high as 16 kms above sea level. This layer, which features the perfect circulation of air and matter, is the home for such events as rain, snow, and wind. At its upper edge, its temperature can reach -56’C.1

But the Owner of the universe, following His own rules, makes the atmosphere work as a giant water distribution center. Light breezes circulate thousands of tons of water (as clouds) and guide the water to the soil that needs it. Air’s circulation is moderated so perfectly that no area is ever always wet or dry, and even deserts and rainforests receive what they need to survive.

As Earth’s axis has a slant of about 23′, northern countries receive less energy than southern countries. The result of this seeming disparity in energy levels is the efficient flow of hot air to colder areas so that each area has its energy needs met. Hot air forms low pressure systems as it rises, while cold air forms high pressure systems as it sinks. Wind patterns blow cold air to the south and hot air to the north, forming an ideal system that spreads water vapor, as well as heat, energy, and even pollen, throughout the globe according to need. All of this allows the storage of heat at the equator in the form of energy to spread air and wind around the planet”a sort of global heat machine programmed by its Creator to serve life.

Air temperature drops by 0.61’C for every 100 meters increase in altitude.2 When the ascending air goes into troposphere (the kitchen of the atmosphere), its steam condenses into small droplets. Then clouds, a sign of God’s Mercy, start to form. The thin droplets in these clouds transform into separate ice crystals whenever the temperature drops below 0’C, just like a large army, and fall to Earth as snow.

While doing all of this, the air in our lungs and veins helps to weave colorful motifs on each plant’s leaves and blossoms. While bringing rain with clouds, it conveys pollen from one flower to another. On its weak shoulders it carries tons of water as well as airplanes, spreads light and transports heat, and brings sounds of all frequencies to our ears and many different smells to our noses. No mistake is ever made.

In warm weather, air’s lightness and gentle blowing bring subtle and deep meanings to our heart’s ear. Sometimes it assumes the form of a storm, a blizzard, or a tornado that rips apart everything in its path to warn those who do not understand its acts and do not thank God for the blessings it conveys. Through such events, people understand their weakness and turn to their Creator. Those who read and ponder the Book of Universe carefully, especially the page for air, observe such events as Divine indications of truth or warnings that should be heeded.

An Amazing Filter

The troposphere, the atmosphere’s first layer, is 8 kms thick at the poles and 17 kms thick at the equator. Its highest point is around 22 kms. After this comes the stratosphere, which is about 50 kms thick and has a higher temperature. This layer prevents the sun’s high energy radiations from reaching Earth. The ozone layer, which is vital for life on Earth, is located in the stratosphere. Ozone, which filters the sun’s hazardous rays, is a compound made of three oxygen atoms. The ultraviolet rays convert oxygen molecules into ozone by combining with oxygen.

Some human-made chemical products harm the ozone layer and thus enable ultraviolet rays to reach Earth’s surface. One result has been an anomalous increase in cancer rates, as high-energy ultraviolet rays have very short wavelengths and thus can potentially break the bonds of DNA molecules. These waves, if they reach Earth, also heat up Earth’s atmosphere. An increase of 10 C is enough to cause blood and sap to boil.

Thus we can understand the ozone layer’s role in maintaining this very sensitive balance. Those who claim that such perfection is casual are unable to read the signs God sends to His creatures.

A Comparison

To appreciate these blessings, consider the moon: Its diurnal temperature reaches 120’C, while its nocturnal temperature plunges to -150’C. It is a desolate, silent, and dead place constantly afflicted by meteor showers and ultraviolet rays. This does not happen on Earth, because the carbon dioxide and water molecules in its atmosphere absorb the sun’s excess radiation. This limits the temperature rise during the day and preserves heat for the night. The atmosphere screens hazardous radiation from the sun during the day and preserves the temperature at night. This roof’ gives our planet a moderate climate, while other planets suffer from extreme temperatures.

The water in oceans and seas, which cover approximately 75 percent of Earth’s surface, regulates Earth’s climate. It protects the land from the freezing polar climate and from the scorching temperature of the tropics. Land easily radiates the energy absorbed from the sun’s radiation and thereby ensures a moderate climate.

Although the oceans and seas face higher radiation rates, it is hard to raise their temperatures. Millions of solar calories from the sun are needed to raise the water’s temperature by only a couple of degrees Celsius. Also, this water does not cool easily. This resistance to temperature change enables it to regulate the climate and provide water to the land via evaporation. If the land-sea/ocean ratio were lower, Earth would be full of deserts. Given this, how can we not see the plan of the Artist who created the universe with infinite wisdom?

Meteors

The next level, the mesosphere, extends for the next 80 kms.3 It protects Earth from the meteors that used to scare the Vikings. This is vital, for many meteors fall to Earth every day, as Earth’s gravitational pull attracts them. Also known as shooting stars, they disappear when they enter the atmosphere, for the combination of great speed and atmospheric air reduces them to dust. Without this shield, we would face the meteors every day, just as the astronauts who visited the moon discovered. This dust then goes on to form clouds by joining with water particles until a certain density is reached and the resulting mercy of rain falls to Earth according to a physical and mathematical plan.

A Mirror for Radio Waves

Now we come to the ionosphere, which extends for the next 400 kms. Here, all particles have either a negative or a positive electrical charge.

People were astonished when the wireless radio was invented. However, scientists saw a huge problem: Since radio waves must travel on a straight path, and Earth is a sphere, they could travel only 100 kms. But in 1901, England and Canada were able to communicate via wireless radio across the Atlantic ocean because particles in the ionosphere have an electric charge that makes them reflect radio waves coming from Earth back to Earth. The ionosphere was seen to be like a large echo chamber in space.

Thus we see that God took the needs of all centuries into consideration when creating Earth. As our knowledge increases, we discover what He placed there at the time of creation to benefit us at a later date.

Magnetic Shield

Next comes the exosphere, which extends another 2,000 to 3,000 kms. Here, there is almost no air and friction. Molecular collisions gradually decay, and the relative meaning of temperature no longer applies. Thus most satellites are placed in orbit at this layer.

A compass always points north on Earth because of the magnetic field lines. If we follow this direction, we reach the North Pole. Such knowledge enables us to navigate on land, sea, and air quite easily.

The poles are situated at opposite ends of a hypothetical axis passing from the middle of a hypothetical circle forming the equator. But they are only geographical”not magnetic”poles. The magnetic North Pole is located at the edge of the Ellef Ringes islands in northwestern Canada, 1,290 kms south of the geographical North Pole. The magnetic South Pole is located at Adelie Land in Antarctica. There are various explanations, but no solutions, about what causes these magnetic fields. One theory claims that magnetic field lines (Van Allen Belts) surround the Earth because of the hot liquid iron and nickel at its center.

This layer, the seventh, largest, and final layer, functions as a magnetic shield. The magnetosphere consists of belts formed by magnetic densities. The closest belt to Earth is 4,000 kms distant. The second belt is 16,000 kms distant and can effect things up to 30,000 kms distant. These invisible belts catch and prevent dangerous cosmic rays and charged particles from entering the lower levels by changing their direction. Thus these cosmic rays (having the force of atomic bombs) and solar winds (high-energy electron-carrying atoms) do not reach Earth. Before any of the atmosphere’s properties were discovered, the Owner of Earth and the sky told us about the atmosphere’s shielding: And We have made the sky a roof withheld (from them). Yet they turn away from its portents (21:32).

The Balance in the Atmosphere

Atmospheric gases, because of their nature, seek to scatter into space while gravity works to pull them down and keep them. However, a perfect balance ensures that neither development will happen. Using Earth’s mass, radius and gravity, and several other factors, the precise calculations and adjustments that maintain this balance are beyond even the imagination of humanity.

If Earth were closer to the sun, its air would be hotter and these hot gases would rise and leave the atmosphere. If Earth were further away from the sun, they would be pulled down onto Earth’s surface. If gravity were a little more or less than its current value, the same situation would occur. In addition, the incoming heat must be held for some time. This is done by carbon dioxide.

And yet our planet is a warm and lighted home moving rapidly in cold, dark space. In this home, we have everything we need. To appreciate what we have, all we have to do is compare it with the moon. Do those who seek the source of these actions in blind nature or unconscious and unintelligent reason know that they must assume that all lifeless and unconscious particles must have the knowledge of how to create the universe; how to meet every need and action of all parts of existence (especially of humanity), and also have absolute power to make these processes function with complete perfection for all of eternity?

Footnotes

1. www.geog.ouc.bc.ca/physgeog/contents/7b.html.
2. Ibid.
3. www.onlineastronomy.com/astr161/lect/earth/atmosphere.html.

Walking without stopping to surmount all obstacles;

With hopes fresh as days breaking after nights.

And the future worlds appear in mists from ahead

Light about to rise on the horizon is red like roses;

First rays of the sun are touching the high hill-tops;

All obstacles fall away, one after another.

A spring awaits us finer than any that went before.

We are sailing over deep and limitless oceans:

Our eyes bright with happiness, and souls at peace,

Feeling from the heart the joy of our existence,

The fragrance of paradise pervades everywhere.

Rays of light pouring into our souls in abundance,

We are as if seeing in advance the happy times to come.

Night is about to die, it is the hour of day-break –

At the door of the future we meet the post unexpectedly.

A gorgeous spring prevails where once was autumn.

Light breezes and leaves whisper to each other.

Tunes of eternity are sung in different pitches;

There are varied meanings in the waving of flags.

Let us go on and not stop, the destination being near:

Life like a mysterious dream, belief like a sweet melody,

Our lives are recorded on a permanent register

As existence is so fine, its end is assuredly finer.

***

He is the Lord of the heavens and of the earth, and all that lies between them; He is the Lord of the Lasts. (Saffat, 37.5)

The concept of the Lord of everything is defined in this setting and within the limits of our knowledge. Since the earth, the sky and all else in between have been mentioned, a different reality or a different spatial continuum is not in question. The verse does not end there, however. A new concept is added: ‘He is the Lord of the Lasts.’

So, in addition to the earth, the sky and all in between, we have the concept of ‘Easts’. In Arabic, the plural form is used for three or more things. Therefore, God is the Lord of at least three Fasts, or of many Easts. What kind of scientific concept does this verse introduce? Before seeking an answer to this question, let us call to mind certain facts.

It is a commonplace that we conceive of space in terms of three dimensions. The existence of an object is determined by the space it occupies with respect to the dimensions of length, width and height, in addition to its position.

But is the universe composed of, and space constituted by, these three dimensions alone? Until Einstein’s Special and General Theories of Relativity, scientists believed that the universe consisted of three dimensions. The world-famous physicist, however, determined on the basis of mathematical calculations that there are more than three dimensions and that a fourth, fifth or higher number of dimensions would introduce different concepts of space.

According to Einstein, the fourth dimension is time. Time is not simply a matter of reading a clock, but a dimension of the same order as height, width and length. It is coextensive with the other dimensions. Our visual perception, however, can see in only three dimensions and no more. In fact, some organisms cannot even see the dimension of depth: lizards and snakes see the world in two dimensions, like a photograph or a movie cartoon.

Starting from this milestone of physics, we would have to conceive of spaces other than ours, and in addition to the physical space we observe in the universe at large. In these spaces, velocity is different, time is different, action is different; and so are translation, convergence and regression. This is why the concept of ‘worlds’ introduced by the Qur’an is an expression of such diverse spaces. The world of angelic beings, Heaven, Hell, and the world of spirits all lie in the domain of such spatial continua. Our difficulty in conceiving of them stems from the perceptual deficiencies of our three-dimensional habits.

Having noted this, let us now recall the final part of the verse: ‘He is the Lord of the Easts.

‘East’ is the expression of a direction, a dimension. This expression occurred for the first time in connection with the sun. The word ‘orientation’ or finding one’s bearings implies the Orient or East as the first or primary dimension. Although the expression Lord of the Easts and of the Wests occurs in many verses in the Qur’an, only the Easts are mentioned in this verse. This is why we are dwelling on this point at such length.

The point is that ‘the Easts’ are proclaimed as a set of directions, quite apart from the existents we refer to as the earth and sky. With this verse, God draws our attention to other directions and dimensions, indicating the existence of worlds and spaces composed of dimensions other than the physical world we are familiar with. In a sense, He says I am the Lord of the Easts in order to introduce the notion of infinite dimensions, which contemporary physics is just beginning to discover. But why only the Easts? Because in the definition of dimensions, the first dimension is the East, whereas the West is simply an extension of the Eastern dimension in the opposite direction. We can say that this verse clearly heralds the existence of thousands of spaces and worlds embedded in an infinite-dimensional matrix.

Many other meanings derive from the verse besides the meaning discussed above. I would like to mention two of these.

The meaning ‘births’ can also be derived indirectly from the plural mashariq. In this case the meaning points to a different scientific truth. The East, which is where the sun rises, also symbolizes the direction in which the earth moves around the sun. But, do we have only one East, or only one motion in the universe?

No. While the earth revolves around the sun within the solar system, the sun is also revolving around the Milky Way galaxy together with its family of planets. The Milky Way, in turn, is revolving around the central axis of the supergalaxy or local cluster of galaxies to which we belong. Thus, we may well speak of three different Easts.

This meaning, therefore, is also hidden within the statement ‘Lord of the Easts’ (rabbul-mashariq). The very fact that magharib (Wests) does not succeed mashariq (Easts) in this verse is a confirmation of this. We shall see while interpreting future verses that there are many statements in the Qur’an pointing to the rotation of the earth. For this reason ‘East’ in reference to the earth’s revolution is in the plural, indicating that these rotations occur at many levels.

If we take the verse from the standpoint of a direction on earth, the concept of the East differs for each location on the globe. The east of Turkey is in the east with respect to its western regions, while our east is actually west from the standpoint of Iran, which lies even further east. Therefore, the East concept is different at every point on earth, and these concepts form an ensemble of Easts. This concept geometrically defines the surface of a sphere.

Let us now reread the verse in order to discover another significant scientific observation: He is the Lord of the heavens and of the earth, and all that lies between them; He is the Lord of the Easts (Saffat, 37.5).

The heavens, as we also see from other Qur’anic verses, are very diverse spheres. So what does the expression ‘between the heavens and the earth’ mean? It is known that meteors, stars, even angels and various unknown beings, can be encountered at various levels of the sky. What are ‘those between earth and the sky’? As far as we can tell, they are invisible rays which form the basic building blocks of matter and energy. These rays, earlier lumped together under the generic term ‘cosmic rays’, are differentiated in modern physics within the broad categories of nucleons, haryons, leptons and fermions. These are the subatomic constituents of matter and energy.

With the expression ‘He is the Lord of the heavens and of the earth, and all that lies between them’ God explains that all these energetic particles and rays constitute a vast physical order subject to God’s attribute of Lordship. Modern physics has viewed these incomprehensible energy dissipations and rays with unease, almost seeing them as dangers threatening the destruction of the universe. The Qur’anic verse reveals that, on the contrary, they form a gigantic physical balance under the superintendence of God.