Being a native Indian tree, the Moringa also grows in tropical countries, such as Nigeria. Although its leaves have long been eaten or brewed for health benefits, its effectiveness has not yet been recognized in other parts of the world. Often called the “miracle plant,” there has been a significant amount of research done on the therapeutic properties of the moringa, and this research will hopefully spread knowledge of its healing qualities.

The literature mentions its antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial properties. Its leaves contain high-quality protein, and the seeds have lipid (fat) in abundance [1]. That is why moringa has a great deal of calcium, potassium, sodium, and iron [2]. It is claimed that moringa has twelve times more vitamin C than oranges, ten times more vitamin A than carrots, seventeen times more calcium than milk, nine times more protein than yogurt, and twenty-five times more iron than spinach.

Moringa is used to treat more than 300 illnesses, especially in Africa. The ancient Egyptians used it as skin cream. Since then, more and more of its cosmetic benefits have been discovered, and it has found a unique place among health-care products today [3]. Moringa is used to accelerate hair growth; treat illnesses such as excessive hair oil, dandruff, and inflammation of the scalp; treat skin wrinkles, blackheads, and pimples in the skin; and to manage eczema and psoriasis. To determine the plant’s ultimate effectiveness, more research and lab work are needed.

After oil extraction, moringa’s seeds and leftovers are used as an organic fertilizer which increases farming efficiency [4]. The seeds, leaves, oil, sap, shells, roots, and flowers are also used for cooking and treatment. The leaves of the plant can be brewed as tea and can be eaten raw as a vegetable.

More than 400 studies carried out over many years have looked into moringa’s effects on illnesses [5]. The significant findings can be summarized as follows: it has been shown to strongly reduce [6] cholesterol and blood fat as well as the atherosclerotic plaques; this effect can even be achieved with the oral consumption of the plant. When peeled, the moringa fruit’s shell reveals a soft white seed, like a chickpea-sized cotton. The seed can be consumed by swallowing it. The moringa’s roots and branches can be grounded and used as powder.

The studies have also revealed that moringa’s usage can help with improving numerous conditions, including but not limited to liver infections such as hepatitis [7], lowering the glucose levels in blood in patients with Diabetes Type-2 [8], various gastrointestinal problems, increasing milk production in nursing mothers, regulating kidney functions, Parkinson’s disease [9], and atopic dermatitis [10].

Some of the studies carried out examine how safe moringa is. People have a general inclination towards consuming natural plants without paying attention to how much they intake. Unfortunately, there are many life threatening and poisonous plants – and other plants that can be dangerous when taken in large quantities. Trying to identify the safety range of moringa, a study that lasted for 14 days examined the effects of it on mice that had depression and used anti-depressants. Researchers found out that moringa does not cause toxicity, provided that the dose does not exceed 2 grams per 2.2 pounds of weight [11]. It would be wise to utilize this plant after the testing process has been completed on humans, and a guide is prepared to show the types of illnesses and the corresponding doses.

Illness is a fact of life. Thankfully, the universe has been created with plants like moringa, which can be used to ease our pains and illnesses. We owe it to ourselves, and to other humans, to study all facets of the universe, including the moringa plant.

References

1. Stohs SJ, Hartman MJ. Review of the Safety and Efficacy of Moringa oleifera. Phytother Res. 2015 Jun;29(6):796-804.
2. Raimunda S, Nogueira B, Jamille AS et al. Research advances on the multiple uses of Moringa oleifera: A sustainable alternative for socially neglected population. Asian Pac J Trop Med 2017;10:621-30.
3. Fahey J. Moringa oleifera: a review of the medical evidence for its nutritional, therapeutic, and prophylactic properties. Trees Life J 2005;1:1-33.
4. Emmanuel SA, Emmanuel BS, Zaku, SG, Thomas SA. Biodiversity and agricultural productivity enhancement in Nigeria: Application of processed Moringa oleifera seeds for improved organic farming. Biol J N Am 2011;2:867-71.
5. Matic I1, Guidi A2, Kenzo M3, Mattei M2, Galgani A2, Investigation of medicinal plants traditionally used as dietary supplements: A review on Moringa oleifera. J Public Health Afr. 2018 Dec 21;9(3):841. doi: 10.4081/jphia.2018.841. eCollection 2018 Dec 21.
6. Chumark P, Khunawat P, Sanvarinda Y, et al. The in vitro and ex vivo antioxidant properties, hypolipidaemic and antiatherosclerotic activities of water extract of Moringa oleifera Lam. leaves. J Ethnopharmacol 2008;116:439-46.
7. Almatrafi MM, Vergara-Jimenez M, Murillo AG, et al. Moringa Leaves Prevent Hepatic Lipid Accumulation and Inflammation in Guinea Pigs by Reducing the Expression of Genes Involved in Lipid Metabolism. Int J Mol Sci 2017;18:E1330.
8. Kumari DJ. Hypoglycaemic effect of Moringa oleifera and Azadirachta indica in type 2 diabees mellitus. Bioscan 2010;5:211-4.
9. Giacoppo S, Rajan TS, De Nicola GR, et al. The Isothiocyanate Isolated from Moringa oleifera Shows Potent Anti- Inflammatory Activity in the Treatment of Murine Subacute Parkinson’s Disease. Rejuvenation Res 2017;20:50-63.
10. Choi EJ, Debnath T, Tang Y, et al. Topical application of Moringa oleifera leaf extract ameliorates experimentally induced atopic dermatitis by the regulation of Th1/Th2/Th17 balance. Biomed Pharmacother 2016;84:870- 7.
11. Kaur G1, Invally M1, Sanzagiri R1, Buttar HS2. Evaluation of the antidepressant activity of Moringa oleifera alone and in combination with fluoxetine. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2015 Oct-Dec;6(4):273-9. doi: 10.4103/0975-9476.172384.

Like all omnivorous foods, peppers – both hot and sweet – have been created in unique, wise ways to make them appealing to eat and to help reproduce.

Plants and their fruits are sustenance for herbivores, including humans. They are often brightly colored – be it red, orange, yellow, purple, or green, inviting us to a delicious food. But not all plants are meant to be eaten. Indeed, some plants are designed to be unappetizing, either through look or smell; some even have thorns, or sticky, hairy surfaces to deter us from eating them. Another remarkable way that plants are protected against herbivores is the presence of unique chemicals that induce vomiting and pain, or may be toxic.

Many edible plants need to be eaten – it’s how they spread their seeds. Thus, they produce juicy, tasty skin and sweet-smelling aromas. Why, then, are hot peppers different? Though they are nicely colored and juicy, and sweet smelling, they are also hot, and not terribly pleasant for animals to eat.

A recent study at New Mexico State University’s Chile Pepper Institute determined the hottest chili to be the Trinidad Moruga Scorpion Chili. It was chosen from among 125 varieties. Researchers dried and ground it to powder, to isolate its active compound. This way, they were able to determine that the Trinidad Moruga Scorpion reaches about 1.2 million units on the Scoville heat scale. It is so potent that it could induce sweating and tears, and of course puts the mouth on fire.

Figure 1. Molecular mechanism of TRPV receptor activated by capsaicin. TRPVs are located on the surface of nerve cells where they normally respond to changes in temperature by releasing calcium ions. Those ions signal to intracellular machinery to fire nerve action to inform the brain about increased levels of heat. Capsaicin in hot peppers mimics this system, and thus fools brain to think mouth is hot.

What make hot peppers hot?

Animals are equipped with receptors, like TRPV1 in the mouth’s nerve endings, which sense heat. Hot peppers produce a chemical called capsaicin. Capsaicin binds to and activates TRPV1 receptors; thus we feel a heat similar to a burning sensation. In reality, capsaicin does not actually increase the temperature in the mouth, but instead mimics the same process (Figure 1). Since capsaicin mainly dissolves in oil instead of water, drinking water does not help much to get rid of the burning sensation. Cold water provides only temporary aid. However, the drinking of ayran (a Turkish yogurt drink) relieves hotness by removing capsaicin due to the presence of oil in ayran. Interestingly, although mammals have receptors for capsaicin, scientists have recently discovered that birds don’t.

Capsaicin deters mammalian consumption

It is an interesting phenomenon that peppers are hot but need to be eaten to propagate their seeds in different environments, which is done through the droppings of animals. If this is the case, why are hot peppers made unpleasant with capsaicin? To figure out the wisdom behind this contradiction, Joshua Tewksbury performed a study with a group of mice and birds, and found that birds do not distinguish between sweet and hot peppers in their diet. In this study, both mice and birds ate the same amount when fed with food mixed with sweet peppers. However, mice refused to eat foods mixed with hot peppers, while birds happily ate such food. Moreover, analysis of the droppings of birds and mice showed that the seeds passed through the bird’s digestion systems were intact and fully fertile and could germinate, while seeds eaten by mice were either crushed or semi digested so that they were not fertile. Thus, the role of capsaicin in hot peppers is to deter mammals that destroy their seeds while not disturbing birds. This is a great example of ingenious interdependence.

Capsaicin as antifungal agent of peppers

Figure 2. Capsaicin is not only protective against mammals but also fungus contaminations. A) Insects make peppers prone to fungus contamination by causing harm. B) Healthy pepper C) A pepper with fungal contamination. Modified Image from Tewksbury lab.

The infinite wisdom of capsaicin protects peppers against fungus as well. Another study by Tewksbury showed that hot peppers are relatively protected against fungal infections. Tewksbury demonstrated that increased doses of capsaicin inhibit the growth of fungus. This finding is in parallel with lower fungus growth in hot peppers compared to sweet peppers.

But what about insects? How could peppers be protected from insects?

Adaptations against insects

Interestingly, the skins of hot and sweet peppers have different levels of thickness. It has been suggested that this gives an advantage to sweet peppers. Furthermore, this protective layer is made of lignin, which is made of the same material as capsaicin and helps to protect from other threats. This allows peppers to adapt to many different environments. For instance, in the presence of fungal contamination, a pepper might be able to produce more capsaicin and decrease lignin production, or vice versa.

Why do we like to eat hot peppers then?

Humans differ from mammals in their love of hot peppers. There are different explanations why we like to eat hot peppers, despite them being painful. Some experts assert that hot peppers are good for our health by lowering blood pressure, having antimicrobial effects, and increasing salivation thus making a boring diet fun. On the other hand, some experts approach it from the perspective of human emotions and argue that we are actually after the pain produced by hot peppers. In addition, there are some studies suggesting that capsaicin could also suppress other pains.

Hot pepper or capsaicin as pain suppressor

Capsaicin in hot peppers could be used as a pain suppressor, as some studies suggested. A study using mice lacking TRPV1 heat receptors showed that the increased long term activation of TRPV1 by capsaicin could relieve pain following the accumulation of high doses of Ca2+ in the cells. This is accomplished by the suppression of both cellular activities and the transmission of pain through nerves.

Hot peppers are hot and we love them. It seems like we will continue consuming them. As every other art of creation, hot or sweet peppers are likely to have many more levels of wisdom awaiting us to discover.

References

• Tewksbury Lab. Retrieved from: http://faculty.washington.edu/tewksjj/res_pai.html on 18.2.2012.
• Yalgın. Ç. 2012. Acı biberler niye acı? (Why Are Peppers Hot?) Açık Bilim. Retrieved from: http://www.acikbilim.com on 18.2.2012.
• Zivkovic, B. 2006. Hot peppers – Why are they hot? A Blog Around The Clock.

In the northern hemisphere, where annual average rainfall is around 100 kg per square meter in cold and dry regions, boreal forests, with needle-leaf trees, dominate. The southern hemisphere is dominated by savanna; bushes and meadows occupy millions of hectares.. In these regions, natural fires can be the most important factor of ecosystem changes. When looking at the results of these fires, it sometimes seems they were preprogrammed as to when, where, and how they spread.

Examples of fire dependent ecosystems

The cone of the Jack Pine species (Pinus banksiana), which is widely distributed throughout North American forests, requires absolute forest fire in order to release its seeds. The cone of this species can remain on the trees without releasing seeds for years because of climate and the resin layer covering it. Seeds preserved in the cones wait for the next fire; the cone’s scales open with the heat generated during such a fire. The seeds then start their journey towards a piece of soil that they can grow into. Here the role of fire is very important, not only for the dispersal of seeds but also in preparation of germination. The high humidity and low temperatures in the forests of these regions delays the decomposition of fallen leaves. This layer of dead material over the mineral soil is another hindrance for seeds to meet the soil. When scales of the cones open with the help of forest fire, this thick layer of dead leaves is also removed, having burned down to create fertile new soil.

Another example of fire benefiting plants is the chaparral vegetation of the North American forest. This type of plant cover is composed of short, perennial wooden plants and annual non-woody plants. During the hot, dry weather of summer, this vegetative cover becomes particularly vulnerable to fire. A dark black cover composed of unburned parts, frames, and ashes of the plants is left behind. This sight, which is saddening at first, actually hides various beauties in it, and these beauties only emerge after a series of events.

Golden eardrops (Dicentra chrysantha), which is a member of the perennial Chaparral family, is deeply affected by fire. The seed of this plant requires a fire event in the germination season and should be exposed to smoke for at least 10 minutes.

The positive effects of forest fires can also be seen in the healthy survival of an ecosystem. Due to its thick bark, the widely distributed Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), of North America, is minimally affected by the low, medium level cover fires that happen every five to twenty years. The weak and unhealthy individuals in this dense forest get burned as a result of natural forest fires, leaving healthy, thick barked trees. This way, possible epidemics of harmful forest organisms, via these unhealthy trees, is prevented. In the meantime, due to periodic fires, dead cover, or fallen and dead trees are removed, thus preventing bigger fires.

In the eastern Mediterranean, brutia pine, yellow pine, black pine, aleppo pine, and stone pine can are widely distributed. Among these, brutia pine is spread across a wide area, especially in most fire sensitive regions. It is created with a thicker bark around the trunk compared to other pines. This species can be minimally impacted from low and medium level cover fires. On the other hand, seeds in the cones of brutia pine are thrown far away by the heat of the fire, reaching fertile germinating grounds, thus helping to spread the forest.

References

• Fuller, M. 1991. Forest Fires: An Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior, Management, Firefighting, and Prevention, SD421.F84, Wiley & Sons, Inc., NY, pp. 238.
• Keeley, J. E. 2007. “Chaparral and Fire,” Fremontia, Volume 35:4, pp. 16-21.
• Bond, W. J., Wilgen, B.W. 1996. Fire and Plants, SE18HN, UK, Chapman & Hall, UK, pp. 259.

In this issue we examine diverse topics from astronomy to art, from dialogue to genetics. On reading the lead article, you will be filled with hope that once those “who are spiritually alert with faith, hope, and tenacity” roll up their sleeves ready for work, the true message of Islam will be revealed to everyone in the world, for Islam is “a combination of systems that is perfectly compatible with human nature and rich enough to meet all the material and spiritual needs of humanity.”

Although we see it every day as the source of light and heat above us, most of us do not know that the sun is like an “enormous piano with ten million notes.” “The Trembling Sun” expounds on how helioseismologists gather important information about the sun’s core by studying the echoes that appear on the sun’s surface from the energy produced by these ten million notes.

From the macrocosmic sounds of the sun we move on to studying the marvelous microcosmic world of seeds in “Tiny, With A Great Mission,” which is a contemplative piece on how seeds are equipped with all the necessary information, how are they programmed to become the plant they are meant to be, and so on. In “Will and Balance in Nourishment,” we learn that there is no limit to the absorption of foods that have high calories (lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins), and that this can lead to being overweight. However, in the absorption of minerals, the rules of dynamic balance occur in our intestines, regardless of our will, by the help and mercy of God. The former becomes a test of our appetite, while the latter is a measure divinely installed in our body to protect us from various malfunctions. A similar protective mechanism is found in the DNA, our genetic coding. “A Miraculous Mechanism: DNA Repair” lists various precautions to prevent DNA damage, such as detection by sensor proteins, the damage checkpoint process, and apoptosis.

We are grateful to the authors for their contributions, and owe a special thanks to Ozge Ozturk, Hacer Sartepe, and Sermed Ogretim for their help in producing this issue.

Many important characteristics exist in seeds. Seeds are equipped with all the necessary information about the branches and leaves of the plant which they will become, as well as the number and shape of these leaves. Within the seed is programmed the color, fineness or thickness of the bark, the number and width of the tubes that carry food and water, whether the plant will bear fruit or not, and if it bears fruit, the taste, smell, shape and color of this fruit. Even information about how the plant will react to a negative condition in the environment during normal development is registered in this program. For example, a plant that would normally develop under ideal climatic conditions is programmed to produce seeds in a short term to protect reproduction under unsuitable conditions like drought and great heat. God is He Who splits the seed-grain and the fruit-stone (so that they germinate by His command). He brings forth the living from the dead, and He is One Who brings forth the dead from the living; such is God: how then are you turned away from the truth and make false claims? (An’am 6:95)

If we consider the growth process of the plant from a seed that is equipped with perfect information, we can see that once the appropriate conditions have been created the seed first germinates and then the body and leaves are formed on this stem. When the time is right, flowers form in keeping with the divine order. The flowers that later form the fruit and seeds for further plants are either brought together with their own pollen (cleistogamy or self-pollenization) or with other pollen from another plant of the same type (cross-pollination) in a perfectly organized system. Self-pollenization occurs either before the flower opens or after the pollen has developed. Because the pistil and stamens of some plants are hidden by some other parts of the plant, it is difficult for the pollen to reach here, so the plant obeys what is ordered and self-pollinates.

In cross-pollination, plants use the pollen from another plant of their own species. Pollen transportation occurs with the help of the wind, rain or insects that visit flowers.

The flowers of many plants that are pollinated by the wind and rain are very modest in appearance, but they have been created in a way to produce pollen in abundance. Although most of the pollen that is carried away by the wind and rain are destroyed, this lost pollen organically enriches the soil and at least some of this pollen will find a flower to pollinate. Our Lord has bestowed those flowers that are pollinated by insects with various colors and shapes to attract these visitors. During pollination, the pollen of flowers that have less pollen than the self-pollinating flowers are carried by bees and other insects, whose legs, wings, and antennae have been created specifically for this task, as they have been inspired (Nahl 16:68–69). Nectar and pollen are the reward for these insects which provide pollination.

Bees are the most important group among the insects that carry out the task of pollination. When bees are mentioned, most people think of the honeybee, but bumblebees also serve mankind. In addition to the products they offer to us, bees are indispensable for their contributions to plant reproduction.

Bees store the nectar they have sucked from the flowers in a “honey stomach” and then empty this nectar into a honeycomb as honey. The bees legs, granted to them by the Creator, allows them in their duty of collecting pollen. The back legs of the bees are different from that of all other insects. The long hairs that are aligned on these stocky legs act almost like a basket to collect the pollen.

Of the 82 plant types that meet 90% of the human food needs around the world, 63 (77%) are pollinated by bees; without bees it would be impossible for these plants to produce seed. Bees are absolutely necessary for the formation of seeds in plants that we eat, like apples, pears, peaches, apricots, cherries, melons, watermelons or pumpkins, or indeed in those used in industry, like sunflowers, safflowers, rapeseed, cotton, or sugar beets, or those used for feeding livestock, like clover, sainfoin, red clover, or vetch. This task carried out by bee pollination every year throughout the world is much more important than the production of honey. Moreover, bees make life possible for animals from thousands of species who use these plants as food or shelter. We should not forget the connection Einstein drew between the disappearance of the bees from the ecosystem and Doomsday.

Another vital mission entrusted to bees is the prevention of erosion. Plants that need the pollination of bees, like members of the Asteraceae, Boraginaceae, Brassicaceae, Campanulaceae, Compositae and Fabaceae families, are widespread in areas were there are serious threats of erosion. Similarly, feed crops, which are very important in feeding livestock and preserving the ecological balance, also need insects for pollination. In plants like clover, the upper side of the flower organs is covered by a membrane; in these plants, bees break this membrane to get at the pollen; if it were not for bees, the pollen would remain trapped.

It is by Divine guidance that bees take nectar and pollen from the same type of plants all day. Even if there are other plants which contain more nectar and pollen, bees only stop at the type of flower that it first visited. The fact that bees collect nectar and pollen from the same type of plants all day long shows that this is not something they do randomly.

Like many other living things in the universe bees are in service to mankind, operating under the rules set by the Lord of the Worlds. However, activities that are carried out without investigating the meaning of the universe and the wisdom behind the creation of the living things, such as unplanned industrialization, which in turn has lead to an increase in air pollution, or the careless use of chemical materials, are the reason for a decrease in the population of bees, day by day. Never mind the wars and fires started by mankind, any venture that may cause the bees to disappear could lead to the destruction of mankind; if the bees become extinct, mankind will face many disasters, like erosion, desertification and the extinction of plants which are food for us and for the animals we raise.

In his collection of Lem’alar (The Flashes), he dedicates an important section to the story of the prophet Job (Ayyub), who suffered from severe illnesses. Through this story Nursi speaks of the problem of suffering and how it is perceived from a theological perspective. He refers to the Qur’anic verse: “And (remember) Job, when he called upon his Lord saying: ‘affliction has touched me and You are the most Merciful of the merciful’” (21:83). In this story, Job’s illness cleansed his soul while his body suffered. In this way, Job’s suffering served his spiritual healing. Nursi comments on this, saying that an illness is not only physical, but it can also be spiritual. He says, “If our inner being was to be turned outward and our outer being turned inward, we would appear more wounded and diseased than Job.” Nursi continues, “Every sin that we commit, every doubt that comes to our mind, inflicts wounds on our heart and spirit.” Job’s wounds were threatening his worldly life; our spiritual wounds, often, threaten our eternal lives. Because of this we must say a prayer that is one-thousand greater than that of Job. We, like Job, need this prayer, even if we are healthy in body.

Nursi divides disasters into two types. The true disaster, according to Nursi, is the religious disaster. For example, if a Muslim abandons their faithful performance of their religious obligations this would be a religious disaster, and is graver than any physical disaster. Another example that can be given is the harboring doubts; for example, one may doubt God’s existence. This too is a religious disaster if these doubts do not ultimately strengthen one’s faith. In such a case, a person should pray to God for His mercy and ask for guidance and deliverance from this affliction.

The second type of disaster is physical, not religious. This type of disaster often acts as a divine reminder. According to Nursi, this type of disaster does not suggest a wrathful God, but rather a merciful God. He gives an example of a shepherd who is concerned about his sheep: If a shepherd throws a stone at his sheep when they trespass on another’s pasture, they understand that the stone was intended as a warning to save them from a perilous action; full of gratitude, they turn back. Nursi similarly states that there are many apparent disasters that in fact remind us of God and awaken us. Some disasters, likewise, cleanse us of our sins. Some disasters remove carelessness and remind people of their weaknesses and vulnerabilities; it is through these events that we experience a kind of divine presence. Nursi, with regard to illnesses, refers to the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad stating that sins fall away through the trembling caused by a fever, just as a tree drops ripened fruit when shaken.

Nursi says that there are three reasons that humans have no right to complain about di-sasters and illnesses. The first one is that God has made human beings a reflection of his art, clothing them with the cloth of existence. God has made people a model for the reflection of His Names. Therefore, the name of God “The All-Healing” is made known through human illness, while the name “The All-Provider” is made known through human hunger. Existence itself is a great bounty from God; that is, it is a great bounty in comparison to non-existence. According to Nursi, through calamity and illness people are purified from their sin and they attain a higher spiritual rank while they leave this world which is in fact a testing ground for human beings. A monotonous and indolent life is closer to non-existence, which is the absolute evil; existence is the absolute good. Life led monotonously on the couch of ease and comfort resembles not so much the pure good that is being, as the pure evil that is non-being; it tends in fact in that direction.

Nursi goes on to elaborate on the fact “worldly life is a place of testing and an abode of service. It is not a place of wages or rewards. Illnesses and disasters, as long as they do not affect belief and are patiently endured, are beneficial and relevant to worship, strengthening and making every hour of life the equivalent of one day of worship. Instead of complaining, one must be thankful.” In Nursi’s understanding, worship is divided into two types: positive worship (the common form of worship with which we are familiar) and negative worship (e.g. being patient in unpleasant conditions). He includes disasters and illnesses in the category of negative worship; it is through these that humans can understand their weaknesses and vulnerabilities. They pray to their Merciful Lord to help them in these matters, thinking of Him and sincerely appealing to Him. Nursi suggests that if a person is aware of these things, and if they think of the reward that God has prepared and remains thankful then their limited life will bear the fruit of an unlimited life. If these are done while suffering, then one minute of this worldly life becomes like one day spent at worship.

In another section, Nursi speaks of the creation of evil, especially the creation of Satan, and how this can be compatible with the wisdom of God, Who is the Owner of infinite beauty and mercy. How could such a One have created Satan, who is evil and ugly? Nursi tells us, “In the creation of Satan, there are minor evils set beside major good goals and human progress toward perfection. Yes, in the capacity of human progress, which is found in the essence of humanity, there are more stages than even those found in the growth of a seed into a tree. One can even say that these stages are as great as the difference between the size of an atom and the Sun. The development of such human capacities requires movement and action. The mechanism for such an action of development is struggle. Such a struggle requires the existence of Satan, demons, and evil things, against which humans must struggle. Otherwise, the stages of humanity would be static, like those of the angels.” Thus, Nursi says, abandoning thousands of good things in order to prevent the occurrence of one evil is not an action of wisdom or justice. Responding to the statement of “the creation of evil is evil, and the creation of ugliness is ugly,” Nursi says “the creation of evil is not evil, but committing evil is evil. This is because creation-either by creating something out of nothing, or through transformation-is to be evaluated in terms of its results. For example, rain has a thousand results, all of which are beautiful. Some people may suffer because of rain as a result of their neglect to take precautions. Yet, despite the fact that some people have suffered, no one can say that rain is not a mercy, that rain is not good. No one can say that the creation of rain is evil. On the contrary, those who suffer have made rain evil for them through their own neglect.” Nursi continues in this vein, using the example of fire. He argues that in the creation of fire there are many benefits. All of them are good. Some people, however, may make fire harmful for themselves and may suffer as a result. Such people cannot say the creation of fire is bad, but rather the way that they employed fire was bad. Fire was not created to harm people, but people often use fire to harm others and themselves. A simple example of this is the person who does not use fire to cook their dinner, but rather puts their hand in the fire, making it harmful. At this point we need to mention that in some acts of God, like the recent tsunami in the Asia, there are many more dimensions involved than just human neglect and any human precaution simply cannot resist Divine Decree.

Nursi elaborates on this subject by raising the problem that there are many people, who under the temptation of evil go astray. Is such a result still good? With regard to this, Nursi draws our attention to the importance of quality and not quantity. He gives an example of planting one thousand and ten seeds, saying that if a thousand of these seeds whither away and only ten survive to grow into trees one cannot say that planting these seeds was bad, even though a thousand seeds were lost. The ten seeds that became trees will result in thousands more seeds. In humanity, many people go astray because of the creation of Satan, but many others, with great qualities, have benefited humanity in extraordinary ways.

According to Nursi, everything that is created in this world is beautiful because it is a reflection of God’s name, “the All-Beautiful.” To support this, he refers to Al-Ghazzali’s famous statement: “In the world of possibility, there is no better one than the current one.” Nursi refers to opposites: There are some evils, yet these are relatively beautiful because they bring to the fore the character of their opposites. “Ugliness that brings out many beauties is relatively beautiful: Ugliness becomes beautiful. If ugliness, through its disappearance, causes the disappearance of many beautiful things, it becomes even uglier. Humans can understand the existence of warmth because there is cold and the existence of light because there is darkness.” Therefore, according to Nursi “through minor evil, harm, misfortune, and ugliness, some important good acts, encompassing benefits, great bounties, and important beauties appear.”

What we deduce from Nursi’s explanations is that Divine Wisdom may allow seemingly evil things, such as catastrophes, to happen. Disasters happen through His knowledge and His natural laws. Even within the greatest di-saster, God is there with His mercy and beauty. He bestows His private bounties upon those who suffer through such catastrophes. The believers who die in these catastrophes are considered to be martyrs, and their lost property is considered as having been (donated to) charity. 

References

• Nursi, S., The Flashes, tr. Sukran Vahide, Sozler Publication, Istanbul: 1995, pp. 21-28.
• Nursi, S., Risale-i Nur Kulliyati, Nesil, Istanbul: 1996, Vol. I, p.582-83
• Ibid., p. 618. 

The creation of evil is in no way evil, it is the committing of evil that is evil. Man is endowed with free will and God enables man’s willed actions. Therefore, it is man’s willing and committing evil that is evil and ugly, not God’s giving objective existence to evil. If God were not to create what man wills, then human free will would be annulled.

Secondly, none of God’s creations are merely one-dimensional, they pertain to the whole universe; therefore any creation should be evaluated according to its aggregate results, not merely to the act itself. To give an example, the results of rain falling are manifold, almost all being useful to mankind. If some people sustain damage from the rain due to their own miscalculation, it is not possible for them to argue that the creation of rain is not a blessing, nor can they claim that its creation is evil. Perhaps rain seems evil to them due to their personal experience. Similarly, there are numerous benefits for mankind in the creation of fire. If some people are harmed by fire due to their failure to use it appropriately they cannot say that the creation of fire is evil. Fire was not created to burn only their hands; perhaps they brought their hands too close to the fire while cooking and made a thing that normally serves us bring them harm.

As a result, a lesser evil is acceptable for the greater good. If an evil which will lead to a greater good is abandoned so that the lesser evil is eliminated, a greater evil will then have been perpetrated. For example, there is certainly some minor material and physical harm and discomfort in the drafting of soldiers to create an army to defend one’s homeland, but in this there is a greater benefit in that the whole country is saved from invasion. If the defense of a country is abandoned in order to avoid such minor discomforts then the greater benefit will be lost and a greater evil will follow. This is most definitely a mistake. Likewise, to amputate a finger that is gangrenous is good and right, although it is ostensibly evil. Yet, if the finger is not amputated then the entire hand will be lost; this is a greater evil.

Thus, the making and the creation of evil, harm, trouble, devils, and other harmful things is not evil or bad; these have been created in order to obtain many important results. For example, devils are not allowed to pester the angels and the angels can therefore not make any advance. Their ranks, although high, are fixed and can never change. Animals cannot make progress either, for the same reason; they maintain their low rank throughout their lives. On the other hand, for human beings there is no end to the ranks to which they can attain, in both directions, high or low. There are countless levels for humans to progress through, from the ranks of the Nimrods and the Pharaohs to the ranks of the saints and the prophets.

Therefore, in order to differentiate and separate those souls which are like coal in their deficiency from those that are like diamonds in being distinguished, an arena of trial, examination, strife, and competition has been established, using the creation of the devils, and the assigning of prophets, thus making humanity accountable for its actions. Were there no struggle and no competition, the coal-like and diamond-like aptitudes in mankind’s disposition would have remained equal. The soul of Abu Bakr the Veracious, who was the highest of the high, would have remained level with that of Abu Jahl, the lowest of the low. As a result, the creation of the devils and evil is neither evil nor ugly as it pertains to grand and cumulative results. Evil and ugly results that arise from individual acts, and perhaps from miscalculations and abuses, should be attributed to man’s acquisition, not to Divine creation.

The following question may come to mind: The majority of humanity has become disbelievers due to the existence of Satan, and hence suffer harm, despite the fact that prophets have been sent. If we judge the state of affairs according to the situation of the majority we must then conclude that the creation of evil is evil as the majority of people are suffering due its existence. We may even be drawn to the conclusion that the sending of prophets was not a blessing after all. Is this not so?

The first thing to say in answer to this question is, quantity is of no significance; we must look at quality. The true majority lies in those of quality. For example, if there are a hundred date-palm seeds that are planted, but not watered and hence they cannot undergo the necessary chemical transformations and demonstrate the struggle for life, then we only have a hundred seeds that have virtually no value. But if instead these seeds are watered and they then partake in the struggle for life, but still eighty out of the hundred rot due to the imperfections inherent in their nature, with only twenty becoming fruit-bearing trees, can we then claim that “watering the seeds was evil because most of them rotted”? Of course we cannot do so, for those twenty seeds will yield twenty thousand more seeds. Therefore, what has caused a loss of eighty and a profit of twenty thousand is not harmful and cannot be called evil.

To give another example, consider a peahen that lays a hundred eggs, each being worth five dollars. If the hen were to incubate those hundred eggs and eighty were to spoil, that would mean that twenty hatch into adults. Can we say that there was a high loss caused by a harmful process, and that therefore incubating is bad by its very nature? No, on the contrary, it is profitable, for these birds lost eighty eggs, worth five dollars each, but gained twenty peacocks worth eighty dollars.

It is in just this way that mankind, by being raised up by the prophets, and by fighting against Satan and their evil-commanding souls, have lost the animal-like members of their race, the disbelievers and hypocrites, who are greater in number but poorer in quality, in exchange for hundreds of thousands of prophets, millions of saints, and billions of men of wisdom and sincerity, who are the suns, moons, and stars of the human world.

Another question that one might want to ask, is that God Almighty sends catastrophes and inflicts us with trials and tribulations; is this not unfair, particularly toward the innocent, even the animals?

The answer to this question is, the sovereignty is His; therefore He reigns over this creation of His as He wishes. Here is a simple example in order to better understand this statement: Imagine that a skilful craftsman hires you as a model. He has you put on a beautiful garment that he has made and in order to demonstrate his skills on it he starts cutting, trimming, shortening, lengthening it and making you sit down or stand as he wishes. Can you tell him that he is making the garment that looks so beautiful on you appear ugly, or that he is tiring you out by making you move all the time? Of course not, he has hired you. Likewise your Maker, All-Glorious, has you put on this fine looking body of yours, which is ornamented with senses, such as hearing, seeing, speaking, etc., and in order to demonstrate the gilding of His various names, He sometimes makes you ill, hungry, thirsty, worried, or sometimes he satisfies you; your life revolves around different states like these. In order to strengthen the essence of life and display the manifestation of His Names, He makes you journey through numerous such conditions. If you say: “Why do you inflict these calamities on me?”, there are several instances of wisdom that will silence you, as in the above analogy.

Another point is that tranquility, stillness, idleness, and monotony are forms of non-existence, and thus are not good states. Action and constant change on the other hand are signs of existence; therefore these are good states. Life finds its perfection through action and it evolves through tribulations. Life encounters various actions through the manifestations of Divine Names and so it becomes purified and fortified; this is how it evolves, expands and becomes the pen with which the determination of its own fate is written, and so deserves to be rewarded in the afterlife.

In this article, we will delve a little deeper into this magnificent miracle of God: the mathematics of nature.

FLOWERS:

For example, look at the pictures given below. For 1-petalled flowers, we offer white calla lilies; for 2-petalled flowers, we offer the very rare euphorbia; and for 3-petalled flowers trilliums, lilies, and irises.

<cellpadding=”15″ cellspacing=”15″>White Calla Lilly

Trilliums

Did you ever wonder why 4-petalled flowers are so rare, and why everyone gets excited when they find a 4-leaf clover? The reason for this is because such flowers are very rare, for 4 is not a Fibonacci number. Some violets and bluets also have 4 petals.

Flowers with 5 petals are rather common. Among them are buttercups, wild roses, larkspurs, and columbines.

Examples of 8-petalled flowers are bloodroots and delphiniums. Examples of 13-petalled flowers are ragworts, corn marigolds, and cinerarias; those with 21 petals are daisies, asters, and chicories; and those with 34 petals are oxeye daisies, sunflowers, plantains, and pyrethrums.

Some families of daisies, such as the michaelmas daisies from the asteraceae family, have 55 and 89 petals.

Seed and flower heads

The echinacea purpura is a member of the daisy family native to the Illinois prairie. You can see in Figure 1 that the orange œpetals seem to form spirals curving both to the left and to the right. At the edge of the picture, if you count those spiraling to the right as you go outwards, you will notice that there are 55 spirals (a Fibonacci number). A little further toward the center, you can count 34 spirals (another Fibonacci number). If you count the spirals going the other way, you will see that the pair of numbers (counting the spirals curving toward the left and toward the right) are neighbors in the Fibonacci number series.

The same happens in many seeds and flower heads, among them sunflower seeds, daisies, pineapples, and pine cones. The reason for this is that such an arrangement packs the optimal number of seeds so that no matter how large the seed head is, the seeds are always packed uniformly at any stage. As they are the same size in any given area, there is no crowding in the center and no scarcity at the edges.

The spirals form a pattern: The œcurvier ones

appear near the center, while the flatter ones, which are more numerous, appear the further out you go. Thus the number of spirals we see in either direction differs according to the size of the flower’s head. On a large flower head, we see more spirals further out than we do near the center. The numbers of spirals in each direction are (almost always) neighboring Fibonacci numbers!

Let’s observe the spirals in these beautiful arts of the Infinite Artist. Consider the daisy. In the close-packed arrangement of tiny florets in the daisy blossom’s core, you can see the phenomenon in an almost two-dimensional form. As shown in Figure 2 there are 21 (a Fibonacci number) counterclockwise spirals and 34 (another Fibonacci number) logarithmic or equiangular spirals. In any daisy, the combination of counterclockwise and clockwise spirals generally consists of successive terms in the Fibonacci sequence.

The Math Behind It

Botanists have shown that plants grow from a single tiny group of cells right at the tip of any branch or twig belonging to a growing plant or tree. This tip is called the meristem. They grow in size after their formation, but new cells are formed only at such growing points. Cells further down the stem expand, and thus cause the growing point to rise. This means that a growing plant produces seeds at the flower’s center, and that those seeds then push the other seeds outward. Each seed settles into a location that turns out to have a specific constant angle of rotation relative to the previous seed. This constant rotation forms the spirals.

Consider the following case. There are n seeds in the arrangement. The nearest seed is seed 1, the next one is seed 2, and so on. If each seed has an area of 1, we have a total area of n and a circle with a radius of from the area formula (Area= ). Given this, the distance from the center to each seed is proportional to the square root of its seed number. If we call this angle alpha, the angle of seed k will be alpha*k. So we can easily describe the location of any seed in polar coordinates with and theta=k*alpha.

If we chose an angle of 0.15 (54A) the result will be far better. But we will be done again after 20 seeds, for 20*0.15=3, so after 3 complete turns we will be back on the same line. If we choose 0.48, which is a little bit better than 0.15, we will come back to the original line in 25 rotations.

Therefore, speaking logically, if we choose an irrational number we will not return to the original line. Of course we will get close to it, since every irrational number has some kind of rational approximation. In nature, we mostly observe the so-called golden ratio, an irrational (1.618 = ), which is the root of the equation , which is the limit of the ratio of two consecutive Fibonacci numbers.

With this angle of rotation, each seed is rotated approximately 1.618 revolutions from the previous seed (i.e., 0.618 revolutions or 0.618*360=222.5A). Notice how well distributed the seeds appear; for there is no clumping and very little wasted space. Although the pattern grows quite large, the distances between neighboring seeds appear to stay constant. In nature, you can see that plants grow their seeds simply where there is the most room.

It is really amazing that a single fixed angle can produce the optimal design no matter how large the plant becomes. For example, once a leaf’s angle is fixed, that leaf will œdo its best not to obscure the leaves below and œdo its best not to be obscured by any leaves that will grow above it. Similarly, once a seed is positioned on a seed head, the new seeds continue to push the older ones out in a straight line. However, it retains the seed head’s original angle. The seeds will always be packed uniformly on the seed head regardless of the head’s size. The principle that a single angle produces uniform packing no matter how much growth appears thereafter was proved mathematically only in 1993 by the French mathematicians Douady and Couder.

We frequently observe the golden ration in nature. In addition, we can try flowers and flowers, at least mathematically and as models.

Conclusion

We look at nature and see God’s creation. Most people just look at the general design, but others also study the seeds and their designs. As the Qur’an’s first verse tells us to œRead, in the sense of reading the signs in nature (the Qur’an was revealed to a largely illiterate people who had no significant body of written literature), we should understand this as an indication to analyze nature.

As a mathematician, I see that God has arranged everything in nature according to a mathematical order. He puts the maximum number of seeds in a minimum area. Bees use hexagons to store the maximum amount of honey in a minimal space. This fact is even mentioned in Qur’an 16:68: Your Lord revealed to the bee. Those who believe in evolution say that the picture is very clear. But there is a great art in front of us, one which is very well balanced and in perfect accord with mathematical harmony. This shows that there is no luck or chance in the world, and that everything is based on the rules that God has laid down for His creation.

Footnote

1. Fibonacci (Leonardo da Pisa, c1175-1250): The son of a Pisan merchant who also served as a customs officer in North Africa. He travelled widely in Barbary (Algeria) and was later sent on business trips to Egypt, Syria, Greece, Sicily and Provence. In 1200 he returned to Pisa and used the knowledge that he had gained on his travels to write Liber abaci, in which he introduced the Latin-speaking world to the decimal number system. Fibonacci numbers begin with 1,1 and the next term is the sum of the two previous terms. The first ones in the series are 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,

References

Mathematics Magazine 75:3 (June 2002): 163-73.

http://ccins.camosun.bc.ca/~jbritton/fibslide/jbfibslide.htm.

G. J. Mitchison, œPhyllotaxis and the Fibonacci Series, Science 1965, 270-75.

P. Stevens, Patterns in Nature (New York: Little Brown and Co.,1974).

Time continues its relentless movement forward at an ever-faster pace. Despite of all the technological advancements and other labor-saving devices that are aimed at making our lives simpler and carefree, we still feel the burden of keeping up-to-date with developments and becoming more productive by using our time wisely. As every day brings more information, it becomes difficult to determine what should have priority and what can be postponed or ignored.

The Fountain seeks to help you with this hard task. Although it is not possible to freeze time, we can lessen its impact by providing you with information designed to help you expand your worldview, to re-interpret spiritual and scientific information so that it becomes personal knowledge. We believe that this knowledge will awaken a desire in your mind and heart, which will transform it into wisdom.

In this issue, we present an article on the relation between healing and faith. At the end of the millennium, many scientists began to move away from the traditional mechanical methods of the universe. Ordinary Americans and people across the world are increasingly exhibiting a strong interest in alternative medicines, such as acupuncture, meditation, herbal foods supplements and drinks, and a wish to find some way around chemical-based medicines that cure only one problem only by causing a host of unwelcomed side-effects. The health industry has been conducting research of their own to see if their proponents’ claims have any basis in truth. Also, scientists are more willing to study possible relationships between mind and matter, breaking a long-standing taboo. Psychologists have conducted experiments and research to see if a person’s faith and outlook on life can influence his or her recovery. We consider this a positive trend, for each individual has both spiritual and physical dimensions. Focusing on just one dimension to the total exclusion of the other cannot cure the individual completely. This new holistic approach to solving people’s problems and illnesses should open an entire new branch for medicine.

Another article focuses on humanity’s progress to happiness and decline to misery. Human beings have a special rank in the universe, for they are the only members of creations who can change the face of the world. Using their God-given comprehensive abilities to drive themselves forward, only human beings can change themselves by submitting themselves to God and living as He wants us to live. Thousands of civilizations, both past and present, show us how these abilities can be seeds for peace, understanding, and positive progress, as well as seeds for destruction and desolation. This article sheds light on these issues from a spiritual perspective.

As readers of The Fountain, your expectations are very important to us. Publishing The Fountain is an interactive process-you contribute articles, comments, and support, and we spread your views to a much larger audience than they would otherwise reach. Such an interactive relationship has mutual benefits, and has potential far-reaching results. Any act that has wide support and appeal result in cultural variation and richness, and broadens people’s thoughts, ideas, and intellect. The Fountain is dedicated to playing such a role, and seeks your continued support in this worthwhile effort. Therefore, rest assured that your feedback and articles will find a receptive audience among our staff members.

The Fountain staff is eagerly looking forward to receiving your submissions for our writing competition! We hope that our young scholars will also grab this opportunity to share their knowledge, experience, and outlook on life with people who seek to understand and make sense of the events happening around them, and the ideas and beliefs that give rise to them. Your participation will help us provide answers to those who have these questions.

Enjoy your magazine!

In the industrialised countries biotechnology has been one of the fastest developing and most promising fields of research in recent decades. It is defined as the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to manufacturing and service industries. There are sub-divisions within biotechnology — such as fermenter technology, genetic engineering, enzyme technology, environmental technology, animal and plant biotechnology. In this article, we will look briefly at some topics in plant biotechnology which deals with the building- blocks of agriculture, horticulture, and the food, chemical and pharmacological industries. Already, commercially important applications of plant biotechnology such as transgenic vegetables and fruits, insecticide-resistant corn and cotton, herbicide-resistant beans and synthetic seeds have begun to appear in the market-places of America, Japan and Europe. This trend is set to expand dramatically in the coming decade.

Molecular biology

Molecular biology tools figure importantly in plant biotechnology. Plant breeders are trying to discover and determine the best combination of the genetic characters in different plants with the help of Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisim (RFLP) techniques. The aim is to identify desirable characters and their precise location on chromosomes. Then, recombinant DNA technology can be applied to transfer a particular gene into a plant cell so as to alter and improve its original character. This technique enables us to, for example, produce flowers of a specified shape and colour or plants which secrete anti-fungal and anti- insect proteins.

The Human Genome Prced(HGP) is one of the grandest scientific projects of the end of the 20th century. The location, functions and base sequences of all human genes will be identified and the information used for diagnostic purposes such as controlling cancer or ageing genes. There is another, comparable project on model plant Aribidopsis which contains the smallest genome size in. The gene sequences of Aribidopsis are expected to have been fully mapped in ten years time. Japanese scientists are trying to determine the gene sequences of rice by using the mRNAs. Plant genome projects will be as important as the HGP in the coming century, because understanding the gene structures of plants may, by permitting us to produce ‘new’ genetically enhanced foods, provide the solution to the problem of ensuring food supplies while protecting the environment.

Plants genetically resistant to insects and herbicides

Insect pests and diseases caused by fungal, viral and bacterial pathogens are responsible for substantial losses in crop yields world-wide. The chemical control of insects and fungal pathogens represents a large segment of the crop- protecting business, currently estimated at US$ 8.7 billion annually. The global losses due to insects or diseases, despite extensive use of pesticides, are still 12-13%. Although all plants have some defensive systems to protect against insects and pathogens, the crop varieties used in modern agriculture often lack sufficient resistance. A kind of ‘killer proteins’ secreted by plants and micro-organisms prevent the larval development of insects or fungal and bacterial growths. The ‘killer protein’ genes are transposed to make genetically resistant varieties of such crops as corn, cotton, tomato, yellow squash, tobacco, and other model transgenic plants. For example, transgenic potato plants expressing a synthetic gene from B.thuringiensis sub sp terebrionus at high level exhibited strong resistance to Colorado potato beetle (CPB) in a large number of field trials and have recently been approved for commercial release. Potato growers currently spend US$ 75-100 million annually on the protection of about 480,000 hectares of potato. The CPB resistance potatoes will significantly reduce their use of environmentally undesirable insecticides.

Another example: Roundup is a commonly used herbicide which deactivates one of the chloroplast enzymes and so causes the death of the target plant but which also negatively affects crops. Plant molecular biologists identified a highly expressing enzyme which can defuse the effect of Roundup. This strain has been successfully transferred to some important crop species such as a rice which is now genetically resistant to the Roundup herbicide.

Natural plant metabolites in cell suspension cultures

Plants sometimes produce secondary metabolites (unlike primary metabolites such as DNA and amino acids) to adapt to their environment or to protect themselves from enemies. There are more then 100,000 types of secondary metabolites secreted by many kinds of plants which count as ‘natural products’ used particularly in the dyeing, pharmacology and cosmetic industry, and in insecticide and herbicide production. Some of the secondary metabolites are produced in batch cultures (growing plant cells in suspension medium) in plant biotechnology laboratories. Not all metabolites are in production, only a few and (for the present) economically non-viable metabolites have been produced over the last few decades. However, some metabolites are extremely important such as vincristine and taxol natural products which are used as anticancer drugs in medicine. Taxol is naturally produced by taxus tree (Taxus brevifolia), and costs approximately US$ 1.6 million kg-i. Taxol can be synthesized in chemistry labs in 52 steps, but is so laborious and expensive as not to hold much hope for commercial application. Vincristine is the rarest alkaloid found (1 part in 5 million dry weight) which is naturally produced by Madagascar Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) and it costs US$ 3 million kg-i. Five to six year- old trees are used to extract these ‘fine chemicals’. 250 kg of taxol is needed throughout the world each year. That means we must destroy one million taxol trees every year in order to supply this amount. This is not a cost-efficient or environment friendly process. Today, some economically less important chemicals are produced in bioreactors but, as yet, valuable Chemicals like taxol and vincristine are still waiting for the development of economically viable in vitro production techniques. If that aim is achieved, destroying trees for extraction will stop, production will be increased and prices come down.

‘Edible vaccine production in transgenic plants

Plant and animal protein structures are almost similar. Today, micro-organisms are used to produce vaccines. However, plants can easily be made to produce some pharmacalogically important antigens, and can economically be used as an alternative method. For instance, the production of hepatic B surface antigen (HBsAg) was expressed by transgenic tobacco plant. Although the expression level was low, HBsAg was expressed with similar physical properties to the serum-derived protein. The antigen extracted from tobacco has recently been demonstrated successfully in mice.

There are some other reports on vaccine production against cholera and malaria by transgenic plants. The demonstration that vaccine antigens can provide new opportunities for bio-farming of vaccines, If the antigens were orally active, food-based ‘edible vaccines’ could allow economical production and delivery in developing countries. Astonishingly, the vaccines containing edible plants may be developed and will be commercially available, and in the very near future, children in developing countries will be eating tailor-made polysaccharide containing potato as a nutrient, as well as a vaccine to protect them from cholera. The ‘edible vaccine’ plant foods will be one of the most amazing new products of the next century.

Micro-propagation and somatic embryogenesis

Plant cells unlike animals, have the potential, known as totipotency, to make individual plant organisms. Plants can be regenerated in biotechnology labs by the help of tissue culture techniques. Natural seeds are generally heterogeneous and lose desired characters in their phenotypes. Therefore, seed manufacturers produce homozygous (wild type) products but this is time-consuming and uneconomical. Plant biotechnologists are dealing with this problem by regenerating the plant in vitro. Micro-propagation and somatic embryogenesis are two principal ways of plant regeneration in vitro.

Micro-propagation involves the germination of seeds, cutting axillary buds of regenerants and then distributing on solid media to get new regenerated plants. Thousands of similar genomic structure regenerants can be produced by this technique. Although this technique needs less labour and money on a small scale, there are some technical problems in scaling up.

There is an alternative but less known somatic embryogenesis technique. It offers the production of ‘synthetic seeds’ in vitro on a large scales. A few model plant synthetic seeds such as carrot, alfalfa, spruce and celery have been successfully achieved in bio-industries. This technique involves the production of large numbers of synthetic seeds and then their encapsulation by variety gels. Subsequently, the synthetic seeds grow successfully in greenhouses. The aim in this field is to achieve large scale production of economically important plant seeds containing desirable characters.

Ethics

The question of what the effects will be of transgenic products on human health and on nature still remains unanswered. Should we answer this question now or should we wait until we see the bad consequences? It is our view that this question should be answered by scientists, philosophers and lay people before the products are released onto the market.

It is my belief that the earth has enough resources to provide the well-being of its human population, and human beings can enhance these resources by sensitive application of the new technologies, some aspects of which we have just looked at. However, some of the major problems of food supply and environmental degradation arise not from the lack of resources but from inequalities in access to and distribution of those resources, not least of which is the resource of knowledge and technology. If we are to use the new technologies for the benefit of human beings generally, without destroying the environment we all share, the political and social problems of distribution and transfer of technologies must be addressed. We need to live co-operatively and collaboratively both with ourselves and with our planet.

References 

• Mason H. S. & Amtzen C. J. (1994)‘Transgenic Plants as Vaccine Production System’, Trends In Biotechnology (Elsveir Trends Journals). 13(9), pp.388-392.
• Onishi N., Sakamato Y. & Hirosawa T.(1994) ‘Synthetic Seeds as an Application of Mass Production of Somatic Embryos, Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture (Kluwer Academic Publications), 39, pp.137-48.
• Pezzuta J., (1996) ‘Taxol Production in Plant Cell Culture Comes of age’. Nature Biotechnology, 14, p.1063.
• Shah M.D.. Rommens C.M T. & Beachy R.N. (1994) ‘Resistance to Diseases and Insects in Transgenic Plants: Progress and Applications to Agriculture’, Trends In Biotechnology (Elsveir Trends Journals), 13(9), pp.362-7.
• Smith J.E. (1981) Biotechnology, Edward Arnold Ltd, London, pp.1-6.
• Stogkigt J., Obitz P., Falkenhagen H.,Lutterbach R. & Endress S. (1995) ‘Natural Products And Enzymes From Plant Cell Cultures’, Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture (Kluwer Academic Publications), 43. pp.97- 105.