In a narration attributed to the truthful, confirmed one, upon him be peace and blessings, it is said: Whoever is humble, God exalts him; whoever is haughty, God humiliates him. Thus, one’s true greatness is inversely proportional to behaving as if one were great, just as one’s true smallness is inversely proportional to behaving as if one were small.

Humility has been defined in many ways: seeing oneself as devoid of all virtues essentially originating in oneself, treating others humbly and respectfully, seeing oneself as the worst of humanity (unless being honored by a special Divine treatment), and being alert to any stirring of the ego and immediately suppressing it. Each definition expresses a dimension of humility. However, the last definition relates to those made sincere by God Himself and who are near to Him.

A Companion saw Caliph ‘Umar, may God be pleased with him, carrying water in a pitcher on his shoulder. He asked him: What are you doing, O Caliph of God’s Messenger? ‘Umar, one of the foremost in nearness to God, answered: Some envoys have come from other countries. I felt some conceit in my heart and wanted to suppress it. ‘Umar used to carry flour on his back. Once he accused himself while giving a sermon from the pulpit, and kept silent when people questioned and criticized his action.

Abu Hurayra carried wood while he was the deputy governor of Madina. When he was the chief judge in Madina, Zayd ibn Thabit kissed Ibn ‘Abbas’ hand, and Ibn ‘Abbas, known as the Interpreter of the Quran and the Scholar of the Umma, helped Zayd get on his horse. Hasan, the grandson of the Prophet, upon him be peace and blessings, sat with some children who were eating bread crumbs and ate with them. Once Abu Dharr offended Bilal al-Habashi and, to obtain his forgiveness, put his head on the ground and declared: If the blessed feet of Bilal do not tread on this sinful head, it will not rise from the ground. All of these events and many similar ones are instances of humility.

Both God Almighty and His Messenger emphasized humility so much that one who knows of it does not doubt that servanthood consists of humility. The Quranic verse: The servants of the All-Merciful are those who walk on the earth in modesty, and if the impudent offend them, they continue their way saying: “Peace” (25:63) praises humility, and the Divine statements extremely humble toward believers (5:54) and merciful among themselves; you find them bowing down and falling prostrate (48:29) are expressions of praise for the ingrained humility reflected in their conduct.

Concerning humility, the glory of humanity, upon him be peace and blessings, declared: God has told me that you must be humble, and that no one must boast to another ; Shall I inform you of one whom Hellfire will not touch? Hellfire will not touch one who is near to God and amiable with people, and mild and easy to get along with ; God exalts one who is humble. That one sees himself as small while he is truly great in the sight of people ; and O God, make me see myself as small.

The glory of humanity, upon him be peace and blessings, lived as the most humble of people. He stopped at the places where children were gathered, greeted them, and played with them. If someone held him by the hand and wanted to lead him somewhere, he never objected. He helped his wives with the housework. When people were working, he worked with them. He mended his shoes and clothes, milked sheep, and fed animals. He sat at the table with his servant. He always welcomed the poor warmly, looked after widows and orphans, visited the ill, followed funeral processions, and answered the call of slaves in his community.

The beloved servants of God, from God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, to Caliph ‘Umar and the Umayyad Caliph ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz and from him to numerous saints, purified and perfected scholars, and those honored with nearness to God, have held that the signs of greatness in the great are humility and modesty, while the signs of smallness in the small are arrogance and vanity. Based on this understanding, they sought to show men and women how to become perfect.

True humility means that people must know the full extent of their worth before God’s infinite Grandeur, and then make this fully realized potential an ingrained, essential part of their nature. Those who have done this are humble and balanced in their relations with others. Those who have realized their nothingness before God Almighty are balanced in both their religious lives and their relations with people. They obey the commandments of religion, for they have no objection to the revealed truths of religion, nor do they criticize its method of addressing or relating to human reason. They are convinced that what is contained in the Quran and the authentic Traditions of the Prophet, upon him be peace and blessings, is true.

If there is an apparent contradiction between these two sources and human reason or established rational or scientific facts, such people seek to learn the truth of the matter. Therefore, it is nonsense for those without humility and modesty to assert, when confronted with an apparent contradiction between reason or rational premises and the revealed and narrated principles of religion, that reason or what is rational must be preferred. Their further assertion that judgments based on reasoning and analogy must be given priority over revealed principles is also mistaken. The wonders worked and spiritual pleasures felt by following ways not followed by the Prophet, upon him be peace and blessings, is God’s way of leading people to perdition, for “success” in such endeavors leads to sin.

Those who have achieved humility are completely convinced of the truth of whatever the Prophet said or did. They never doubt it, and seek to practice it in their lives. If something else, such as a wise saying or a great accomplishment, appears to them as more beautiful or acceptable, they accuse themselves of being unable to discern the incomparable superiority of the revealed truths and expressions, saying:

There are many people who find fault with the words having no defects.
However, the fault lies in their defective understanding.

They are certain that one cannot prosper in the Hereafter by following ways opposed to the Quran and the Sunna. They find the greatest source of power in servanthood to God. In reality, one who worships God never adores anyone else, and one who serves others cannot be a true servant of God. How apt are the following words of Bediuzzaman:

Do not see anything or anybody else other than God as so much greater than you as to deserve adoration or servanthood. Do not boast of yourself in a way to see yourself as greater than others. As creatures are equal in being distant from being worshipped, so also are they equal in that they are all created.

Those who are truly humble do not attribute the fruits of their work and efforts to themselves, nor do they regard their successes or efforts in the way of God as making them superior to others. They do not care how other people regard them, and do not demand a return for their services in the way of God. They regard their being loved by others as a test of their sincerity, and do not exploit God’s favors to them by boasting to others about them.

In short, just as humility is the portal to good conduct or being characterized with the qualities of God (such as generosity, merciful, helpful, forgiving, and so on), it is also the first and foremost means of being near to both the created and the Creator. Roses grow on the earth, and humanity was created on the earth and not in the heavens. A believer is nearest to God when prostrating before Him. While recounting the Prophet’s Ascension (to the heavens), the Quran refers to him as God’s servant, as a sign of his humility and utmost modesty.

Looks ecstatic with a Godly gown,

With spangled Paradise all around,

Proclaims Who holds the crown.

In the broad wondrous sky on high

Like an imperial azure eye,

Evoking awe beyond confusion,

Our Lord displays His heavenly dye.

The moon twitters with solemn impulsion

Amidst the shooting stars and the sun,

Ears and eyes of enthusiasm, deeply enjoys

How its Glorious Lord has revealed His art.

Power and dominion under His Hand,

The soil, the air, the water, surrender.

Every being adores the same Lord

While every entity reflects His splendor.

Victor H. Earnest

In general, social theories do not work in an absolutely deterministic manner due to the human factor. This is true of the fact that religions offer peace to society. Among these side factors are various social and historical engagements, possible misunderstandings and misinterpretations inherited from the past, and so on.

In this article, I analyze two religions: one is a religion of love and peace, and the other is a religion of love and mercy. However, many unfortunate events have taken place between them. For the purpose of this paper, I have set all such events aside on the grounds that every historical event should be evaluated in light of its original circumstances. Therefore, it would not be fair to judge the past using todayas arguments. We can probably just say: Those who believe (in the Quran), who follow the Jewish (scriptures), and the Sabians, Christians, Magians, and polytheists, God will judge between them on the Day of Judgment, for God is witness of all things (22:17) The only benefit from recalling these events might be to discover the mistakes made in history so that they can be avoided in the future.

Given the above and now that we are in the Age of Information, followers of both religions should review their knowledge and think carefully about whether existing misunderstandings are based on something other than the written sources, especially the holy books of both religions. Prophet Muhammad once said: People are the enemy of what they do not know.a So, do we really know each other well? If not, what does such ignorance lead to? Do those who have sharp critiques of another religion even know its fundamentals? Unfortunately, none of these and similar questions have a positive answer.

Therefore, in an effort to help diminish this lack of knowledge, this article provides some brief explanations about how the Quran sees Christianity. There are many other related verses and arguments in the Sunnah as well, but those will be dealt with in a later article. For the purposes of this article, the Quran is sufficient.

Christianity and Christians

Is Christianity a Divine Religion? This question has an immediate answer: Yes! According to the Quran, Christianity is a religion from God and all religions from the Divine Source are the same. The only differences are some modifications made by God according to the prevailing conditions of a particular age. The name of this religion is Islam, and Prophet Muhammad brought its final version: He has established the same religion for you as that which He enjoined upon Noah–which We have sent by inspiration to you–and that We enjoined upon Abraham, Moses, and Jesus (42:13). Other verses, such as 4:136 and 2:213, point this out in a wider approach.

That is why the Quran most of the time carefully distinguishes unbelievers from followers of the holy scriptures, although there is no agreement on all points of these beliefs. The fact that it calls them the People of the Booka is important.

Remarkably, the Quran sometimes refers to People of the Book (Jews and Christians) or previous scriptures as supporting the Messenger, and sometimes declares itself a reference for verifying previous scriptures. In fact, both show that the Quran somehow accreditsa Christianity. We read, respectively: They say, ˜Why does he not bring to us a sign from his Lord? Has there not come to them a clear evidence of what is in the previous books? (20:133; see also 6:114, 10:94, 13:43, 29:47, 28:52) and He has revealed to you the Book with truth, verifying that which is before it, and revealed the Torah and the Gospels aforetime, guidance for the people (3:3; see also 35:31).

In the following verse, the Quran gives special importance to Christianity: Behold! God said: O Jesus, I will take you and raise you to Myself, and clear you (of the falsehoods) of those who blaspheme. I will make your followers superior to those who reject faith, until the Day of Resurrection. Then shall you all return unto Me, and I will judge between you about that which you dispute (3:33). In 22:40, the Quran mentions churches as being among those places in which the name of God is commemorated.

Christians and their relations with Muslims. The following verses state the basic characteristics of Christians in general, which can be summarized as being trustworthy, adoring God during the night, being lowly before God, not taking a small price for the communications of God, not behaving proudly, being strong believers and crying on account of the truth, having Compassion and Mercy in their hearts, and so on.

We read in the Quran: Among the People of the Book are some such that if you entrust one (of them) with a heap of wealth, he shall pay it back to you (3:75); They are not all alike. Of the People of the Book there is an upright party. They recite Godas communications in the nighttime and adore (Him) (3:113); and Most surely, among the People of the Book are those who believe in God and (in) that which has been revealed to you and to them, being lowly before God; they do not take a small price for the communications of God. These have their reward with their Lord. Surely God is quick in reckoning (3:199; see also 29:47).

The Quran also states: When they hear what has been revealed to the Apostle, you will see their eyes overflowing with tears on account of the truth that they recognize. They say: Our Lord, we believe, so write us down with the witnesses (of truth). And why should we not believe in God and in the truth that has come to us, while we earnestly desire that our Lord should cause us to enter with the good people?a Therefore God rewarded them, on account of what they said, with gardens in which rivers flow to abide in therein. This is the reward of those who do good (to others) (5:83-85); and bestowed on Jesus, son of Mary the Gospel, and We ordained compassion and mercy in the hearts of his followers (57:27).

A Muslim man or women is forbidden to marry an unbeliever and to eat the meat of any animal that has not been sacrificed in Godas name. However, the following verse cancels that restriction for the People of the Book: This day (all) the good things are allowed to you. The food of those who have been given the Book is lawful for you and your food is lawful for them, and chaste believing women and the chaste from among those who were given the Book before you (are lawful for you) (5:5).

This obviously means that God wants Muslims to become closer to Christians in their social life. But more importantly, and in addition to issues of marriage or food, Muslims are asked to be nice to them at all times: Do not dispute with the People of the Book except by what is best, except for those of them who act unjustly (29:46). Can their status as People of the Book be one reason why Muslims are told to be nice to them? You will find the most violent of people in enmity towards believers [to be] the Jews and the polytheists, and you will find the nearest in friendship to believers [to be] those who say: We are Christians.a This is because there are priests and monks among them, and because they do not behave proudlya (5:82; see also 13.36).

Who is saved: Christians or Muslims? The above discussion naturally may lead one to a desire to know who will be in heaven. However, we are not at a position to really answer this question, for heaven belongs to God and its people are His people. Thus, talking about who will and will not be in heaven does not seem to be a respectful behavior toward God: Whatever is in the heavens and Earth is Godas, and We enjoined those who were given the Book before you and you too to be careful of (your duty to) God. If you do not believe, surely whatever is in the heavens and in Earth is Godas. God is Self-sufficient, worthy of [all] praise. (4:131).

Those who consider themselves to have some kind of guarantee, who try to restrict the ways to heaven according to their own will, or letting everybody have a place in it ahead of time may be at fault. We probably can talk about being saved if it is clearly stated in the scriptures. I think both Muslims and Christians agree that unbelievers will receive an everlasting punishment on the Day of Judgment.

So, everyone should consider seriously what the Quran says: (As for) those who believe and do good, We will make them enter into gardens beneath which rivers flow, to abide therein forever. (This is) Godas promise, (which is) true. Who is truer of word than God? (This) shall not be in accordance with your vain desires or those of the People of the Book. Whoever does evil will be requited with it and, besides God, such people will not find for themselves a guardian or a helper. Whoever does good deeds, whether male or female, and he (or she) is a believer–they will enter the garden and will not be dealt with unjustly in any way (4:122-24). Clearly, these verses are talking about both Muslims and Christians, but not in accordance with their desires.

Probably the problem becomes one of determining what are good deeds. Fortunately, good deeds are defined in almost exactly the same way in both religions. The verse: Turning your face to East or West can be read as calling yourself Muslim or Christiana: It is not righteousness that you turn your faces toward the East and the West, but righteousness that one should believe in God, the Last Day, the angels, the Book, and the Prophets; give away wealth out of love for Him to near relatives, orphans, the needy, wayfarers, beggars, for (the emancipation of) captives, and observe the prayers and pay the poor-rate. Those who keep their promise after they have made one, and those who are patient in times of distress, affliction, and conflict–these are the ones who are true (to themselves) and who guard (against evil) (2:177).

The following verses address Christians directly: If the People of the Book had believed and guarded (against evil), We would have covered their evil deeds and have made them enter gardens of bliss (5:65) and Those who believe, or who are Jews, Christians, and Sabians–whoever believes in God and the Last Day and does good, will have their reward from their Lord. There is no fear for them, nor shall they grieve (2:62; see also 5:69).

How is the Bible mentioned? It is widely accepted in the Muslim world, along with some historical evidence, that the words of the Torah, the Bible, and the Psalms do not have the same miraculous nature of those of the Quran. This is because they have been translated repeatedly, with the result that many alien words gradually became part of the original text. Also, the words of commentators and sometimes their misguided interpretations were confused with their verses. In addition, distortions conceived by ignorant and hostile people were incorporated into them. Over time, the amount of corruption and alteration in those Books has continued to grow.

Nevertheless, there is still some evidence that the Bible or the Torah, both of which are mentioned in the Quran, mostly refers to those existing at the time of Prophet Muhammad. As for the Torah, the Quran states in a verse revealed after a group of Jews asked the Prophet a question and then disobeyed his decision: How do they make you a judge and they have the Torah, wherein is Godas judgment? Yet they turn back after that. These are not the believersa And We sent after them in their footsteps Jesus, son of Mary, verifying what was before him of the Torah. And We gave him the Gospel, in which was guidance and light, and verifying what was before it of the Torah, and [serving as] a guidance and an admonition for those who guard (against evil) (5:43-44, 56; see also 5:27, 7:157).

As the Gospel verified the Torah, the Quran verifies both (3:3; see also 9:111). Likewise, the following verse also encourages followers of the book to read the Book as it should be read: Those to whom We have given the Book read it as it ought to be read, they believe in it. Those who do not believe in it are the losers (2:121).

Suggested Reading List

• Gulen, M. Fethullah. The Infinite Light. London: Kaynak A.S., 1996 (Online at www.fgulen.com). Gulen, Essentials of the Islamic Faith is also a good source of related information.
• Hasan, Ahmad (trans.). Sunan Abu Dawud, book 36 (Online at www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah).
• Khan, M. Muhsin (trans.). Sahih Bukhari, books 55 and 56 (Online at www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah).
• Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said. Risale-i Nur Collection: The Letters. The Nineteenth Letter: Sixteenth Sign.a Konak-Izmir, Turkey: Kaynak AS, 1998. (Online at www.nur.org or www.risale-inur.com). Related topics are discussed throughout the entire collection.
• Siddiqui, Abdul Hamid (trans.). Sahih Muslim, books 30, 31, and 41 (Online at www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah).

The three great monotheistic religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, come from the same source, flowing out of the Divine like rivers flowing out of the same ocean. Historically, Judaism came first and then was followed by Christianity, which later was followed by Islam. Prophet Abraham is the ancestor of Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad, as attested to in each religion’s holy book. In all of them we read that Abraham had two sons: Ishmael and Isaac. Hajar was Ishmael’s mother, while Sarah was Isaac’s mother. Isaac had a son named Jacob (Ya˜qub in the Qur’an), from whom all Jews trace their descent, whereas Arabs trace their descent from Ishmael.

Islam and Christianity

Muslims are required to observe six articles of faith, for if they have no faith and no trust in God, they cannot move forward in spiritual development. These are faith in God, angels, previously revealed scriptures (in their uncorrupted form), all Prophets (e.g., Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad), destiny, and the Resurrection and Day of Judgment.

Judaism and Christianity have many beliefs in common, but differ in the way they are implemented. In the case of Islam, these beliefs are displayed by:

– Proclaiming there is no god but God and Muhammad is His Messenger, which means that one has entered the fold of Islam. This is similar to such Christian practices as baptism and confirmation.

– Praying five times a day. Christians also pray, although the manner and time is left up to them.

– Pilgrimage. The pilgrimage to Makka is one of the most important ritual practices that a Muslim can undertake. Historically, pilgrimage also was an important feature of the Catholic church.

– Charity. This is central to both Islam and Christianity.

– Fasting. Muslims fast during the month of Ramadan both to obey God and to experience what it feels like to be hungry and thirsty. It is still present in Judaism and, to a much smaller degree, in Christianity.

Muslims believe that God has sent 124,000 Prophets to guide humanity. Their messages were similar: Be good to others, starting with your own family, do not kill each other, help poor people, and many more. Moses was given the Ten Commandments to lead the Jewish people back to the right path. Jesus was sent to guide the Jews yet again to the right path. Finally, Muhammad was sent to guide all of humanity with the final revelation: Islam.

Judaism and Christianity were revealed to meet the needs of the people living at that time. As magic was important during Moses’ time, God gave him a heavenly stick to swallow the magic sticks of the court magicians during a contest, and also allowed him to perform other miracles that the magicians could not duplicate. Medicine was uppermost during Jesus’ time, and so his miracles were related to healing and raising the dead. Jesus tried to revive his people’s dead spiritual life and make them see that life’s real enjoyment lay in praying, leading a spiritual life, purifying oneself from materialistic things, and living honorably.

During the Prophet’s time, eloquence was the highest value. Thus his most important miracle is the Qur’an, the eloquence and beauty of which has never been surpassed. Some people converted to Islam due to its eloquence alone. He taught his people to stop murdering their infant daughters, killing each other, engaging in polytheistic practices, and drinking wine. Out of his followers emerged the leaders of what would become the most advanced civilization of its time.

The role of believers today

At present, believes need to concentrate on the common ground between these three monotheistic religions, for greater understanding will increase our ability to live together in peace and harmony. As they all come from the same source, no threat will face them in the future.

Following the Prophet’s example, we should reach out to the unbelievers among us and inform them of God’s Existence and their ultimate accountability on the Day of Judgment. This will cause them to think before they act.

Moreover, believers are told to raise a new generation that will not repeat the mistakes of the past. Future generations should believe in God and be friends with everyone. They should soar to new heights on the wings of science/education and religion.

Our generation faces many challenges. One of the hardest is proving that jihad does not mean holy war. During the Prophet’s time, war was part of jihad because the Muslims had to defend themselves. But they did this only after God revealed that they could do so, and only after the Prophet had tried for years to bring his enemies to Islam through peaceful preaching and personal example. When the Prophet reached out to the Persian and the Byzantine rulers, the same pattern was followed.

Today, the most appropriate form of jihad is setting a good personal example and helping others. In other words, believers must practice what they preach. Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad did this, and thereby won the hearts of their people and others without violence or coercion.

For example, when a recently deceased Jewish man was borne to his grave, the Prophet stood up in respect and the mourners passed by where he was sitting. When the Companions asked why he was standing for a Jew, he replied: Because he was a human being. This is part of the real teaching of all religions: sincere respect for others regardless of race, color, religion, or any other temporary distinction.

Conclusion

We should honor the Prophets who brought Judaism, Christianity, and Islam by following their calls for us to unite and work for world peace and understanding. This is another facet of this generation’s jihad, for it is becoming ever more obvious that we must find a way to sincerely love and respect each other if humanity is to survive.

The norms and assumptions that have characterised belief and action in Islam have their initial inspiration in two fundamental sources. One is scriptural, embodying the message revealed by God to the Prophet Muhammad (d.632), upon him be peace, and recorded in the Quran. The second is the exemplification of this message in the pattern or norm derived from the Prophet’s actions and precepts, collectively called the Sunna. Muslims regard the Qur’an as the ultimate closure in a series of revelations to humankind from God, and the Sunna as the historical projection of a divinely inspired and guided human life.

In one of the chapters of Qur’an, entitled al-Furqan (the Criterion: Chapter 25), revelation – addressed to all humankind — becomes the point of reference for distinguishing right from wrong:

Blessed be He Who sent down the criterion (of right and wrong, i.e. this Qur’an) to His servant (Muhammad) that he may be a warner to mankind. He to Whom belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth, and Who has begotten no son and for Whom there is no partner in the dominion. He has created everything, and has measured it exactly according to its due measurement (25.1-2).

The same chapter goes on to give examples of past Prophets and Messengers (many referred to in the Bible also) and their role as mediators of God’s word to their respective societies.

The Sunna is a necessary source of knowledge for Muslims as Muhammad is described in the Qur’an as ‘a fine example’ and one who possesses ‘high moral excellence’:

In the Messenger of God (Muhammad) you have a good example to follow for him who hopes for (the Meeting with) God and the Last Day and remembers God much. (al-Ahzab, 33.21)

… you (0 Muhammad) are on an exalted standard of character. (al-Qalain, 68.4)

As the secondary source of knowledge, the Hadith (sayings of Prophet Muhammad, the written record or text of the Sunna) are to be relied upon on the authority of God’s saying in the Quran:

By the star when it goes down. Your companion (Muhammad) is neither astray nor being misled. Nor does he speak from out of (his own) desire. It is no less than Inspiration sent down to him. (al-Najni, 53.1-4).

The necessary elements of the creed of Islam are defined in the Quran (al-Baqara, 2.177) as belief in God, the Angels, the Books (Scriptures), the Prophets, the Last Day, the qadar (destiny) or the faith that, good and bad, everything is originally from God-that is, God is the Creator of all men and their actions whether good or bad, and the genuine source of all good.

For the derivation of legal principles and rulings, Quran and Hadith are supported by ijma, the consensus of scholars on behalf of community, and by qiyas, reasoning by analogy, when no explicit and specific ruling can be found in the texts.

The human quality that encompasses the concept of ideal ethical value in the Qur’an is summed up in the term taqwa, which in its various forms occurs over two hundred times in the text. It represents, on the one hand, the moral grounding that underlies human action, while on the other, it signifies the ethical conscience which makes human beings aware of their responsibilities to God and society. Applied to the wider social context taqwa becomes the distinguishing mark of a truly moral community:

O humankind! We have created you out of male and female and constituted you into different groups and societies, so that you may come to know each other-the noblest of you, in the sight of God, are the ones possessing taqwa. God is the All-Knowing, the All-Aware. (al-Hujurat, 49.13)

The Quran affirms the different dimensions of human individual and social life-the material as well as the spiritual-but these aspects are not seen in conflictual terms, nor is it assumed that spiritual goals should predominate in a way that devalues material aspects of life. The Qur’an, affirming the complementarity of the two, asserts that human conduct and aspirations have relevance as acts of faith within the wider human, social and cultural contexts. It is in this sense that the idea that Islam embodies a total way of life can best be understood.

In the Qur’an Jews and Christians are referred to as ‘People of the Book. While recognizing the particularity of the Muslim community and its preeminent status, the Qur’an encourages a wider respect for difference and otherness in human society, while favouring common moral goals over mutually divisive and antagonistic attitudes:

We sent Jesus, son of Mary confirming the Torah that had come before him, and We gave him the Gospel, in which was guidance and light and confirmation of the Torah that had come before it, a guidance and an admonition for the pious. Let the people of the Gospel judge by what God has revealed therein. And whosoever does not judge by what God has revealed (then) such (people) are the rebellious to God. And We sent down to you (0 Muhammad) the Book (this Quran) in truth, confirming the Scripture that came before it and muhayminan (trustworthy in excellence and in witness) over it (old Scriptures). So judge between them by what God has revealed, and follow not their vain desires, diverging away from the truth that has come to you, We have prescribed law and a clear way. If God willed, He would have made you one nation, but that (He) may test you; so strive as in a race in good deeds. The return of you (all) is to God; then He will inform you about that in which you used to differ. (al-Ma ‘ida, 5.46-8)

For Muslims, the message of the Qur’an and the example of the Prophet’s life remain inseparably related through all of history as paradigms for moral and ethical behaviour. They formed the basis for Muslim thinkers subsequently to develop legal tools for embodying moral imperatives. The elaboration of legal sciences led to a codification of norms and statutes that gave form to the concept of law in Islam, generally referred to as the Shari’a. Muslim conquest and expansion resulted in contact with cultures whose intellectual heritage was in time selectively appropriated by Muslims, then refined and further developed. The integration of the intellectual and philosophical legacies of ancient Greece, India and Persia among others, created conditions and a tradition of intellectual activity that would lead to the cosmopolitan and pluralist character of an emerging Islamic civilisation. Christian and Jewish scholars, who had already encountered the above legacies in varying degrees, played a crucial mediating role as ‘translators, particularly since they were also aware that the moral disposition of Muslims, like their own, was shaped by common monotheistic conceptions based on Divine command and revelation. The term adab has come to be used to denote the wide-ranging moral, ethical, intellectual and literary discourse that emerged.

The integration of the philosophical legacy of antiquity in the Islamic world was a major enabling factor in the use of philosophical tradition among Muslim intellectuals. It gave rise to figures such as al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Rushd (Averroes), al-Ghazali and others, who became well-known to medieval Europe as philosophers, commentators and exponents of the classical tradition going back to Plato and Aristotle. The Muslim philosophical tradition of ethics is therefore doubly significant: for its value in continuing and enhancing classical Greek philosophy and for its commitment to synthesising Islam and philosophical thinking.

Al-Farabi (d. 950) argued for harmony between the ideals of religious virtue and the goals of a true polity The greater the wisdom and virtue of the rulers and the citizens, the greater the possibility of attaining the true goal of philosophy and religion-contentment in this and the next world.

Ibn Sina (d. 1037) developed the argument that the Prophet embodies the totality of virtuous action and thought, the best of which is reflected in the attainment of moral virtue. The establishment of justice, in Ibn Sina’s view, is the basis for all human good. The combination of philosophy arid religion enables harmonious living in both this world and in the hereafter.

Al-Ghazali (d. 1111) stressed the importance of conformity to the religious law, but even more the inner spiritual dimension. In his ‘The Incoherence of The Philosophers’, he tried to show that the philosophers were self contradictory and anti-scriptural, and that, in some cases, they ended up affirming heretical beliefs. He stressed the importance of sabr (perseverance in hardship, patient endurance and resignation to God’s decrees), tawakkul (absolute trust in God) and dhikr (constant remembrance of God).

The various Muslim philosophers in their extension and occasional revision of earlier classical notions linked ethics to theoretical knowledge, which was to be acquired by rational means. Since human beings were rational, the virtues and qualities that they embraced and practised were seen as furthering the ultimate goal of individuals and community. This goal was the attainment of happiness.

The practice and influence of the diverse ethical heritage in Islam has continued in varying degrees among Muslims in the contemporary world. There is growing self-consciousness about identification with that past heritage and a recognition of the need to adapt to changing circumstances and a globalization of human society. They must take into account the diversity and pluralism that has marked the Muslims of the past as well as the present.

As Nanji has pointed out, because the modern conception of religion familiar to people in the West assumes a formal separation between specifically religious and perceived secular activity, certain aspects of contemporary Muslim discourse, which does not accept such a separation, appear strange and often retrogressive. Nanji went on to argue that, in the pursuit of a vision that will guide Muslims in decisions and choices about present and future ethical matters, the most important challenge may be not simply to formulate a continuity and dialogue with their own past ethical underpinning but, like the Muslims of the past, to remain open to the possibilities and challenges of new ethical and moral discoveries.

References and Further Reading 

• Dar, BA. (1960) Qur’anic Ethics, Institute of IslamicCulture, Lahore.
• Johnstone, P. ‘Islamic Ethics’ in MacQuarry, J. & Childress, J. (eds) New Dictionary of Christian Ethics, Westminster Press, London. pp.314-6.
• Nanji, A. (1993) ‘Islamic Ethics’, in Singer, P. (ed.) A Companion to Ethics, Blackwell, Oxford, pp.106-20.