The minimum work principle is the force used on deeper levels (the maximum economy principle in other words). According to this, every action in the book of the universe is completed in a fashion to cause minimal energy consumption in the present binding conditions. The term binding condition refers to conditions that are mandatory (forced) for the system here. For instance, the total energy of a gas in a container that is perfectly insulated from the external environment is constant and therefore when we are investigating this gas, we should not overlook the conservation of total energy as a binding condition. Therefore, even for tiny actions, from the swing of a tree leaf with the wind to the flight of a dust particle in the air, the lowest energy consumption is essential in terms of present binding conditions.

We can make the topic easier to understand via short cut events of circuit boards. The reason behind a short cut is the conduction of electrical charges by the route with the least consumed energy. If even multiple short cuts are designed to attract electrical charges in an electrical circuitry, these charges are conducted via the route that requires the lowest energy.

It is all right, but how do electrical charges know this route? It is possible to ask a similar question about the orbit a ball follows when we throw it forward in a horizontal direction. The thrown ball continues on the orbit with the lowest amount of energy consumption depending on the present binding conditions (such as wind direction, strength, and the ball’s geometry). This is all well and good, but how does the ball know it will exert more energy on another trajectory?

Light follows the path where it moves fastest in the environment. In physics, “Fermat’s principle” states that when light is passing from one environment to another, it will be refracted not in the shortest path, but in the fastest direction of travel in the new environment (Figure 2). Therefore Fermat’s principle is the projection of the minimum energy principle on optics. In other words, the least amount of energy is spent by light on the path in which it will move fastest. However, for light to determine the direction that will be fastest, does it not have to first display refraction in all angles to identify the fastest path?

For science historian James Gleick it is impossible for physicists to discuss the minimum energy principle without giving the ball some type of willpower; the ball seems to choose its own orbit, as if it has knowledge of all the possibilities ahead of time.

A nice example in the living world for the minimum work principle is the similarity of ant behavior to the maximum economy principle. When some groups of the ant colony set out to forage, they communicate with pheromone hormones amongst each other. An ant that has found food leaves pheromones on the ground – indicating the quantity and quality of food – to guide others.

Another ant that follows this pheromone trace reaches the food, and marks the surface on the path back to nest with the pheromone by assessing the amount and quantity. Pheromones in spots that are not renewed by the ants within a certain time frame evaporate. Upon investigation of the ant routes, they are always found to follow the shortest path in between the food and nest, and leave pheromone tracks accordingly. For instance, when an asymmetric obstacle is positioned on the ant route (Figure 1), ants after a certain time are able to locate the shortest route again.

However, a more interesting case is the movement of the ant species named Wasmannia auropunctata when they are passing from one environment to another (Figure 3). It’s based on Fermat’s principle.

Not only ants, but also humans display trends that follow Fermat’s principle. For example, an emergency worker trying to rescue a drowning swimmer adheres to the most suitable strategy to reach the person at sea: When the beach and sea are considered as two different environments, first the rescuer runs to the nearest point to the swimmer on the beach, then reaches swimmer by entering the sea. Since humans move at different speeds on sand and at sea, if rescuer tried to reach the swimmer by entering directly into sea, it would take longer to reach the swimmer.

As seen in the above principle, the natural order of the world is created with incredible wisdom, without wasting any energy. Each truth has different projections on each existence and event. However, this distance in between the events or existences feels very far to us, therefore it is necessary to look more carefully to notice this relation among different projections.

There are also projections of this minimum work principle in our personal lives too. During the position of prostration in prayer, which can be considered as the humblest state of being when one feels closest to the Divine, the head, the highest point of body, is brought down to the level of the feet to compose a potentially lower energy status. This, in terms of the physical sciences, is the situation with the lowest work achievement capability, and can be seen as a status in which human deficiency and weakness as opposed to the infinite power of the Almighty are declared.

The minimal work principle can also be adopted in shaping the methods and style of providing services to other people, especially in the service of faith. Humans are the sons of their ages. Each age can be defined as a different environment. Therefore, when humans interpret their experiences, the socio-cultural environment where one is born and the specifics of their period must be considered. The shortest cut to people’s hearts and minds with minimal work principle is possible when the conditions of the time are taken into consideration. Said Nursi once said if he were to live in the time of Rumi (13th century), he would have written the Mathnawi, rather than his magnum opus the Risale-i Nur, and Rumi would do the same if he lived during his time. The Mathnawi eight centuries ago was and the Risale-i Nur today is the safest, shortest, and widest public avenue of faith and reflected the zeitgeist of their respective periods in history, Nursi argued.

References

1. James Gleick, Genius, Richard Feynman and Modern Physics, Abacus, London, 1993.
2. Jan Oettler, Volker S. Schmid, Niko Zankl, Olivier Rey, Andreas Dress, Jurgen Heinze, Fermat’s Principle of Least Time Predicts Refraction of Ant Trails at Substrate Borders, PLoS ONE 8(3): e59739. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059739

By examining the heart of a crocodile, researchers have discovered how it is that an air-breathing land animal can manage to glide through murky waters for several hours without the need to surface.

There is that one scene in documentaries that we often come across on television: Crocodiles gliding gracefully inside the water, waiting for hours for the perfect time to pounce and snatch their prey from their necks and into the water. But how do these animals manage to stay underwater for almost two hours without surfacing for air even though they, just like human beings and other land animals, live on pulmonary respiration and are in need of the free oxygen in the air?

A member of the reptiles class, crocodiles do not have gill nor can they have skin respiration since their skin is covered with a thick and airtight keratin armor. Just as every living organism are provided with a suitable anatomic and physiological character for their survival, crocodiles are also granted with a system that facilitates their long stay in the water.

Crocodiles are bestowed with a special heart anatomy different to other reptiles like lizards, tortoises, and snakes. The hearts of other reptiles are designed to contain three sections including two atriums and one ventricle. The right atrium, which collects the returned oxygen-deprived (deoxygenated) blood and the left atrium which collects the oxygen-rich (oxygenated) blood retrieved from pulmonary arteries of the lung, transports the blood to one common ventricle. Because there is only one ventricle to receive and combine oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, a mixture of less oxygenated blood is pumped to their body. Depending on outside temperature, the body temperature of a reptile increases or decreases. Their metabolism slows down, almost to a halt, while their body temperature decreases when outside temperature drops near or beyond freezing conditions. Hibernation begins as a result. Frogs and reptiles stop hibernating as soon as their body temperature increases depending on the outside temperature when the weather gets warm. These organisms are called cold blooded animals (with variable body temperatures) because of this feature.

The heart of a crocodile is different to other reptiles in that it has four chambers just like birds and mammals. Blood is sent to the lungs for gas exchange from the right, and from the left ventricle it is pumped to the body. Thus the two types of blood do not mix in the heart. However, what is interesting is that blood is mixed as soon as it leaves the heart via a valve (foramen of panizza) placed in between the right and left aorta.

What could be the purpose of blood, which does not normally mix in the heart, mixing through the medium of a hole? Does this opening in between two aortas indicate a flaw? It is understood after some research that this hole in fact is not a flaw or an anomaly; on the contrary, it is a necessity for a metabolism suited perfectly to the lifestyle of the crocodile.

Warm blooded vertebrates like birds and mammals with a four chamber heart have faster metabolic speeds and higher blood pressures. For these organisms can only supply the energy they consume during their daily activities via such a fast metabolism and a high level of oxygen provided with oxygenated blood.

If the metabolism of a crocodile was fast like mammals all throughout the year, it would have to continuously be nourished and use oxygen. Furthermore, because crocodiles do not have much predators, they could have also lead to the extinctions of some species by overpopulating if they featured a faster metabolism. The low ratio of heart-body mass in crocodiles (0.15%) compared to mammals and birds (0.40%-0.50%) cause the movements of crocodiles to be relatively slower. The Almighty, who creates everything with his wisdom, lowers the blood oxygen ratio and the metabolic speed of crocodiles by creating a valve that combines the two aortas. Thus eliminating the possibility of crocodile overpopulation.

Crocodiles have two aortic arches whereas mammals only have a left, and birds have one right aortic arch. The left aortic arch, despite some contact with the returned blood via foramen of panizza, delivers the oxygenated blood towards intestines, stomach, spleen and the liver after receiving it from the left ventricle of the heart. This is because the digestive system of a crocodile requires oxygen-rich blood. Deoxygenated blood while exiting the right ventricle goes towards the pulmonary arteries of the lung for exchange and mixes with oxygenated blood coming from the right aorta, feeding other organs that are instrumental for its slow metabolism.

Under the water, separated oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood mixes when exiting the heart and switches route, thus making oxygenated blood vessels start to carry oxygen poor blood. So what is the reason behind this switch in the direction of the bloodstream under the water? See at this point, the extraordinary features of the crocodile blood circulation system kick in. The two anatomical features belonging only to only crocodile hearts is what enables them to stay under water without breathing. Because of little or no lung use under the water, a big portion of the blood stream is diverted away from lungs; therefore oxygen poor blood is pumped back to the body. As one feature of the two, foramen of panizza restricts (does not close) upon signals coming from nostril sensors under the water but expands and remains open on land. The two aortic arches connects with each other via foramen of panizza as soon as they leave the heart but merge completely in the lower parts of the body away from the heart (anastomosis).

The second feature stems from a serrated valve. Refilling of pumped blood is stopped via a passive, thin leaf-shaped valve which is located at the tip of the pulmonary artery exiting the right ventricle. Thus, one-way direction of blood flow in the heart is maintained. These valves, which carry nodules made of connective tissue, constrict during the dive and blood flow to the lungs is reduced greatly. Therefore blood rejoins the systemic circulation from the right aortic arch.

The blood circulation of crocodiles is similar to birds, mammals, and humans while they are active on land. Oxygen-deprived blood is sent to lungs for gas exchange. The only difference is the turning of the right aorta to the left and the left aorta to the right. Oxygen rich blood not only flows through the left aorta but also through the right aorta via foramen of the panizza as well causing distribution via two channels into the body. However, the foramen of the panizza being open is not sufficient for these two channels to be used. At the same time, the pressure of the blood within the left ventricle needs to be higher as well. This way, high pressure oxygenated blood flows into the right aorta through the opening of the panizza, applying pressure to the valve at the tip of the right aorta to close it in order to prevent the mixing of the oxygen-poor blood into this route. As a result, oxygenated blood gets distributed quickly by each aortic arch without mixing with the used blood. Thus, oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood follows the following route on land

* Deoxygenated blood: Body – superior and inferior pulmonary veins – right atrium – right ventricle – lung pulmonary artery – lungs.

* Oxygenated blood: Lung pulmonary vein – left atrium – left ventricle – right aorta and left aorta via panizza valve (both aortas are active) and body.

The opening of the panizza narrows with the help of signals coming from the nostrils when crocodiles submerge. At the same time serrated valves at the tip of pulmonary artery that transports the blood to the lungs also constrict. While this serrated valve is at work, a majority of the blood returning from the body is not sent to the lungs because they are not functioning at the time. This serrated valve also increases the pressure of the right ventricle. This pressure, along with elevated resistance in pulmonary circulation and lowered pressure of systemic circulation, leads to the opening of normal valves at the tip of the left aorta. In the end, the left aorta which normally carries oxygenated blood on land starts carrying oxygen deprived blood, and there is a route switch.

The most beneficial part of this switch is to re-route the deprived blood back to the body via a different route, that is, the left aorta. This by-passes the lungs and prevents time loss. Despite the fact that blood of the left aorta mixes with the oxygenated blood of the right aorta to some degree via the panizza valve, the main function of this opening while submerged is to supply blood flow to the arteries feeding the heart and brain through the transfer of some poor blood from the left aorta into the right aorta; this way vital organs are not left without blood.

Blood returning from the body is not sent to the lungs for gas exchange when crocodiles are under the water. However, existing oxygen in the blood can be delivered to the tissues quickly by a route switch. The amount of bicarbonate ions that is important in the transport of CO2 in the blood increases when oxygen pressure in the tissues drop. Anaerobic respiration of tissues increases. This leads to an increase in lactic acid levels and reduces pH. Eventually, it facilitates the release of oxygen carried by hemoglobin. In the end, oxygen that is bonded with hemoglobin is used more efficiently. In the meantime, the body temperature of a crocodile submerged under water decreases and slows down its metabolism, reducing the need for oxygen. Oxygen stored in the blood can be sufficient up to two hours under the water. However when these reserves are consumed, crocodiles have to resurface to breathe even though it may cost a prey to escape.

Crocodiles can live on land and in the water and adapt to their environments with ease and efficiency thanks to the ponderous working of their mechanisms under water, the change in blood circulation, slow blood flow, reduced body temperature and metabolic speed bestowed upon them. Just like humans in sleep, crocodiles can remain submerged for long periods (4-6 minutes in usual dives; up to 2 hours when pressed) with this perfect system granted to them. Crocodiles use these mechanisms not only when under water, but also while resting or for periods after heavy feeding.

Physicists study on the biggest and smallest physical measures, on the strongest and weakest forces, and they have calculated the ratio between some of them and attained results close to 1040 several times. For example, it has been proven that “strong nuclear force,” which keeps protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus together, is 1040 times stronger than the force of gravity. Although some consider this situation a result of coincidence, there are also some people who have shown the courage to question the accuracy of this result and open it to discussion. Since then, obtaining the same number several times has inevitably led to the belief that the number was determined and calculated before. This situation resembles the situation of a chess player who hears somebody telling him the opponent’s next move, or the situation of a composer who hears a melody from upstairs that perfectly fits his lyrics while he is trying to write the melody for his lyrics. Is it not amazing when somebody says what is going to be especially at a time when you least expect such a vision? Questions emerge: Have all actions and incidents in the universe and the values corresponding to them been determined in advance? Is there a certain logic behind the behavior of materials without intellect or consciousness?

Perhaps when Comte de Buffon (1707–1788) started to do research into probability calculations concerning falling matches and needles three centuries ago, he did not think that he would make such an astonishing discovery. According to his calculations, the probability of dropped needles hitting a pair of parallel lines that are drawn a certain distance apart is proportional to the number pi (π) (Figure 1–2). When the distance between the parallel lines are drawn the length of a match, this probability becomes exactly 2/π. This was a theoretical result that was calculated on paper, but trying it out would raise interesting results. In other words, when a certain number of tests were conducted, it could be expected that a number of matches equal to the number that was found through the theoretical calculations would hit the lines; and, indeed, that was what happened. In addition, mathematicians found another way to calculate pi by using this method since the ratio of the number of matches or needles that hits the lines to the total number of matches or needles should give a pi-proportioned number. In 1901, Mario Lazzarini threw one needle 3,408 times and, as a result, got the ratio 355/133 or 3.1415929; the difference between this value and the real value is only 0.0000003.

The experimental proof of this fact is not difficult. When the experiment, which has been conducted thousands of times up to today, was first tried by a group of mathematicians dropping 3,000 needles, the number of the needles that touched the lines was close to 1,900, which was the desired result, and the result was amazingly found to be proportionate to pi.

Although the real relation is like the equation given in Figure 3, when the length of the needles and the distance between the lines are equalized, the desired ratio becomes 2/π. What does this mean? Does the number pi, which was created with the universe and which we meet in different fields, play a role in showing the manifestation of the Majestic Will about where an object will fall-through having a result that can not be explained by coincidence? Is falling not an ordinary incident?

While this reality makes even falling an extraordinary incident, it opens a perspective on understanding the reality behind the verse: “…it was not you (O Messenger) who threw but God threw,” which was revealed about the Battle of Badr in the Qur’an. Actually, it is impossible even for a leaf to fall without the knowledge and the calculation of Our Lord, who is closer to us than our jugular vein.

Let us think about a group of creatures that lives with different physical laws in a different universe. Assume that they live on a flat, circular world (Figure 4) and their steps get longer when they come close to the center. For this kind of creature, the shortest distance between two points is not a straight line as it is for us (A–B). Since their steps get longer as they get closer to the center, they travel close to the center. Yet, since they make the way a little longer in this way, the shortest distance would be an oblique line that takes these two variables into account and that passes by partially approaching the center. So, what would we think if we saw these creatures walking in this way all the time? Or if we knew that the creatures acting in this way were inanimate beings? In these circumstances, we might wonder whether these beings are very intelligent or whether One who knows and sees everything, and is present in every place at every time, directs them.

For a soccer forward to find the best time to attack when he is facing the goal keeper or for a tennis player to choose the best timing and position to hit the ball requires a fine calculation. In tennis, the player sometimes approaches very close to the net to meet the ball. In this way, the player gains great advantage since, by his or her positioning, the player reduces the area into which the ball can fall to the minimum, and increases his or her own chances of returning the ball (Figure 5). Nevertheless, since the ball reaches the player faster and harder, there is also a raised probability of the player’s failing to return the ball. Therefore, advancing right up to the net may not always be advantageous. Thus, the best position for the player may lie at any point between the net and the baseline when area and speed variables are considered. Similarly, the most advantageous point for the goal keeper lies between the attacking forward and the goal line, at a point which depends upon the variables of the speed of the ball and the area.

Naturally, we do not find tennis and soccer players’ positionings as described above strange since we expect them, as reasonable people, to play in this way. Yet, how would we interpret and explain it if we saw inanimate things acting in the same way? There is a phenomenon that applies this logic consciously but itself does not have consciousness. A phenomenon that astonishes people: light.

Let us think of a rectangular racetrack with points A, B, C, D. While the shortest distance for a horse that will run from one end of this racetrack to the other is the AC diagonal when the ground is homogenous, there will be a reroute if the ground is not homogenous. Assume the length of the racetrack is 80 meters and its width is 60 meters. Half of it is grass and the other half is sand (Figure 6). Also, assume the horse’s speed on the sand is half of its speed on the grass (it runs 10 meters in 1 unit of time on the grass). Under these circumstances, the horse will run the AC diagonal in 15 units of time while it will run AEC route in 14.5 units of time. The ABC route is much longer. Thus, any route which passes between these two routes will be shorter than these two. The point O, which the shortest route (AOC) passes, will be between the points M and E. When we look carefully, we understand that this is the route light follows as it enters environments of different densities; for example, the route it follows when passing from air to water (see a spoon’s broken image in a water-filled glass). As you see, light finds that specific mysterious point and follows that particular path. In other words, while entering different environments of varying densities, it finds the shortest way and follows it in an amazing way.

All these detailed calculations and functioning with great wisdom show that even inanimate beings and atoms are in the hands of a Majestic Will.

Every atom contains two truthful testimonies to the Necessarily Existent Being’s Existence and Unity. Despite being powerless and insentient, it bears decisive witness to the Necessarily Existent Being’s Existence by carrying out important duties and functions as though it were conscious. It also testifies to the Unity of the same Being, Who owns all material and immaterial dominions, by conforming to the universal order in general, and to the rules of each place it enters in particular. It settles in every place as if it were its homeland. All of this shows that the One Who owns the atom owns all the places it enters. By carrying out very heavy duties incompatible with its size and weakness, the atom shows that it acts at the command and in the name of One with absolute power. (The Thirtieth Word, Second Point, Risale-i Nur Collection)

Notes

1. See Al-Anfal 8:17.
2. “… And He knows whatever is on land and in the sea; and not a leaf falls but He knows it” (Al-An’am 6:59).

In this scenario, according to one school of thought, as there is no source of knowledge but intellect for human beings, then there is no alternative with which we can identify the solutions of human problems. We have to go along life’s journey under the guidance of the intellect, bearing the distress of each abortive effort.

A second school of thought opposes this view. It states that intellect alone is not enough to reveal the truths of life and/or to solve the problems. Rather, knowledge is also a source; one can differentiate between right and wrong. Moreover, humans should be able to reach the destination safely and save themselves from the fruitless and exhaustive efforts of the intellect. But unlike animals, knowledge is not an instinctive characteristic of all human beings. Humanity has been given such knowledge through selected persons; this knowledge is called revelation.

Revelation does not exclude human intellect; rather, it respects it and claims that just as the human eye needs light to see, so too does the intellect depend on the light of revelation to be able to view the world correctly.

After having looked at these two different points of views, it is time to compare them.

Today, if human intellect (even after thousands of failures) has discovered the true solution to all problems, then there is no need for human beings to take on revelation as a panacea. The intention of revelation was to solve the problems of life. If such problems have been solved without the assistance of revelation, then it is useless to discuss intellect or revelation.

But what if human intellect is yet to discover the true solution of the problems of life and is yet entangled in the whirlpool of its experiments? Then, it is worth investigating whether humans should continue pursuing these answers with the intellect or whether they should verify the claim of the revelation by adopting its approach for dealing with problematic situations.

Today’s world carries the burden of diverse problems-social unrest, political instability, wide-spread poverty and destitution, prostitution, homicide, drug addiction, alcoholism, the disintegration of the family, juvenile delinquency, terrorism, suicides and AIDS. The figures and forecasts of this virulent disease are intimidating, bearing in mind that prostitution and pornography are not only permitted in many countries worldwide, but are becoming money-spinning sources of living, particularly in the West. This is aggravated by the actuality that there is at present an ever-increasing rise in the international trafficking of children for these purposes. Moreover, infidelity is also on the rise, along with soaring crime rates in leading democratic and formerly communist countries. Undeniable facts illustrate that man-made systems that are devoid of Divine guidance have done more damage than good to humanity. It appears that the ambitions of knowledge and contentment have not been realized.

In philosophy and contemporary sciences-natural, behavioral, and social-the source of knowledge is limited to the human intellect and its five senses. Revelation is dismissed out of hand, and is not considered to be a source of knowledge; it is renounced as being nothing more than a parable or a superstition. This refusal to accept revelation as a source of knowledge is a phenomenon that has both historical and philosophical antecedents.

It is the natural attribute of human intelligence to identify and strive to destroy disorders that exist in and near it; this is part of the “quest for truth.” Astoundingly, regardless of humanity’s efforts to bring order by abolishing these disorders, they are in fact increasing the world over. It is the same intelligence that causes the disorders and the attempts to correct them; the only difference is the level of perception. Intelligence, if it is improved, or not disturbed, believes that it can alter the situation of the world by evangelizing good behavior. Any amount of teaching or intimidation will only bring about a provisional alteration in behavior; yet it is only a fundamental or basic change in humanity’s frame of mind that can change the world.

If we are not able to elucidate “why things are the way they are” by means of principles that are the results of the intellect, then the only alternative, other than abandoning our pursuit, is to search for the true principles as the source. So, one might be led to inquire, where do we turn for an appropriate understanding of reality and the purpose of life itself then? If we cannot rely on the knowledge or findings of any human source, then where can we discover a dependable source of knowledge?

Moreover, knowledge that is gained through the endeavor of the intellect does not exist in isolation, but rather is linked with the economics and politics of the culture from which it arises, as well as all the rest of that culture. The thoughts, attitudes, feelings, values, motives, purposes, goals, modes of action and organization, rituals, and institutions of a society are all interrelated and all affect one another. The attention to nature, the idea that there are causes for things, that there is an underlying harmony and something constant behind change and diversity, and that the Universe is regulated by laws are attitudes that result from religion. These are pre-requisites that must be fulfilled before science can begin.

In fact, the Qur’an attaches great worth to human intellect. It appeals to the intellect of its addressees in order to persuade them about its legitimacy as the word of God. It denounces those who fail to employ their intellects as being undeserving of God’s blessings, and being no better than animals. Furthermore, those who do not have the appropriate mental ability-for example, children before they reach the age of puberty and the mentally ill-are not expected to fulfill the requirements imbedded in the message of Islam according to the Prophet.

Nevertheless, these facts about the intellect do not signify that human intellect does not have its limitations. It can be swayed to believe, for instance, what opposes its own instincts. Unrestrained eagerness for a definite model, equally, can cause the intellect to be prejudiced to what is undeserving of endorsement. There are, likewise, some intriguing problems which are beyond its grasp. All these limitations restrain the efficiency of human intellect if used without restrictions. It appears to yearn-given these restrictions-for external guidance. Divine Revelation in the form of the messages of the prophets (peace and blessings be upon them) is this very guidance. The Qur’an and Sunna (way of life of the Prophet) represent the final version of this guidance. The Qur’an has given an account of the connection between Divine Revelation and human intellect as being light upon light (Qur’an 24:35); that is, the guidance of human intellect is principally a light, although with defects (and therefore not bright), while the Divine revelation in the form of the Qur’an is a brighter light to compensate for the imperfections of the intellect. Hence, a brighter light (the Divine revelation) exhibits the path to a less bright light (the human intellect).

Islam, being the final source of revealed knowledge in the modern world, also equips us with the techniques to differentiate between good and evil. It does not base our knowledge of wickedness and virtue on mere intellect, desire, intuition, or experience that are derived through the senses; these frequently experience changes and alterations and therefore fail to offer explicit and unchanging ethical norms. As an alternative, Islam provides us with an unbiased source, the Divine revelation, as is obvious in the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of the Prophet. This source recommends a standard of moral conduct that is lasting and universal, holding true in every age and under all circumstances.

References

• Barbour, Ian G., “Religion in an Age of Science”, HarperCollins: New York, 1991.
• Hooykaas, R., “Religion and the Rise of Modern Science”, Scottish Academic Press, 1972.

Driver Information

The most recent applications sought to complement the driver’s ability by targeting such “hands-off, feet-off” driving systems (Fig. 1) as PATH (Partners for Advanced Transit and Highways) and PROMETHEUS (Program for European Traffic with Highest Efficiency and Unprecedented Safety).

For transportation, IT generally can be classified into four groups: Driver Information and Route Guidance, Traffic Flow and Parking Control, Public Transport and Fleet Management, and Automatic Debiting. Only the first item will be discussed in this article.

Driver Information and Route Guidance

Driver Information (DI) and Route Guidance (RG) systems help drivers navigate unfamiliar roads or find the quickest route. The information, especially that given by more advanced systems, consists of advice that drivers can accept or ignore, or a directive with which they are expected to comply. DI and RG can help them reduce or curtail poor route choice as well as excess distance and travel times. The most likely information requested is shortest recommended path, state of the road and weather conditions, unexpected incidents ahead, and the general traffic situation (to estimate travel time).

Disseminating Information

Roadside displays, consisting of fixed road signs and variable message signs, are the simplest DI systems (Fig. 2). The relevant technology is quite basic, as the goal is to give all drivers general information about existing roadway conditions. Variable message signs are used mainly on highways. In urban areas, they are particularly well-suited for providing information about roadway conditions and parking lot availability.

The second method, cellular-radio networks such as the Radio Data System-Traffic Message Channel (RDS-TMC) proposed by the European Broadcasting Union, enable digital information to be superimposed on normal VHF/FM broadcasts. Information can be filtered (drivers call up only what they need and when they need it), updated any time, and broadcast in different languages.

Also, there is no need to lay cables, as is the case with beacon-based RG techniques.

The third (and most sophisticated) method is the electronic RG system, which consists of in-vehicle units, roadside equipment, and control centers (Fig. 3 ). It is usually difficult to start installing the ground infrastructure before ensuring the wide use of onboard systems. Onboard equipment for dynamic navigation comprises a transceiver, a router with a display, a locator with sensors, dead-reckoning devices, and a map memory. The usual indicators of route selection criterion are shorter distance, minimum cost, less traffic, fewer stops, and greater safety. The result of route optimization is the recommendation of how to reach a destination from a given starting point. This can be done by calculating the optimum route for an origin-destination, and by determining the turning directions from the vehicle’s route and position.

Some Examples in Use

CARIN (CAR Information and Navigation System) is an autonomous (static) navigation system used in route planning and guidance. A simplified digital map, stored on a CD, shows the best route. It also offers verbal guidance via a speech synthesizer and gives general tourist information. Other in-vehicle equipment consists of a sensor (magnetic compass) and a navigation computer that carries out the main task. Data collection, in terms of positioning and directing, is implemented by the moving vehicle’s sensors. This information, updated every 3 seconds, is used for map-matching.

The system’s basic advantage is that it does not rely on any external sources, like expensive beacon infrastructures. The route planner algorithm determines the best route for minimizing travel time and distance. However, as CARIN cannot receive current network and traffic situation reports, it is being modernized so that it can receive external information via the car radio with the introduction of RDS-TMC. Moreover, in the future CARIN will offer a fully interactive traffic management opportunity using the European D-net telephone system.

TrafficMaster was one of the first in-vehicle information systems introduced. It was applied first to the M25 London orbital highway, and then to the whole UK highway network. Data is obtained through sensors installed on highway bridges. In case of congestion, messages (such as locations and types of traffic jams and average traffic speed) are generated and transmitted by the control center. The in-vehicle unit displays the current status of the roadway network covered by the sensors. This dissemination is performed minute-by-minute. enabling the driver to make convenient route choices.

In Euro-Scout, the driver enters a destination into a small in-vehicle computer. As the vehicle moves, the in-vehicle navigation equipment determines its position. Whenever it passes a beacon, the user receives the best route, generated by the central computer, for all destinations.

Communication is performed through a two-way infrared link. Beacons located next to the signal heads can use existing cables when they are mounted with traffic lights. Guided vehicles can measure link travel times, which are then returned to the central computer via the beacons in a so-called vehicle telegram. This information is updated continually by the center. The system, therefore, is characterized by its centralized feature: The main data process is carried out in the control office rather than in-vehicle units.

The system has been introduced in Stuttgart by installing 130 beacon heads on traffic lights. A second system of 340 beacons is located in Berlin, and a third one is in Oakland county, Michigan, with 100 beacons and 1,000 equipped vehicles. Start-up costs are high, but in-vehicle equipment costs and the cost of increasing users are low.

In comparison, SOCRATES’ start-up costs are much lower, while the costs of equipping each vehicle and adding additional users are high. This system does have some weak points, though:

The routing algorithm does not take multi-destination users into account, the system is heavily dependent of roadside infrastructure, and a breakdown in the center may cause a system-wide failure.

SOCRATES (System Of Cellular RAdio for Traffic Efficiency and Safety), a two-way communication system, is based on the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) cellular radio network. SOCRATES measures the travel times of all guided vehicles from point to point, and uses this information to determine the best routes. In-vehicle units, an odometer, a compass for dead reckoning, and a map pass information to and from roadside units, which are connected to the central computer over telephone lines that allow medium-range communication.

The downlink from the base station to the vehicle is operated in a broadcast mode for disseminating traffic information. The uplink to the base station allows multiple access by floating cars in order to collect travel time patterns. The system’s main disadvantage is the cost of using the mobile phone network. However, a significant benefit is that using the cellular radio requires no additional infrastructure investment because of the introduction of GSM.

The Need for Such Systems

Transport enables socioeconomic relationships to be developed and sustained. This is clear in the continuous dependence on various means of transport to move goods and people. Neglecting transport would bring society to standstill, literally and metaphorically. The introduction of the car put personal transport on the top and increased the need for more roads. The greater the demand for individual mobility, and hence roads, the more complex road transport problems become.

The number of cars per mile of road grows daily. At the same time, lack of space, budgetary priorities, and environmental considerations restrict the extent to which new road construction and increased capacity can be undertaken. But people still want to travel as smoothly as possible.

Therefore, the central idea is that traffic information and communication systems will offer effective solutions-especially where physical changes to the existing infrastructure, such as constructing new links or widening roads, are almost impossible. Closer following distances between intelligent vehicles on automated highways will eventually increase road network capacity.

The Advantages of RG Systems

The main appeal of dynamic RC systems is their ability to recommend paths based on current traffic conditions. Recent research and systems development have focused mainly on dynamic RC systems, which are superior to static systems. Dynamic RC is particularly well-suited for tackling urban congestion, and has advantages over other technological measures, such as vehicle-actuated traffic signals or a system of dynamically updated VMS.

Drivers normally reach their destination by following a route based on previous experience, maps, street signs, and radio traffic bulletins. However, studies show that drivers are unable to select the shortest route, leading to some 6 to 8 percent errors. Preventing this by even static RG could save millions of dollars per year. Driver misperceptions, due to the absence or scanty amount of information about travel time and alternative routes, as well as about specific route incidents, lead to delay and wasted mileage. In Orlando, tourists driving RC-equipped vehicles made 30 percent fewer wrong turns and shortened their travel times by 20 percent, compared to drivers who used paper maps.

Research indicates that applying dynamic RG systems shows great potential for improving travel times, safety, and environmental effects. This is based on the assumption that more drivers will opt to use the services. Other benefits could include satisfaction derived from choosing the best route and being better informed, reduction in the total distance travelled, and incident detection and warning. The real benefit will depend largely on the quality of information provided. With more computing power becoming available and increased technological advancement, more high-quality information is available to drivers.

RG not only guides vehicles through unfamiliar areas, but also increases roadway safety. For example, research indicates that 60 percent of crashes at intersections, and about 30 percent of head-on collisions, could be avoided if drivers had an additional half-second to react. Systems like automatic collision notification (not readily available yet) immediately signal for help if a vehicle’s airbag deploys. In addition, drowsy-driver warning systems keep drivers from falling asleep at the wheel.

The Shape of Things To Come

The discussion so far has focused on the present state of intelligent transport systems. In-vehicle information systems provide information on road conditions and offer advice. They also can provide information about a city’s hotels, catering, theater, cinemas, and even the entire yellow pages. In-vehicle systems can function as hand-held car locators, whether in a busy parking lot or in the remote countryside.

The future of such systems already is taking shape. Dual-purpose and hand-held in-vehicle systems can be used as personal security guards that send a discrete message to a control center when a user is in danger. They could sound an alarm to scare off potential attackers and draw attention to oneself. They also could be built into a car’s security system to prevent theft and send messages in case of an accident.

Hands-free cars are being developed to navigate the road network by the use of a button relying on in-built computers. In addition, car prototypes are being developed that do not require roads-they will fly from origin to destination. All of these require intelligent navigation through a combination of computing and communication. The merging of computing and communication is the bedrock of a revolution to unify all technologies. Journeying intelligently will be at the forefront of this revolution.

Conclusion

Applying these systems, both vehicle- or network-based, depend heavily on the society’s living standards and the country’s economic level of development. Variable message signs and TMCs are the most convenient systems for developing countries, due to their simplicity and cheapness. A typical variable message sign only costs about $200,000, while more sophisticated systems requiring computer centers, roadside equipment like beacons and in-vehicle units, are more expensive. However, in cities with high traffic levels, authorities may consider establishing electronic navigation and information systems with the cooperation of private investors and vehicle manufacturers.

People tomorrow will be more mobile than ever. To provide better transportation systems for the twenty-first century requires the integration of people, vehicles, and network, as well as the improved safety and efficiency of transport systems. Therefore, dynamic DI systems should be able to offer improved mobility for travelers, reduced travel times and operation costs, reduced transportation infrastructure costs, improved highway safety, and reduced transportation energy consumption, transport-generated pollution, and noise.

References

• Barco Visual Systems. Traffic Technology International ‘98 (Feb/ March 1998): 18.
• Benz, D. “PROMETHEUS.” High Tech Report (April 1994).
• Catling, I. “SOCRATES.” Advanced Technology for Road Transport: IVHS and ATT. Ed. I. Catling. Boston: Artech House, 1994, 65-78.
• Georg, L. and F. Steinkohl. “Driver Assistance Concepts and Systems.” Traffic Technology International ‘98 (Oct-Nov. 1997): 66
• Hypower Inc. Traffic Technology International December ‘97 – January ‘98 (1997): 10.
• Intellimotion. Research Updates in Intelligent Transportation Systems. 6(4), (1997): 1.
• Jeffery, D. “Route Guidance and In-Vehicle Information Systems.” Information Technology Applications in Transport. Eds. P. Bonsall and M. C. H. Bell. Utrecht, The Netherlands, 1986, 319-51.
• Kontron Elektronik. Traffic Technology International ‘98 (Annual Review 1998): 232.
• Little, C. “The Intelligent Vehicle Initiative.” Public Roads (Sept.- Oct. 1997): 18-25.
• Siemens. The Power of Integration; Traffic Management; Driver Information. France: Siemens Automotive S.A., 1994.

THE CASPIAN PIPELINE DECISION

After the break-up of the Soviet Union and the emergence of independent states, the Caspian region has become a magnet of interest for different powers, including China, Russia, Turkey, Iran, and the United States. Five states border the Caspian Sea: Russia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Iran. Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan have vast oil resources around the Caspian Sea, while Turkmenistan has significant natural gas reserves. However, as the region is landlocked, pipelines have to be constructed to transfer these resources to external markets. Since these three states have neither the expertise nor the financial resources for oil exploration, extraction, and transfer, they have to rely on foreign investment. After the pipeline is in place, the cash flow generated by oil and gas exports will be of great importance in the economic development of these states.

But not so fast. The situation has proven to be a very complex one involving the status of the Caspian Sea, regional disputes, and the conflicting economic and political interests of the countries involved. Due to the complexity of the decision and the billions of dollars at stake, the Azerbaijan International Operating Company’s (AIOC) feasibility report was delayed three times last year, which also delayed any decision of the final pipeline route.’1 This article investigates some of the issues surrounding the Caspian oil pipeline debate.

RESERVES

First, just how much oil is lying under the Caspian Basin? Early estimates of around 200 billion barrels predicted that the region would be another Persian Gulf.2 However, exploratory oil wells turned out to be disappointing. A conservative study by the James Baker Institute estimates proven reserves at 15 to 30 billion barrels.3 On the other hand, some experts argue that these numbers are misleadingly low. A reasonable estimate would be somewhere between 60 and 100 billion barrels. More than half of these reserves lies under Kazakhstan, and most of the rest lie elsewhere.4

Two main oil pipelines will be built and brought on line to serve the region up to 2010. At the present time, the only pipeline that has reached the final stages of negotiation is the Caspian Pipeline Consortium (CPC) pipeline for oil from Kazakhstan to the Russian port of Novorossysk.5 After this, the decision concerning the main oil export pipeline route from Baku (Azerbaijan) to a port, from where the oil will be transferred to external markets by tankers, gets complicated. There are competing proposals for this route from Baku, which include6:

• Novorossysk: To the north, a main oil export pipeline across Daghestan and Chechnya to Russia’s port of Novorossysk.

• China: To the east, there is a proposal to build an oil pipeline from eastern Kazakhstan’s Uzen field to western China as part of an overall $9.5 billion deal supported by CNPC, China’s state oil company CNPC.

• Supsa: To the north again, this route links Baku to Supsa, a Georgian port on Black Sea.

• Ceyhan: To the west, oil pipelines transiting from Baku to Ceyhan with links to cross-Caspian lines from oil and gas fields in Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. The route originates in Baku, enters Georgia, and reaches the southern Turkish Mediterranean port of Ceyhan through eastern Turkey.

• Iran: To the south, an oil pipeline from the Caspian states across Iran, to a new port on the Gulf of Oman. Shipping oil by tankers or another alternative from Tabriz to Ceyhan has also been proposed by Iran.

All of these pipeline options are technically possible; most are commercially feasible at some volume. We now turn to the specifics of those routes.

THE ALTERNATIVES

China: This route has not been considered seriously by either the states or the companies. First of all, Chinese companies cannot provide competitive deals, possibly due to the recent economic recession. Second, the pipeline will be much longer and more expensive than the other alternatives. Third, China is primarily linked with Kazakhstan, and for transferring oil from Azerbaijan to Kazakhstan (or directly to China) some real challenges remain: the pipeline has to pass either under the Caspian Sea (which is itself highly questionable, given the debate over the Caspian Sea’s status) or pass through disputed territories. Fourth, Asian markets are not the best place to export oil, since European markets will probably pay more.7

Supsa: For early oil, TEKFEN (a Turkish construction company) began construction of a 380 km. pipeline from Baku to Supsa. But as this pipeline, completed and opened in April 1999, will not be sufficient for the main export, a larger one along the same route should be built. Should this route be chosen, it will be the shortest route and, not surprisingly, the cheapest. Its price tag is $1.2 billion.8 The construction cost may be lower if the pipeline passes trough Armenia, rather than going around it. However, the long-lasting conflict between Azerbaijan and Armenia makes this unlikely.

On the other hand, Georgia is not an ideal pipeline-transit country. Since achieving its independence in 1991, numerous territorial conflicts and separatist movements have taken place, all of which increase the risk of pipeline sabotage and other political risks. Russia currently supplies military support to Abkhazia in its independence struggle against the Georgian government.9 With the reestablishment of Russia’s extensive military basing rights in Georgia, the support apparently ceased, but most experts argue that Russia is still supporting, either directly or tacitly, regional instability to block pipeline alternatives through Georgia and to promote its own route (Novorossisk).

Another problem with the Supsa route relates to the Bosphorous Straits of Turkey. According to the 1936 Montreux Convention, tanker passage through the Straits is free. However, Turkey points to tightening political and physical constraints, as well as sharply increasing tanker accidents threatening the environment in Istanbul,’10 its most populated city. Turkey can certainly make the passage extremely difficult for tankers within the convention, by requiring extensive precautionary measures and removing their passage priority, causing tankers to wait for days before passing through the Straits. Most experts argue that Turkey is using the straits as a political lever to promote its own route (Ceyhan). But still, this uncertainty adds another variable to the calculation of pipeline companies.

Novorossisk: The 452 km. pipeline,11 which is estimated to cost $2 billion,12 starts at Baku, reaches the Russian Black Sea port of Novorossisk across Daghestan and Chechnya. Although cheap, this pipeline still faces the Straits problem mentioned above.

Although avoiding Georgia, this route has its own problems. Disagreements on distributing transit fees between Russia’s central and regional authorities may hinder negotiations. Russia does not have a particularly bright history regarding pipeline management. Moreover, the transfer may be subject to frequent disruptions due to instability in the north Caucasus. If Russia decides to bypass Chechnyian territories by an extension through Daghestan, there will be an added risk of pipeline sabotage by the Chechens.13 All these, when added to overcrowded port facilities and poor weather conditions at Novorossisk, make this route even less attractive.

Furthermore, there are political and economic factors to consider. From an influence point of view, most Central Asian republics have been under Russian influence for centuries. They still have economic, cultural, and military ties with Russia, which is anxious to maintain its influence in these republics for both security and economic reasons. Those republics dependent on Russia will pose much less danger, not to mention benefits from economic relations. On the other hand, the Central Asian republics want to be less and less dependent on Russia and discover their own identity by stepping out of the shadow of a now-defunct empire. Not surprisingly, the Azerbaijan government has expressed its reluctance concerning the Novorossisk route more than once. From a strategic point of view, Russia wants to keep her monopoly for oil transfer in the region so that it can be used as a strategic lever in the future. Economically, transit fees will be more than welcome in an economically depressed Russia. Furthermore, Russia will be able to purchase at lower rates than those in the international markets.

Ceyhan: The total length will be approximately 1,730 km (468 km in Azerbaijan, 225 km in Georgia, and 1,037 km in Turkey14). It is also an expensive alternative; estimates place its total cost at around $3 billion. The latest feasibility study, undertaken by a German company, put a price tag of $2.3 billion.15 The oil will serve to offset Turkey’s energy shortages, as well as giving it the economic advantage of transit fees.

The Ceyhan route has been favored by Azerbaijan, which wants to avoid giving Russia any influence over its resources. Azerbaijan is also seeking to avoid the proliferation of political Islam (from Iran) in Azerbaijan, thus undermining the possibility of an Iranian route. As for the Supsa route, it has the same Straits problem mentioned above. Thus, President Haydar Aliyev has repeatedly and publicly expressed his willingness for the Ceyhan route.14 However, his final decision will depend on the AIOC’s feasibility report. It is therefore considered unlikely that he will insist on Ceyhan route, if companies find the Ceyhan route to be economically less attractive. After all, the companies and not Azerbaijan are going to pay for the construction. The final route decision therefore will be a joint decision of the AIOC and President Aliyev.

The United States has also been publicly favoring the Ceyhan route.16 The reasoning is as follows:

• The pipeline goes directly into the Mediterranean Sea, thus avoiding straits and the Persian Gulf. This will serve to of the supply of energy, which is an American goal. So far, a significant number of major fields lie in the Persian Gulf; unfortunately, the United States does not have the best of relations with some of the states in that region. Russia already has control over Kazakh oil and it would be unwise to leave Azeri oil to the Russian monopoly.

• Turkey has been the United States’ ally in the region for a long time, and is closer to United States than Russia and Iran.

• As a democratic country and a supporter of free-market economies, Turkey’s influence on the Central Asian republics would be much more positive than that of Russia and Iran. The proliferation of Iranian-style political Islam may be particularly dangerous, whereas Turkey’s secular version of Islam is much more preferred, according to the Clinton administration.

From a security viewpoint, the Turkish Army has been securing eastern Anatolia since 1998 against the activities of the Kurdish terrorist organization PKK. The organization’s leader Abdullah Ocalan was recently captured in Kenya, which has considerably improved the prospects for regional security. On the other hand, Georgia’s problem with instability is also valid for Ceyhan.

Iran: Iran has proposed several routes. In general, those routes are less expensive than Ceyhan but more expensive than the other alternatives. There are no acute instabilities in the region. However, American sanctions directly affect Caspian pipeline development in Iran, notably through the Iran-Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA). The goal of the 1996 law is to press for a change in Iran’s foreign policy, which was widely criticized as being supportive of terrorism and weapons proliferation as well as undermining the Middle East peace process. In practical terms, the ILSA prohibits direct foreign investment in Iran’s energy capability and infrastructure, and applies to America business as well as third parties.17

The United States remains strongly opposed to an Iranian route. As mentioned, such a route is not in the best interest of Azerbaijan either, due to the concerns of Iranian-style political Islam.

CONCLUSION

In recognition of the growing stress on the Ceyhan route, Georgia has aligned with Turkey, Azerbaijan, and the United States to push for the Ceyhan alternative. On the other hand, Armenia has aligned with Russia and Iran to oppose the Ceyhan route (or for that matter, any route) that will benefit Azerbaijan (its enemy). The Armenian government argues that Azerbaijan will use the money from oil exports to increase its military build-up against Armenia. Iran and Russia are opposing the Ceyhan route, for rules out their own routes. As clearly seen, Russia, Armenia, and Iran have no common interest whatsoever, except blocking the Ceyhan route to promote their own conflicting interests.

On the other hand, companies are in an awkward situation. The United States and Azerbaijan are increasing their political power on the companies for the Ceyhan route, whereas companies find this route more expensive when compared to other options. They also argue that current proven oil reserves do not justify the construction of such an expensive pipeline. They say that the oil found may never be able to fill the pipeline. Another factor is that oil prices are at their lowest level in 20 years. The expenses will not be justified unless oil export profits justify the main export pipeline expenses. Thus, they are playing a wait-and-see game, to see whether more oil will be found or whether oil prices will increase. The debates around the Caspian pipeline are likely to continue next year, and a win-win deal involving all the Caspian states seems nowhere near.

FOOTNOTES

1. David Filipov, “Caspian Port’s Oil Gush Trickling,” Boston Globe, 10 February 1999, sec. A, p. 1.
2. R. E. Manning and J. A. Meyers, “Dream of Oil Drives Diplomacy,” Los Angeles Times, 1 November 1998, sec. M, p. 2.
3. The James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy, “Unlocking the Assets: Energy, and the Future of Central Asia and the Caucasus. A Political, Economic and Cultural Analysis,” Rice University Research Report (April 1998): 1.
4. The Energy Information Administration, “International Energy Outlook: 1998,” Research Report (1998): 34. http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo98/home.html
5. Heslin, S., Key Constraints to Caspian Pipeline Development: Status, Significance and Outlook. Research Report for The James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy, Rice University (1998): 4.
6. Ibid., 4, 5.
7. The James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy, “Unlocking the Assets,” 3.
8. http://www.gasandoil.com/goc/contract/cox7l803.htm
9. H. Cemal, “Petrol Cografyasinda Yeni Kavsak Noktasi Turkiye,” Sabah Turkish Daily Newspaper, 3 October 1998.
10. Heslin, Key Constraints to Caspian Pipeline Development, 16.
11. “Kazakhstan Approves an Oil Pipeline Study,” Journal of Commerce, 30 October 1998, sec. A, p. 10.
12. Cemal, “Petrol Cografyasinda Yeni Kavsak Noktasi Turkiye.”
13. Heslin, Key Constraints to Caspian Pipeline Development, 7.
14. “Five Nations Endorse Caspian Oil Pipeline,” San Francisco Chronicle, 30 October 1998, sec. A, p. 14.
15. “Baku Ceyhan’a bir adim daha,” Yeni Yuzyil Turkish Daily Newspaper, 7 July 1998.
16. “Four Former Soviet Republics Join Turkey on Pipeline,” The Orlando Sentinel, 30 October 1998, sec. A, p. 20.
17. “U.S. Has Impact on Pipeline Route from Caspian Sea,’ Wall Street Journal, 30 October 1998, sec. A, p. 17.
18. Heslin, Key Constraints to Caspian Pipeline Development, 17-19.

You would indeed have a lot to calculate before taking off: What is the most economical flight speed of your aircraft, and how does it vary with winds, flight altitude, and the extra weight of fuel reserves? Perhaps the gliding performance of your aircraft is good enough to permit you to travel some distances by soaring in up- draughts, with the engine off. It may even be economical to make detours in order to stay over regions with strong up-draughts. Would it be favourable to bring along large fuel reserves and fly non-stop for long distances without refuelling, or to travel by numerous short flights, saving transport costs for extra fuel? To solve that problem, you have to know about possible refuelling stations along your route, about petrol prices, landing fees, and the time delay you will face by landing at a particular site.

Which is the optimal route to your destination? Perhaps it pays to follow the Great Circle, or should you make a detour where you can benefit from favourable winds? Of course, you will fly only on days when the weather is as favourable as possible, but which is the best weather? And how can you know which weather condition is most favourable for you? What flight altitude will you prefer under different weather conditions? You must also consider whether and how you will compensate for wind drift, when to fly low along coast-lines and other leading-lines to gain protection from the wind and avoid drift, and how to exploit the winds at high altitudes. And you must also take into account many unpredictable situations that you will face. There are lots of questions and you would spend a long time looking up facts and making calculations before you could arrive at a reasonable strategy for your flight.

Your situation is analogous to that of migrating birds. The migratory strategy of birds, a harmonious mixture of rigid and flexible behaviour to achieve a safe and economical journey which can be affected by a bewildering number of factors, is an astonishing feat – where do they get the skills and capabilities to accomplish it?

There are many animals, not only birds, which migrate on a regular basis. Some examples: Bull elephant seals travel 21,000 km (over 12,000 miles) each year, from California to the Gulf of Alaska, the longest migration of any mammal. Millions of monarch butterflies fly 2,000-3,000 km from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. Grey whales swim 10,000 km from the Arctic Ocean to California and Mexico. In Bracken Cave in Texas 20 million free-tailed bats assemble every summer. All are female. They leave their mates 1500 km to the south in Mexico to come here to give birth to their young. Herring migrate annually and cover over 3,000 km. The bison, the wildebeest, the sockeye salmon, the eel are also known to migrate long distances. But here we will consider the migration of birds – one of the most impressive feats in animal behaviour- across thousands of kilometres of ecological barriers, like oceans, mountains and deserts.

Birds store fat for use as fuel during their migratory flights. They start to do so well before migration starts. Stored fat is the most economical type of fuel in terms of high oxidizing energy per unit mass. Once the animal is in the right condition to migrate, it may need some further environmental cues to initiate the actual migratory movement. A bird may wait for the right weather conditions or at least the disappearance of the wrong ones, such as fog or very strong winds.

In order to locate its goal at a different position on the earth’s surface, an animal must possess certain sensory systems and have certain decision-making programmes in its behaviour. The ability to take up a particular direction with respect to some feature or property of the environment is called orientation’. The orienting animal is rather like a man who possesses a compass and an instruction to proceed in some particular direction. Animals may orient with respect to objects on the earth’s surface, to the sun, to the stars, to the earth’s magnetic field, to the directions of current flow and so on. Further, they may use more than one of these environmental sources of information at any one time, and may use different ones at different times.

Birds may use continuous flapping flight or soaring flight. Migration of soaring birds attracts much attention among bird-watchers because of spectacular concentrations of these migrants at passages with favourable soaring conditions. The migrants make long detours to avoid having to use flapping flight over the sea, and the sites most famous for soaring bird migration in Europe, Falsterbo, Gibraltar and the Bosphorus, are situated at minimal sea crossings. Migrants’ coasting behaviour probably is part of their ‘strategy’ to exploit winds and conserve energy at the same time. Coastal migration occurs mainly under opposed and cross-winds, while migrants usually fly across the coast and depart over the open sea with following winds. Due to differences in friction, winds generally are stronger over the sea than over land. Migrants minimize the headwind force by following the coast, where they can use local topography and vegetation to gain additional protection from the wind. Furthermore, over the sea they will be exposed to wind drift, and under certain cross-winds it is beneficial to follow a coastline, some distance in the direction of their goal, rather than to take a direct route over the sea.

Some birds travel by numerous short flights, each of about three to ten hours duration. Many species depart either by day or by night, whenever weather becomes favourable. Flying with a small load of fat is advantageous, since the labour costs for carrying the extra fat can be high. However, there are also drawbacks involved in migrating by numerous short flights: the birds have to refuel often and find suitable resting sites on their route.

Some species undertake enormous non-stop flights. A regular migration route from North to South America directly over the Western Atlantic Ocean, a distance between 3,000-4,000 km, is used by many species. Just to mention some examples of long, nonstop flights over oceans other than the Atlantic: there are some geese that fly almost 4,000 km across the Pacific Ocean from the Alaska Peninsula to the South Californian coast; two species of New Zealand cuckoos fly about 3,500 km to the Solomon and Samoa islands; passerines, bee-eaters and Amur falcons travel almost 3,000 km of the Indian Ocean between India and East Africa.

Many migrants fly between Europe and Africa across the Mediterranean Sea and the Sahara desert in one single non-stop flight, lasting at least 40 hours in the autumn, when winds are generally favourable, and 60 hours in spring when they are less favourable.

Honey buzzards migrate by cross-country soaring over a distance of 7000 km from Europe to tropical Africa without refuelling. Common buzzards cover a distance of 10000 km between East Europe/West Siberia and South Africa by soaring migration. Many young Manx shear waders, in their autumn flight from Britain to Brazil, cover almost 0,000 km without refuelling. Various water species wintering in South Africa cover the total distance to their high Arctic Eurasian breeding grounds, about 13,000 km, in four or so long flights.

Arctic terns are transglobal travellers on a scale unequalled by any other migrant. Some annually commute between the Northern and Southern pack ice, crossing the equator twice. The round trip must be at least 40,000 km (25,000 miles).

Low temperatures seem not to prevent birds from migrating at high altitudes, The highest migrants over Puerto Rico experience temperatures of about –12 C, and over Switzerland migration is perfectly regular at altitudes with temperatures around -IC to -15 C. In fact, the birds’ capacity to fly under conditions of low temperature and low oxygen pressure is so great as to be hardly credible: On 9 December 1967, a radar controller in Northern Ireland reported an echo at high altitude moving south over the Hebrides. The radar height finder indicated an altitude between 8,000 and 8,500 m. The pilot of an aircraft in the vicinity was asked by radio to make a course deviation to pass near the position of the echo. In doing so, the pilot reported a flock of about 30 swans at just over 8,200 m. The observation probably refers to whopper swans, which are known to migrate, sometimes in the middle of the winter; from Iceland to Britain. At 8,200 m, the temperature was -48 C and very strong northerly tailwinds blew at this altitude.

Although, according to some radar studies, probably 90% of birds travel below 2,000 m, two small flocks close behind each other of curlew-like birds were observed at I 0,000 m above sea level.

These observations, indeed, are extraordinary. One wonders, are such enormous flight altitudes merely exceptional or do some birds regularly migrate that high?

We tend to think of events which happen regularly, as ‘normal’ or ‘ordinary’. But are they really? Very often, we do not realize the dimensions of the events. Hundreds of millions of birds migrate from one place to another. Tens of thousands of birds start to fly together. They fly very long distances together and land and feed together. Many of them have never flown that long, nor been to those places. But still they are able to fight against all the odds and finish their journey How do they know when to start? How do they recognize the landscape? How do they decide which route to take? How do they find their way to their destination? How do they know where they can find food? How come so many birds can act together? How and when did they learn to use the sun and other stars, or the earth’s magnetic field, for navigation? How did they acquire the necessary means in the first place?

There are numerous such questions to ask and very often, it is not easy to find the right answers. When the other migrating animals are taken into account, the questions get more complicated and more challenging Hundreds of millions of animals migrate twice a year covering thousands of kilometres. We must ask questions which start with how and why and not take ‘ordinary’ events for granted.