Tim and Adam work at the same office. It was Monday. They went to Central Park to have their lunch together. It was a beautiful, cool, cloudy fall day.

On their walk to the park, they mostly talked about nature. While walking towards an empty bench, dry leaves crunched underfoot. A cool breeze swept their faces.

After finishing their lunch, they walked in the park. The sun appeared between clouds, showing its weak but warm smile.

They talked about the fall foliage, which was at its peak, and the view being just like one of Bob Ross’ paintings. The beauty and balance of nature, not touched by human hand. Then the conversation moved to the cosmos and its perfect balance and its renewal across millions of years.

Does it all happen on its own? Could it be just by accident or nature?

While leaves crunched underfoot, Adam said, “Too bad all of these leaves are dead now. I remember when they were green, fresh, and alive.”

They kept walking.

“They were beautiful when they were attached to the trees, all green and lush. Now they are dead; but they have a different beauty in them: changing colors, falling in slow motion in harmony, drying, breaking under our feet,” agreed Tim.

“It is beautiful to look at, I’ll give you that. I am in awe of their transformation. It’s how nature works. I don’t know how else to explain all of this. Too bad it is all going to be wasted and become part of the carbon cycle and that is the end of them,” Adam responded.

Tim picked up a greenish yellow leaf and contemplated its details—its shape, the veins going across it. He thought that there must be a connection between his eyes and this leaf, as his eyes really enjoyed looking at it. Then he turned to Adam and asked, “You think there is no purpose in these leaves’ existence?”

“Well, yes,” Adam said. “That is exactly how I see it. And you know what is worse is that we, too, will turn into dust and become part of the carbon cycle. I honestly do not care what happens to me after I die, you know. Part of the carbon cycle, ozone cycle, nitrogen cycle, or oxygen cycle; it does not matter to me. It makes me feel like I am here to be part of one these cycles and that is it. This entire world is like a huge recycling center.”

Tim had known Adam for a couple of years now. He was a lively, carefree, and worldly person. Tim heard something different in his tone of voice that he had not heard before: it sounded heavy. A sadness or deep contemplation; he was not sure what to call it, but it was different. Maybe it was the melancholy of the fall.

He heard more than what Adam explained. He heard Adam’s soul screaming “I do not want to be lost. I do not want to turn into dust and be gone forever. I want to live. I want to stay alive forever.”

It was painful to hear. Wasn’t this one of the base desires of human nature? To live forever?

Tim thought about this for a second and then said, “What would you think if dying, going under the soil, becoming dust, so to speak, is not actually the end of your life?”

He waited a second for Adam to take it in and then continued. “What do you make of all of this? How does it make you feel?”

Adam picked up a brown leaf with holes in it and said, “Me and this leaf are the same; we will both live and eventually die, go under the soil, and life will end for both of us.”

Tim asked, “What makes you think of that?”

“How couldn’t I? Regardless of the recycled version of me, I am g-o-n-e! Call it gas, dust, particles, atoms… Nothing matters afterwards, because I am gone from this world.” He continued: “Just like plastic, paper, or glass dumped at the recycling center, I will be dumped into the dark, wet, and cold soil and the recycling will begin. And I am finished forever! Perhaps a new form of life will emerge from our remains.”

Tim asked, “Have you ever seen how a recycling center works?

Adam replied in surprise, “No. Why?”

Tim answered, “You are partially right with your recycling analogy. After all those materials are being dumped into the recycling center, they are sorted, cleaned, melted, combined, and after all that preparation, they are given a new purpose and a new life: something new is made from them, completely different than what they were before. They are new, they work, they have a new purpose and a life to serve us all over again after they are used, broken, and thrown away!”

“And it is humans making it on their own! Guess where the inspiration comes from?” Tim smiled while asking this question.

“Nature?” Adam asked hesitantly. “I had never thought about that.” He scratched his head. “So, are you suggesting we will go into the nature’s recycling center, so to speak, and will be given a new life and a purpose after we die?”

“That was not the question I had in mind” Tim replied.

“What was it then?” asked Adam.

Tim took a deep breath of the crisp, clean autumn air and continued after a pause: “The purpose of being in this world! What do you think?”

“I always wondered about my purpose in this life” Adam said. “But I have never found the answer. And I concluded there is none with all the evil, fights against the evil, egotism, hunger… And we all die in a way; maybe some in pain and some in comfortable beds, and we are soon forgotten.”

Tim asked Adam, “What should be the aim of our lives then?”

Adam replied cautiously, “Maybe, it is living a decent life, making a difference, and leaving a positive legacy behind us?”

“Isn’t this one of the most bewildering questions? Why are we here? What am I doing here? What is my purpose? Isn’t it what everyone wonders?” Tim thought.

Still holding the leaf he picked up a while ago, Tim examined it and showed it to Adam. “Think about it,” he said. “This leaf is perfect in its own way. It has a life, a purpose, and a destiny. Right?”

Adam nodded.

“Does just being a leaf mean being purposeless? Was it just for decoration? Do you think it just hangs there and does nothing other than furnishing the tree?”

“It was part of a big tree,” Tim continued.

Adam said, “In spring, it budded, grew; some turned into flowers, and some turned into fruits, and some buds became a leaf. And now it will die and be part of one of the cycles, I guess.”

“I think so too,” agreed Tim. “And if we agree that it has a purpose, what could it be?”

“Something to do with photosynthesis, oxygen production, cleaning the air, maybe?”

“Agreed. To me it feels like nothing is wasted in nature. They get new lives, purposes. So, how come we don’t get one after we die—or don’t have one already?” Tim asked.

“So, do I need to be happy that I will die and decompose? Is that a good thing?” Adam asked. “Am I right?”

Tim smiled.

“You agreed, you and the leaf are the same: alive now, will die tomorrow, decompose, and turn into dust. Here is the question: if the living leaf cleans the air, produces oxygen so we can breathe, and if your dead body serves many purposes just like a simple looking dead leaf does, don’t you think it is only fair that you, as a breathing human, should have a bigger and more important purpose when you are alive?

“You are as perfect and as complicated as any creature on the surface of the earth; don’t you think we have a bigger purpose than a leaf?

“Can you explain why else people have this brain of ours? Isn’t it only logical that we have a greater purpose than a simple leaf?”

Tim checked the time on his phone, and they realized their lunch break was almost over. They rushed back to work while listening to the music of fall under their feet.

Ibn ‘Arabi was such a determined one. He is a strong milestone in the history of mysticism. His heritage goes beyond Muslim identity and encompasses a following from diverse traditions. In this issue, Brenda Pletcher explores Ibn ‘Arabi’s mystical legacy as a firm foundation for interreligious dialogue. For Pletcher, Ibn ‘Arabi’s philosophy of “diversity within unity,” as symbolized by his vision of a Universal Tree surrounded by four mystical birds, reveals dialogues “of life, of study, of prayer, and of spirituality, all of which, if followed in an atmosphere of mutuality, will have the potential to facilitate people toward the dialogue of action—an action bringing forth a vision of justice for all.”

Just as these great messengers enrich our spirits, so do fruits enrich our bodies.. We love their taste and smell, and are aware of their health benefits. However, a great majority of us do not consume fruits when we should – we are not even aware of when we should. “When To Eat Fruits” explains reasons why fruits should not be consumed right after a meal, and why we should eat them at least an hour before the main course, or two hours after. It is a very useful read on the right consumption of one of the most important components of our daily diet, which we wrongfully substitute with industrially processed juices.

Like eating well, recycling has become integral to our daily lives. We collect the food remains in our kitchen and the leaves in our backyard. We separate paper from plastic, all in the hopes of making our planet’s body healthier.. But were you aware that recycling has always been a part of our body’s survival mechanisms? Abdullah Acar says there are recycling centers in our cells which “have the duty to help with the digestion of cellular trash (i.e. damaged cellular organelles, misfolded proteins, toxic loads) so that energy can be generated and raw material obtained for the construction of new cellular units.” Named autophagy (i.e. self-eating), this recycling phenomenon “is primarily activated or enhanced via fasting or food deprivation.”

The Fountain is bringing scholars from different disciplines and traditions together in Istanbul on November 5-7 for a three-day workshop to have “Conversations on Life, Knowledge, and Belief.” The purpose is to pave the way for The Fountain to be a platform of thoughtful discussions on cross-cultural dialogue, scientific thought, faith, and philosophy. We will keep you posted about the event.

With all of its faculties, a human being can be thought of as an index of the whole universe. Therefore, we witness correlations between the processes taking place in the human body and in the universe. Accordingly, the world we live in has a correspondence to human biology. For example, the cyclical processes in the environment (water cycle, carbon cycle, etc.) ensure the continuous recycling of the same matter, hence the cleanliness of the habitat for all. Similarly, the human body includes mechanisms to cleanse itself from harmful and unnecessary materials.

Prior to the development of such an understanding, the prevailing attitude encouraged consuming natural resources and using the environment as a “trash can.” Even today, we live in a world that promotes excessive consumption of daily goods leading to accumulation of incredible amounts of trash. For example, in developed Western societies, an average family discards more than one ton of trash every year, which is mostly paper, packaging material, and kitchen waste.

Nevertheless, as we realize the importance of the recycling systems in nature and the multi-faceted harms of trash accumulation on the environment, recycling of conventional and technological waste is encouraged by collecting plastics, glass, paper, and tins. On a larger scale, recycling centers have been developed to minimize the damage to the environment and to meet the need for raw materials.

The recycling process consists of three main steps as depicted by the famous three-arrows symbol representing 1) the collection of materials, 2) the remanufacture of new materials from the collected ones, and 3) reselling or reusing as new products. Thus, recycling centers not only contribute to the economy, but also serve as clearance sites to maintain the harmony of the environment.

Cellular recycling through “fasting”

Similar to recycling centers at the macro level, there are recycling centers in the cellular level too. These centers have the duty to help with the digestion of cellular trash (i.e. damaged cellular organelles, misfolded proteins, toxic load) so that energy can be generated and raw material obtained for the construction of new cellular units. This recycling phenomenon was simply named as autophagy (i.e. self-eating) by cell biologists. What is interesting, though, is that autophagy is primarily activated or enhanced via fasting or food deprivation.

How autophagy works

Autophagy is a process that occurs when astarving cell starts to form double membrane containers through an orchestration of several proteins. These containers are called autophagic vesicles or autophagosomes ¹. Their main role is to target and collect cellular trash. Then, they start to fuse with lysosomes, the digestion centers of the cells, to degrade the trash into building blocks—amino acids. The amino acids can then be used both for the construction of new proteins needed by the cell and in the production of ATP, which is a source of energy for the cell.

The whole process corresponds to micro-scale representation of a real world recycling concept: collection, re-manufacture and resell/reuse. Through autophagy, a cell recycles its own material and obtains energy ².

Fasting: An emerging trend

With the discovery of mechanisms initiating autophagy and its involvement in various diseases such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, auto-immune diseases etc., autophagy has gained a unique significance that is progressively increasing ³. After the year 2000, the number of publications on autophagy-related research began to increase exponentially. Moreover, due to the increased conviction about the link between fasting and autophagy, fasting started to become a real trend in modern civilizations. Let’s examine a few of the important recent findings that reveal the relationship between autophagy and fasting.

In a study involving mice, the response to fasting was assessed in liver cells (hepatocytes) by tracking the presence of a protein (GFP-LC3) that indicates autophagy. It was seen that the lack of food, which is the source of energy, led to the disintegration of mitochondria, which are the power plants of the cells. Subsequently, the components that made up those mitochondria were re-utilized for the building of other necessary proteins⁴. These results indicate that unnecessary mitochondria were eliminated for the sake of recycling organic materials during fasting.

Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s or Parkinson, etc, are linked to the accumulation of trash in the brain cells, which is indicative of a lack of autophagy. Drugs developed for these diseases do not possess effective treatments since they are unable to penetrate into the brain cells (a concept known as the blood-brain barrier). During another study involving mice, in one track, animals were exposed to fasting, and in the other, their brain cells, (more precisely cortical neurons and Purkinje cells) were isolated and exposed to food deprivation. In both tracks, researchers observed that fasting enhanced autophagy, suggesting that fasting could be a simple, cheap, and safe therapeutic cure for prevention of neurodegenerative diseases ⁵.

In another study, this time involving a subset of kidney cells (proximal tubule cells), a lack of autophagy resulted in the accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria and other cellular debris. As a result, the cells grew in size abnormally (hypertrophy), decreasing the functionality of the kidney. This suggested that autophagy was part of the continuous maintenance of proximal tubule cells and that inducing autophagy in the kidney may provide a novel therapeutic approach to minimize acute kidney injury ⁶.

As a final example, one more study revealing the association between autophagy and the immune response should be mentioned. It was found that the number of autophagic vesicles (chambers) in the macrophages, a subset of immune cells that are the first to perceive threats to our body, increased as a response to invading bacteria. These vesicles wrapped, sequestered, and digested the bacteria eaten by macrophages ⁷. Thus, fasting has the potential to improve the fighting ability of macrophages against invading pathogens by enhancing autophagic machinery.

Taken together, the autophagy process seems to be a recycling mechanism with minor variations depending on the cell type and activation triggers. Once initiated, it leads to a) reduced accumulation of cellular trash (toxic protein aggregates); b) an improved immune response for removing bacteria (intracellular pathogens); and c) the protection of the interior of the cell (cytosol). As one of the main stimulators of autophagy, fasting or food deprivation seems to be a way for improving health.

Next time you fast, keep in mind that while you are starving, your cells are feasting for your health. Just as the natural world is structured to continually cleanse and renew the earth, fasting seems to trigger similar processes inside the human body. While individuals may choose to fast for spiritual cleansing, their physical bodies experience a cleansing as well.

Abdullah Acar is freelance writer in the US with a special interest in biology.

References

1. Mizushima, N., et al., Autophagy fights disease through cellular self-digestion. Nature, 2008. 451(7182): p. 1069-75.
2. Mizushima, N. and M. Komatsu, Autophagy: renovation of cells and tissues. Cell, 2011. 147(4): p. 728-41.
3. Yang, Z. and D.J. Klionsky, Eaten alive: a history of macroautophagy. Nat Cell Biol, 2010. 12(9): p. 814-22.
4. Kim, I. and J.J. Lemasters, Mitochondrial degradation by autophagy (mitophagy) in GFP-LC3 transgenic hepatocytes during nutrient deprivation. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol, 2011. 300(2): p. C308-17.
5. Alirezaei, M., et al., Short-term fasting induces profound neuronal autophagy. Autophagy, 2010. 6(6): p. 702-10.
6. Kimura, T., et al., Autophagy protects the proximal tubule from degeneration and acute ischemic injury. J Am Soc Nephrol, 2011. 22(5): p. 902-13.
7. Fujita, N. and T. Yoshimori, Ubiquitination-mediated autophagy against invading bacteria. Curr Opin Cell Biol, 2011. 23(4): p. 492-7.

Recently, the population of the world has grown enormously, as has consumption of goods and services, and this has meant an enormous increase in the volume of waste. Many scientific studies have been undertaken to find solutions to the ‘garbage problem’, which is, of course, also a pollution problem. Some studies showed that for plastics to be broken down completely and absorbed naturally could take as much as 400 years. Environmentally sensitive consumers therefore turned to using paper instead of plastics. But were they right to have done so? Or was it just a bit o f clever advertising by paper manufacturers?

Paper or plastic?

Paper manufacturers initiated many ‘anti-plastic’ campaigns. David Jacobson (1990) notes that they had lost about 60% of their grocery bag market to plastics by the 1980s. Paper once 20% more expensive than plastics was by then double the cost. But cost was not the only factor in consumer preferences. Technological advances made plastics thinner and lighter, requiring less storage space and reducing delivery costs. Consumers increasingly preferred lightweight plastic bags with moulded handles, and stores were happy to push the cheaper bags. Stone Container Corporation (which claims about 40% of the paper grocery market and 20% of the total grocery bag market) launched a vigorous campaign to raise consumer demand for paper grocery bags in the test markets of Jacksonville, Florida, and Hartford, Connecticut. The 13-week campaign included full-page newspaper ads, billboard advertising and 30-second prime time TV spots. According to Jacobson, the campaign improved paper bag sales by about 3%.

Plastic manufacturers fought back quickly, arguing that paper was not environmentally better than plastic: they ‘publicized findings that nothing degrades in a landfill – even biodegradable paper bags – thus negating part of paper’s environmental claim’ (Jacobson, 1990).

According to ‘The Changing Bag Market’, a market research report published by Business Communications Co. Inc., ‘low energy costs and favourable consumer response to plastic bags could increase plastic’s market share to 56.2% by the year 2000’ (quoted in ibid.).

The battle has remained remarkably positive. Both plastic and paper manufacturers acknowledge that they want to increase sales, but both express genuine concern for the environment.

Another preliminary study, done by Bank of America’s Environmental Policies and Programs Department, indicated that ‘though plastic film requires a bit more energy to manufacture, it may be the better choice because.., made with less water and chemicals’ (Bank of America, 1996. p.1).

Degradable plastics

Unlike traditional plastics, which may last 200 to 400 years, degradable plastics may deteriorate in a matter of months (GAO, 1988, p.8).

The report of the US General Accounting Office (GAO) grants that ‘degradable plastics may thus be able to reduce the life span of litter in the landscape and at sea; they also diminish the amount of plastics accumulating in landfills. Technical uncertainties about the performance of degradable plastics, however, have stirred some questions about their ability to alleviate these problems. As a result, some experts contend that recycling and incineration …. may be more effective responses to the environmental problems posed by plastics…:

In addition to their potential environmental benefits, it must be noted that degradable plastics offer new opportunities for use with agricultural products.

The private sector, local state and federal government have promoted the use of degradable plastics. In a letter dated January 19, 1988, Senator John Glenn, Chairman of the Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, asked the GAO to conduct a study of federal government activities in the area of degradable plastics. Subsequently, the GAO contacted officials and scientists in the federal government and private sector. They found that the US Department of Agriculture, the Department of Defense, the Department of Energy, and the National Science Foundation were together supporting 12 research and development projects directly related to degradable plastics, at a total funding level of $1.7 million in fiscal year 1988 (GAO, 1988, pp.8-13).

Recycling vs incineration of plastics

Incineration of paper or plastics is controversial: ‘… some people

object to the disposal of plastics [also paper] in waste-to- energy plants because, they say, plastics burned for energy are lost forever, but recycling allows the product to be used over and over again’ (Alexander, 1993, p. 138). Recycling is a better way of protecting the environment which has been gaining wider acceptance in recent years. Package goods titans such as Procter & Gamble and Lever Brothers, have both made commitments to use a percentage of recycled plastic resins in their detergent bottles and other consumer products. ‘Contrary to public presumptions, plastics are among the easiest materials to recycle, reports Amoco, one of two hundred companies re claiming millions of used plastic containers for conversion to paintbrush bristles, traffic signs, toys, floor tiles, wastebaskets, plastic lumber, and many other useful items…’ (ibid.)

As of 1990 about 20% of soft-drink bottles were being recycled for use in making textiles and fibres, appliance handles, etc. (Saunders, 1993, pp. 178-9). Among numerous other examples of applications for recycled plastics, McDonald’s Playlands are composed of partially shredded, worn-out tyres.

On the other side, while a number of US companies have adopted plans to buy recycled paper supplies, many have resisted instituting such policies because of concerns over cost or quality. Because of the current technology, recycled paper products can cost 50% to 60% more than new ones (Eisenhart, 1990, p.20).

For the present, then, it would appear that, contrary to common misconceptions; the use of plastics is better for the environment than the use of paper.

References

• ALEXANDER, i.E-I. (1993) In Defense of Garbage, Praeger. Westport, CT.
• BERNARD, K. & LAWLER, E.D. (1990) ‘Recycling, Yes. Buying recyclables? Well’, Business Marketing, 75(11), pp.30-2.
• EISENHART, T, (1990) ‘There’s gold in that garbage!’ Business Marketing, 75(11), pp.2O-5.
• GAO [=US General Accounting Office I (1988) Degradable Plastica: Standards, research, and development, Report to the Chairman,Committee on Govemmcntal Affairs, US Senate, Washington, DC.
• JACOBSON, 0. (1990) ‘Paper marketers aim to bag their plastics cornpetitors’, Business Marketing, 75 (11), pp.32-3.