The fascinating aspect of these materials stems from the fact that when certain particles or devices are manufactured on the nanometer size region by means of special chemical and physical methods, they start showing distinct properties dependent on size, shape, and elemental compositions (such as huge amount of light absorption/emission, plasmonic resonance, high surface area, ability to convert light into heat, desirable magnetic properties, etc). Each of these features have found many applications in technology and they provide superior properties when compared to conventional materials. This article will not cover each technology based on nanomaterials but rather focus on the medical aspects and applications of nanotechnology and the direction it is heading.

Nano-medicine is a novel branch of nanotechnology seeking to deliver medically relevant drugs and imaging agents to the desired sites of the body. Biomedical imaging and drug delivery fields are benefitting from nanotechnology to a greater extent because not only do nanomaterials provide unprecedented results in diagnosis and therapies, considerable amounts of incentives in the form of governmental and private funding also drive topnotch institutions and scientists to study these materials around globe. For instance, iron oxide—when designed and manufactured on the nanometer order—can compete with, if not replace, most of the commercial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents due to some of its attributes, (i.e., being much more sensitive) requiring a less amount compared to other contrast agents, non-toxic to humans, and easy to manipulate in terms of its chemistry (1). Nanometer-sized spherical and rod-shaped Cadmium/Tellerium/Lead sulfides and selenides, also known as “Quantum Dots,” can absorb and emit light from ultra-violet (UV) to infrared region (IR) and this phenomenon could be utilized to construct biomedical sensors capable of detecting biologically relevant species (such as blood glucose, tumor markers, hormones, and etc.) with great accuracy and speed (2). Even by using multiple colors emitting “Quantum Dots,” one can, in principle, detect more than one biological entity simultaneously. Furthermore, their superior emissive properties could be harnessed to develop sensitive and selective fluorescence imaging techniques and assays which can lead to simple and early diagnosis of diseases. Gold nanorods, if irradiated with IR lasers, can generate extreme local temperatures in the surrounding medium owing to “plasmonic resonance of surface electrons,” and this feature could be directed to killing of localized tumor tissues known as “Photothermal Theraphy” (3).

Another class of nanomaterial called liposomes (4) can actually mimic lipid bilayer of the cell membrane which gives rise to a protective layer around organelles and nucleus, and maintains the transport of ions and molecules in and out of the cell. Synthetic liposomes, strikingly, can accommodate various cargoes extending from drugs to imaging agents in their inner cavity and render controlled release of its cargo as it circulates in the body, thereby providing longer bio-availability.

One of the most alluring uses of nanoparticle formulations in cancer therapy is their dimension. Certain sizes of nanoparticles can permeate into tumoral sites and be retained in that region longer than small particles or molecules. This extraordinary feature of nanoparticles, called “enhanced permeability and retention effect” (5), was utilized with liposomes to deliver chemotherapeutics to cancerous tissues effectively in a slow and controlled manner. In addition, chemical malleability of nanoparticles give rise to smart formulations which could respond to external stimuli in drug delivery applications. For example, the fact that cancer cells have lower pH values as compared to normal cells has been used to trigger release and delivery of drugs on site (6).

An alternative approach to conventional treatments is gene therapy in which the malfunctioning or mutant gene has been reintroduced into cells with a properly functioning one in order to restore the malady (7). Nanoparticles, especially polymeric counterparts, have shown promising results in encapsulating, carrying and delivering the gene of interest into desired cells.

Apart from synthetic nanoparticles, naturally occurring nanoparticles, have lately received great attention due to their unique structures and properties such as biocompatibility, uniform size, as well as suitability to chemical and genetic engineering. Plant and bacterial viruses, known as viral nanoparticles (8), have been tested for imaging and drug delivery applications, and because they infect only plants and bacteria, they are considered to be benign towards mammalians. Their inner and outer amino acids could be chemically modified with drugs and imaging modalities and cleverly engineered drug release mechanism could be invoked to operate upon external or internal stimulus.

Nanomaterials are, furthermore, suitable candidates for vaccine development. The immune system normally recognizes certain chemical groups on the surface of antigens (pathogens) and develops its defense mechanism based on this recognition. Multiple copies of these chemical groups could be chemically tailored around the surface of nanomaterial, and thereby could trigger the same immune response more efficiently (9).

The future of medicine will be shaped and enhanced through a targeted delivery of drugs and imaging contrasts into desired sites. Promisingly, nanoparticles will be able to assist in this regard to a considerable extent. Today’s cancer chemotherapy rely mostly on administering a variety of cancer drugs via intravenous (injecting through the vein) or oral means which delivers drugs to cancer cells as well as a considerable amount to healthy tissues which causes major side effects. In order to accumulate higher doses of drugs in tumor cells selectively and minimize nonspecific delivery, nanoparticles loaded with drugs and chemically decorated with “smart molecules” which have the ability to recognize cancer cells and specifically bind to them have been designed and tested successfully (10). These smart groups (organic molecules, antibodies, peptides and small molecules), surprisingly, have higher binding affinities toward some receptors over-expressed in cancer cells. Furthermore, encapsulation of drugs by nanomaterials provides a protective shell which prevents leakage of drugs to other sites.

An important drawback of cancer therapy is drug resistance in which cancer cells develop mechanisms to pump chemotherapeutics out of cells and decreases the efficacy of drugs. Nanoparticles, however, invalidate these resistance mechanisms by encapsulating drugs and should therefore not be exposed directly to surrounding cell environment. When nanoparticles reach the desired destination in the cell, an engineered mechanism or stimulus augment the release and drugs are expected to show their activity without any compromise (11).

It is fascinating to see how these small nanoparticles behave cleverly and orderly even though they look like inanimate and unconscious clusters of atoms. The extraordinary art, design and engineering witnessed in macro dimensions can also be seen in nano dimensions which means that a conscious and purposeful Hand of Power is present and visible in this nanoworld.

To sum up, nanomaterials could be ideal platforms for drug delivery and imaging applications and could complement the deficiencies in conventional therapies. Loading multiple copies of these entities into nanoparticles and devising clever mechanisms to target and deliver them into desired sites would be key elements in the nanomedicine of the future. We are living in a world where each of us has someone in our families or among our friends who are going through painful cancer treatments, which is a heart-rending and traumatic experience. Hopefully, nanomaterial-based therapies would give rise to solutions and success in battling against cancer. For in one prophetic tradition the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, says: “O servants of God! Search for ways for treatment of illnesses. If God gives you ailments, for sure He bestows upon you cures for those.”

And why can’t this bestowal be in the nano form?

References

• Qiao RR, Yang CH, Gao MY. “Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles: from preparations to in vivo MRI applications” (vol 19, pg 6274, 2009). J Mater Chem 2009;19:9286-9286.
• Raymo FM, Yildiz I. “Luminescent chemosensors based on semiconductor quantum dots.” Phys Chem Chem Phys 2007;9:2036-2043.
• Giljohann DA, Seferos DS, Daniel WL, Massich MD, Patel PC, Mirkin CA. “Gold Nanoparticles for Biology and Medicine.” Angew Chem Int Edit 2010;49:3280-3294.
• Jesorka A, Orwar O. “Liposomes: Technologies and Analytical Applications.” Annu Rev Anal Chem 2008;1:801-832.
• Sancey L, Barbier E, Hirsjarvi S et al. “Enhanced Permeability and Retention (EPR) effect in tumors: characterization by MRI and fluorescence imaging.” B Cancer 2011;98:S67-S67.
• Hruby M, Konak C, Ulbrich K. “Polymeric micellar pH-sensitive drug delivery system for doxorubicin.” J Control Release 2005;103:137-148.
• Waehler R, Russell SJ, Curiel DT. “Engineering targeted viral vectors for gene therapy.” Nat Rev Genet 2007;8:573-587.
• Yildiz I, Shukla S, Steinmetz NF. “Applications of viral nanoparticles in medicine.” Curr Opin Biotech 2011;22:901-908.
• Peek LJ, Middaugh CR, Berkland C. “Nanotechnology in vaccine delivery.” Adv Drug Deliver Rev 2008;60:915-928.
• Ruoslahti E, Bhatia SN, Sailor MJ. “Targeting of drugs and nanoparticles to tumors.” J Cell Biol 2010;188:759-768.
• Liang XJ, Chen C, Zhao Y, Wang PC. “Circumventing tumor resistance to chemotherapy by nanotechnology.” Methods Mol Biol 2010;596:467-88.

The point of this article is not who hates who. Rather, we want to learn why people become angry with others who have different skin colors,

religions, or thoughts. This nightmare, known as racism, has been the source of great and frequent violence throughout history.

Who Was the First Racist?

The first racist was Satan, for he hated Adam. According to Qur’an 17:61: All angels prostrated [before Adam], except Iblis [Satan]. He asked: Shall I prostrate to one whom You made from clay? What was Satan’s biggest mistake? Instead of accepting the reality of diversity in creation, he sought to justify his rejection of Adam. He assumed and asserted that he was nobler than Adam. He did not ponder who decides everyone’s color, nation, and social environment, but justified his racist superiority: [God] asked: Why did you not prostrate when I commanded you? [Satan] replied: I am nobler than him. You created me from fire, but You created him from clay (7:12).

Since this early racist dialectic, all racist groups and their followers have used similar arguments to justify their beliefs and prove that they are the best. The result of such an effort has been a very bloody history.

We are living in a period of rapid change. Due to the global media, these changes affect everyone. Hate organizations use the media to expand their reach in totally new ways. Of course, this is not new: In Italy, in 1922, Benito Mussolini understood the power of the brand-new medium, radio, and he began to use it as soon as it was electronically possible in his country. Some years later he was quoted as saying, ˜If it weren’t for radio, I wouldn’t have the power over the Italian people that I have.(2)

In recent years, the Internet has become a major tool for extremist propaganda. Time columnist John Cloud makes a significant point:

He is absolutely right, for creating hate-filled Web sites is easier and cheaper than taking risks, such as public demonstrations and protests. Don Black, founder of a famous racist Web site, learned in jail how to use the Internet to spread his message. He started a Web site, which at last count had been visited by over 3 million people. It even has sections for women and children.

How Do Such Sites Affect People?

A recent race crime horrified the nation. On June 7, 1998, William King and his friends kidnapped James Byrd, an African-American, tied him to their truck, and dragged him to his death. How can a person become a racist murder? While covering the story, the American media found several reasons, among them that a hate group had agitated King while he was in jail. The Christian Science Monitor interviewed Clara Byrd-Taylor, Byrd’s sister, to get insight into King’s personality: After the dragging death of Texan James Byrd, his sister decided that he would not die in vain. She set out to discover what could have nurtured the hate that killed her brother. She found it on the Internet. ˜Prior to the death of my brother,’ Clara Byrd-Taylor says, ˜I had very little knowledge about the hate sites and what was happening with the hate groups around the world. I had heard isolated incidents, but I had not put all those things together.'(4) There are now over 600 hate Web sites, most of them targeted specifically at young people. The Internet and rock music are two key attractions for youth. CD and Web sites have presented young people with music mixed with advocacy of violence and racial separation Resistance Records, in Detroit, identified as a neo-Nazi music label, sells about 50,000 albums a year through its Web site.(5) Why are youths chosen as targets? Nowadays, more people feel lonely even though they live and interact with people all the time, such as in the workplace. But sharing social and moral values with some communities, like family, has been forgotten. People are losing themselves and, as a result, seeking a new identity that might solve their individual and social crises. Many young people feel isolated by the social structure, and so face an identity crisis. They feel alone, insecure, and abandoned. Music about violence offers messages that highlight the importance of rebelling against social discipline and authority. Being a part of the group and against others is a way to obtain a new social identity for many young people, who see everything in black and white. This is a very complicated problem without a clear solution. Many academic researchers and human rights groups are trying to learn how to overcome hate propaganda on the media. For instance, the Southern Poverty Law Center declared 10 ways to fight racism. They are as follows(6):

Act. Apathy is interpreted as acceptance.

Unite. Join those who oppose hate and work to eliminate it.

Support the Victims. Let victims know that you care, and report any hate directed toward you or people you know.

Do Your Homework. Learn how to identify hate groups and spread this knowledge to others.

Create an Alternative. Find another outlet for anger and frustration, and capitalize on people’s desire to do something

Speak Up. Expose and denounce hate wherever and whenever you can.

Lobby Leaders. Persuade political, business, and community leaders to take a stand against hate in the interest of their reputations and businesses.

Look Long Range.Create a bias response team and celebrate your community’s diversity and harmony.

Teach Tolerance. Bias is learned early, usually at home. Sponsor an I have a dream contest. Target youths who may be tempted by skinheads or other hate groups.

Dig Deeper. Study divisive issues so that you can determine your own prejudices, and then work to eliminate social prejudice.

Defining Censorship

One of the most contentious media-related issues is defining censorship. Governments are responsible for protecting their citizens from racist groups and propaganda. For instance, Canada and Germany are trying to catch people who use the media, including personal Web sites, to spread hate. But there is still one vital question that must be answered: Who defines protecting the people, especially the young, and protecting the freedom of speech? Prohibiting such speech is not the answer, because governments have abused this authority throughout history. Besides, modern technology and its products almost have eliminated the importance of physical borders as tools for governmental control.

What You Can Do

If you are involved in education or business, work to get your employers to focus on cultural diversity as a valuable human resource. Schools are many children’s first direct exposure to different cultures and peoples. The business sector often brings people who otherwise would not meet each other into close contact, thereby dispelling stereotypes. If handled correctly, deep biases can be destroyed in both children and adults. In addition, the importance of peace must be taught and reinforced in the home, school, workplace, and everywhere else. Create your own anti-hate Web site. Spread the information provided by such anti-hate organization Web sites as:

www.angelfire.com/on2/EvasGarden/AntiHate.html

http://earnestman.tripod.com/forewarned.htm,www.kcmetro.cc.mo.us/multicultural/pages/anti.htm,

and

http://users.westnet.gr/~cgian/hatred1_frame.html.

Subscribe to their publications, donate money or time, and participate in their activities whenever possible. Protest all radio programs and music that encourage this nightmare of modern times. Explain to your children why you oppose their listening to such programs or music. Sponsors and producers are not immune to public outcry and negative publicity. Remind the mainstream media that it has the vital responsibility of showing its audience how to live together without hate. If religious or racial discrimination are tolerated or even encouraged, the media only reinforces negative or distorted images and racism. Establish or join coalitions devoted to fighting hate messages. Explain to others that you do so in order to create a better future for everyone by trying to prevent the racist nightmare from destroying our good dreams for the future.

Footnotes

1. The Southern Poverty Law Center, Ten Ways to Fight Hate: A Community Response Guide. Online at: www.splcenter.org.
2. Robert L. Hilliard and Michael C. Keith, Waves of Rancor: Turning in the Radical Right (M. E. Sharpe: 1999), 20.
3. John Cloud, Trading White Sheets for Pinstripes, Time Magazine (8 March 1999).
4. Gloria Goodale, HBO Exposes Hate Groups in Cyberspace, The Christian Science Monitor (20 October 2000), 20.
5. Hilliard and Keith, Waves of Rancor, 55.
6. The full text is available online at: www.splcenter.org/intelligenceproject/ip-index.html.

The Internet is a whole new world for everyone. If your children are not online, they probably will soon be joining the 10 million children already using the Internet.

What Is on the Internet?

Basically, the Internet is a great place for children. The good news is that it offers them educational and rewarding experiences, and that its effective use just might improve their school performance.

There are some disadvantages as well, such as inaccurate information and various inappropriate and uncomfortable information areas. Families and teachers should be aware of this potential problem. Just as parents do not allow their children to wonder alone in unknown territory, they should not allow them to interact on the Internet without parental guidance and supervision.

If parents worry that their children know more about the Internet and computers than they do, they can use this as an opportunity to have their children teach them about the Internet, such as where they like to go and what they like to do. Encourage children to talk about what is good and not-so-good about their Internet experience.

What Are the Risks?

Different Internet tools (e.g., chat, instant messaging, e-mail, news groups, and Web page) offer different kinds of risks and benefits.

Statistically, probably the greatest risk is that children will encounter mean or very unpleasant people in chat areas and news groups. Another risk is that they will spend a lot of time in areas that are not very productive. Other risks might be:

Loss of privacy (legal and financial, password, credit card number and private information)

Getting into online fights

Making threats and breaking the law

Viewing inappropriate material

Getting inaccurate information

Putting people in danger

Getting into drugs, alcohol, tobacco and other dangerous substances

Gambling and other inappropriate behavior.

What Parents Can Do

Keeping children safe on the Internet is everyone’s job. Parents must talk with their children about inappropriate behavior and stay in close touch as their children explore the Internet. By taking responsibility for children’s online computer use, parents can minimize any potential risks. Here are some suggestions:

Spend time online with your children. Your involvement is the best insurance of your children’s safety.

Teach children not to give out personal information (i.e., name, address, school name or address), especially in chat rooms and on bulletin boards.

Share your children’s e-mail account and password.

Teach them not to plan a face-to-face meeting with online acquaintances.

Keep the computer in the family area to better monitor their activity.

Spend time online with your children regularly to learn about their interests and activities.

Teach them how to end any uncomfortable or scary online experience by pressing the back key

Establish an atmosphere of trust and understanding by not blaming them for uncomfortable online experiences.

Discuss the difference between advertising and educational or entertaining content. Show your children examples each.

Tell them not to respond to offensive or dangerous e-mail, chat requests, or communications, and to leave if a Web site makes them uncomfortable.

Tell them to show you anything they receive that makes them uncomfortable.

Remember that anything you read online may not be true.

Explain that people in chat rooms are not always who they say they are.

If you become worried that your children in danger, contact the authorities.

Some Safety Tips to Help Children Online

Do not give out personal information (i.e., last name, phone number, credit card number, address, where you go to school, parent’s work address/phone number) without your parent’s permission.

Tell your parents right away if you come across anything that makes you uncomfortable.

Never send your picture or anything else without first asking your parents.

Never agree to get together with an online friend, without your parent’s permission. Meeting such people is usually a really bad idea. How people are in real life can be very different from how they are online. If you decide to do it anyway, be sure that it is in a public place and bring your parents along.

Do not open up e-mails, files, unknown attachments, or Web pages that you get from people that you do not know or trust.

Always follow your family’s rules for the Internet

Remember that honesty is the best policy. Not everyone believes this, however, so watch yourself when you are in cyberspace. Remember that since you cannot see or hear the other person, it is for a 40-year-old man to present himself as a 12-year-old girl.

Avoid chat rooms or discussion areas that look sketchy or provocative, and do not let people online trick you into thinking of them as real-life friends if you have never met them in person. Also, avoid online fights, because if you are looking for trouble on the Internet you will find it, and things can get out of hand very quickly.

The Internet, the World Wide Web, the information superhighway, and cyberspace describe the newest and most innovative and exciting learning tool of recent years. Remember that it is not the technology, but how it is used, that makes a difference.

Spending time online with your children is one of the best ways to learn and teach responsibility, good conduct, and values that are important to you. Ask your children to share their favorite Web sites and what they like about them. Work with them to discover Web sites that will help them with their homework, hobbies, and other special interests. Also, teach your children to be wise consumers in cyberspace. Not everything they see or hear may be true. Some sites may be trying to sell them something.

The vast majority of Internet sites are perfectly safe. But like the real world, the virtual world contains sites with sexual, violent, and other content that may not be appropriate for children. Since different families have different standards, it is important that parents establish clear Internet guidelines for their children.

If you have a home computer, several software programs are available to block objectionable Web sites. Even if filters were 100 percent effective, however, this software is no substitute for parental guidance. We strongly recommend that you supervise your children’s Internet use, and that you teach them how to make informed choices

References

• CyberAngels, Internet Safety Organization: http://www.cyberangels.org.
• Internet Use Survey: http://www.cyberdialogue. com/products/isg/aius/index.html.
• Safeguarding Our Children United Mothers: http://www.soc-um.org/.
• SafeKids: http://www.safekids.com/.