More Evidence that the Moon Came from the Earth

Will et al. Indigenous noble gases in the Moon’s interior. Science Advances, Aug 2022.

Humankind has always been fascinated with the Moon and studying it for nearly five centuries since Galileo. A recent discovery now adds new evidence to the currently favored “Giant Impact” theory which hypothesizes that the Moon was formed by a massive collision between Earth and another Mars-sized celestial body around 4.5 billion years ago. A group of researchers examined six samples of lunar meteorites collected in Antarctica using an exceptionally sensitive mass spectrometer and found that the meteorites contained noble gases like Neon and Helium, consistent with those found in the Earth’s mantle. Researchers proposed two possible scenarios for how the noble gases became trapped in the Moon’s interior. In the first scenario, impactors got mixed with the lunar mantle during cooling of the magma oceans to solidify over few million years of the Moon’s formation. In the second scenario, the Moon has been formed from a debris field surrounding the Earth where noble gases were directly mixed into the Moon’s interior mass. Discovery of noble gases on the moon may also inform us about its water content, too. If these gases are still there, then water could also been present in the Moon’s interior. Such water resources could be an invaluable resource for future human missions. More broadly, this study suggests that a wide variety of life-forming material can survive giant impacts early in a planet’s life. We now could make more reliable models of how planets and solar systems form and even how life is originated on the Earth.

Restoring cell functions after death?

Andrijevic et al. Cellular recovery after prolonged warm ischaemia of the whole body. Nature, August 2022.

Organ transplantation is an extremely complicated medical process. There is a massive shortage of donor organs. Waiting lists are long. Even if a patient is lucky to match with a donor organ, getting that organ before it dies through cell damage has been a big challenge. A new technology may offer a solution to extend the time that donor organs survive. A group of researchers has recently developed a technology called OrganEx, which can restore cellular activity even after death. Very shortly after the death of an organism, all cells start to die and organs begin to fail. The researchers worked with one hundred pigs to see whether cellular structures could be saved, or cell damage could be reversed, when OrganEx is applied after death. OrganEx has two major components. First is a device that simulates the heart and lung function by pushing a mix of blood and a drug cocktail to the organs. Second is the drug cocktail made of 13 chemical compounds. One hour after death, the pigs were hooked up to the OrganEx machine which pumped the cocktail to the animal’s organs for six hours. The results were striking; OrganEx could restore critical cell functions after death. While this is a huge step for organ preservation, researchers still have to make more tweaks for the technology to be used in humans. Once fully developed, OrganEx is expected to keep organs outside the body for long-term or transported longer distances.

Sweat-powered wearable electronic devices

Liu et al. Microbial biofilms for electricity generation from water evaporation and power to wearables. Nature Communications, July 2022.

Researchers have developed a biofilm that sticks to the skin like a Band-Aid to harness sweat for electricity that could power wearable devices. The biofilm is made using a type of bacteria called “geobacter sulfurreducens” known for its ability to produce electricity. In this biofilm design, bacteria convert energy from evaporation into electricity by using the moisture on a person’s skin. Most strikingly, researchers found that the biofilm bacteria do not need to be fed because they are dead! They do not need to be alive to produce electricity. The biofilm consists of thin sheets of bacteria colonies (thickness less than 0.1 millimeter) that is sandwiched between two mesh electrodes and sealed with a soft, sticky biopolymer to enable it to grip to the skin. Sticking this biofilm on your skin is like plugging in a battery. This technology has potential to revolutionize wearable electronics by solving the major problem of power supply. Moreover, this is a real green energy-driven device made naturally by the microbes and devoid of any unsustainably produced materials and toxic waste byproducts. The current version of the biofilm can produce enough energy to power small devices such as medical sensors or personal electronics, but the researchers hope to explore larger films that can power even more sophisticated devices.

Sometimes, your back itches slightly and scratching it at that perfect spot fills you with an odd sense of happiness. Other times, you notice a biting itch on your arm and a chickpea-like redness shows up there. Oh, those mosquitoes! It is rarely likely to catch a mosquito in the act, and sometimes it even feels as if their bites just appear out of thin air. As you scratch the blister to soothe the itchiness, your eyes scan the room to locate its infamous proboscis. You see it on a wall, plump with the blood it sucked from you. You cannot help thinking: Why do their bites always leave so much itching? Or even, what is the purpose of itching at all?

Itching is an unpleasant feeling we perceive by our skin and mucous membranes, and an occasionally uncomfortable and sometimes very excruciating feeling.

Itching, just like pain, is a sensation intrinsic to our body to protect itself [1].  It is the way our skin “talks” to us. Indeed animals, even fish, itch too. When itched, our skin instinctively and in its own tongue tells us, “There is something that bothers me and I want you to push it away from me immediately!” If it was not for itching, we would not notice a spider walking on our arm. We would not be disturbed by lice and scabies mites or even fungi that settled on our skin, and we would not try to protect ourselves from these pests either.

An ordinary scabies patient has an average number of about 15-20 adult scabies mites on their skin. In the case of Norwegian or crusted scabies, which is most commonly observed among the elderly, the bedridden, people with seriously weakened immune systems, or those who are unable to itch themselves sufficiently, there are thousands of parasites under the thick crusts of the skin [2]. Itching accelerates the blood circulation on the itched parts, and tissues virtually prepare to fight infection by the rushing blood cells and substances [3]. Yet, millions of people also suffer from chronic itching and scratch their itches much more than usual. To understand this, we need to set on a journey from our skin to our brain.

Human skin consists of three layers: epidermis, dermis and subcutis (also known as hypodermis). The dermis layer in the middle makes glove-like protrusions upward into the epidermis. At the top of these protrusions are mechanoreceptors and nerve endings that allow our skin to sense stimulus (such as temperature, sharpness, pressure, vibration, pain, or itching) [3]. With these receptors, our skin functions as one of our five sensory organs and more like an “alarm system” of our body against changing conditions outside. This alarm system has been created so perfectly that each component knows exactly what stimulus to detect.

Previously, it was thought that pain and itching were sensed by the same receptors (nociceptors) and that mild stimuli were responsible for itching while strong stimuli were responsible for pain [4]. Yet, a contradiction existed because while pain triggered an avoidance reflex, itching activated the scratching reflex. In recent years, it was discovered that the receptors (pruriceptors) that perceive the itching sensation on the skin are the free boundary terminations of C-fibers with myelin-free, slow conduction velocity extending in the form of tree branches toward the upper layer of the skin. Furthermore, it was found that the skin cells themselves behave like itch receptors [3, 4]. When we receive a stimulus that induces itching, such as a mosquito bite which leaves anticoagulant substances on our skin, the mast cells in the skin tissue spring to defense against those alien substances. This ensues the secretion of the bodily defense system called mediators, substances that are produced and stored by mast cells as precursor for emergency conditions. Histamine is the most known of these substances and is the most important mediator in itching conditions [5]. Histamine binds to receptors found for itself in myelin-free C fibers that are tasked for detecting itching on the skin. If we consider histamine as a key, the lock that it fits into is on the nerve that senses itching. Thus, the itching nerve is stimulated by histamine.

The nerves receiving this stimulus connect to the spinal cord at their respective levels and transfer the message to another nerve. Each of these transfer processes is mediated neurotransmitters. The last message transmitted to the brain through these nerves is assessed by the brain and labeled as “itching” [6]. The brain determines the coordinates of the itching location and orders the scratching action to the related muscle system. A new journey that conveys messages from the brain to the arm muscles ends with scratching. Considering the swift rubbing action when we feel an ant walking on our face and scratch to push it away, we may value how fast and perfect our brain and transmission system work.

It is also rather odd how soothing itching can be despite its initially uncomfortable feeling, almost as if our body is rewarding us for saving it from a threat. There are several reasons for this contradiction. Scratching causes a low-intensity pain on the skin. Pain and itch are positioned on the skin alternately. The transmission of the sensation of pain is prioritized while the transmission of itching is prevented [7]. Consequently, our brain senses the pain and, in response, secretes the hormone called serotonin to soothe the body. Although this makes us feel relaxed for a short time, the brain continues to transmit virtual sense of itching by connecting to the receptors that are located on the spinal cord along the same nerve path with the receptors for serotonin [8]. This condition, which may be termed as a vicious cycle of itching-scratching, unsurprisingly infuriates patients. Scratching the same area on the skin continuously causes the production of new mediators and oversensitivity of itching nerves, which can thus turn itching into a chronic distress. Chronic itching can often result as a complication from skin diseases such as scabies, lice, eczema, fungal diseases, or drug allergies. It can also result from a systemic disease such as chronic renal failure, cholestatic liver diseases, thyroid problems, iron deficiency anemia, blood diseases and, rarely, cancers [7]. Itching in systemic diseases can be triggered by mediators on the skin but also by neurotransmitters in the intermediate pathway. This kind of itching cannot be controlled by drugs called antihistamines which block the histamine pathway. Sometimes the brain will receive false itching alarms due to post-shingles contraindications or nerve damage in the vertebrae. Such episodes of itching need to be addressed to prevent adverse outcomes. At times, the reason an itch can occur can even be psychological when there seems to be no need for an itch. According to research, scratching activates the brain’s reward center which triggers the addiction mechanism. Patients in that case are thrilled as they itch constantly [9].

As doors in this mysterious journey of science are opened one after another, we discover that nothing has been created without a purpose, including apparently discomforting sensations such as itching, which, it turns out, is how our skin communicates with us!

References

1. Arıcan O. Kasintinin patofizyolojisi, klinigi ve tedavisi Turkderm 2005;39(2):88-97
2. Jonston G, Sladden M. 2005 Scabies: diagnosis and treatment BMJ;17;331(7517):619-22
3. Guyton AC, Hall JE. Tıbbi Fizyoloji 10. Baski 2001.p815-42
4. Schmelz M. Itch and pain. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2010;34(2):171-6
5. Arck P, Raus R. From the Brain-skin connection. Neuroimmunomodulation 2006;13(5-6)347-56
6. Metz M, Stander S. Chronic pruritus pathogenesis clinical aspects and treatment. J Eur Acad Dermatol Veneral 2010;24(11)1249-60
7. Metz M, Grundman S, Stander S. Pruritus: an overview of current concepts. Vet Dermatol 2011;22(2):121-31
8. Chen ZF et all. Descending control of itching transmission by Serotonergic System via 5-HT1A-facilitated GRP-GRPR signaling. Neuron Vol.84(4) Nov.19-2014

9. Chan YH et all. Brain’s Reward Circuits Mediate Itch Relief. A functional MRI Study of Active Scratching. Dec. 2013

Enveloping our body like a piece of clothing, our skin is a miraculous organ that both forms a barrier against potential invaders and plays a crucial role in the maintenance of vital functions. It is a mirror that reflects our experiences, memories, and fate with the lines and marks on it. With a surface area of 1.72 square meters and a weight of approximately 9.6 kg, including the fatty tissue under it, the skin is the largest organ in our body and life cannot possibly be maintained without it.[1] It is through the skin that we learn knives cut, fire burns, and our mother has very soft hands. We don’t even realize, but the skin quietly carries out other numerous functions such as sweating toxins out of the body, maintaining body temperature, and synthesizing vitamin D.[2] Some of these functions are related to the sun and the protection of our body from it.

The sun emits all kinds of rays across the electromagnetic spectrum. The lethal ones among these rays are filtered by the atmosphere that envelops the Earth, so very few of these dangerous rays reach the land.[3] The rays that reach Earth are visible (wavelengths of 400-700 nm) and ultraviolet (wavelengths of 100-400 nm) rays. Ultraviolet radiation comes in three types: UVA, UVB, and UVC.

Having wavelengths of 320-400 nm, UVA rays make up 90% of the UV that reaches Earth’s surface. Regardless of whether it is cloudy or sunny, the same amount of these rays reaches Earth and penetrates as far as the lower layers of the human skin. UVA rays damage the connective tissue under the skin, causing the skin to get old and the formation of free radicals, which indirectly cause DNA damage, hence terminal skin cancers or melanoma. Rays that come in these wavelengths are also largely responsible for allergic reactions on the skin.

With wavelengths of 280-320 nm, UVB rays make up 5-10% of the UV radiation reaching Earth. These rays help with the synthesis of vitamin D but also cause sunburns and the synthesis of melanin in the skin. UVB rays also have a role in mutating genes that prevent growth of tumors, thus leading to the development of skin cancers other than melanoma.

With wavelengths of 100-280 nm, UVC rays are harmful to living things. When they reach the Earth’s atmosphere, UVC rays interact with the oxygen atoms here. This interaction leads to the formation of the ozone layer, which prevents UVC rays from almost never reaching the ground. These dangerous waves have been put into humankind’s service by being employed in the creation of the protective ozone layer.

Ultraviolet rays and the harmful effects of visible light on the skin

There are short-term and long-term effects of UV rays on the skin.

The short-term effects are sunburn, heat stroke, allergic reactions, suntan, and viral diseases such as herpes, which are usually felt shortly after exposure to the sun and can be triggered by suppression of the immune system. The long-term, accumulative effects are photo-aging (the skin getting wrinkly due to solar rays), sunspots, cataracts, and the development of skin cancers.[4]

On the other hand, our skin is not entirely unprotected against the dangerous effects of the sun. The keratin layer in the epidermis, the uppermost layer of the skin, absorbs or disperses light, so the amount of light penetrating into the layers below is significantly lowered. Beta-carotene in the skin along with some enzyme systems reduce free oxygen radicals released after exposure to the sun and thus eliminate solar damage. Likewise, melanin, which gives our skin its color, lies above the nuclei in skin cells and acts as an umbrella that protects the cellular DNA from solar radiation.[5]

Six subgroups of skin types have been determined according to color of the hair, eyes, and skin, as well as the skin’s reaction to solar rays. This classification is widely accepted for identifying risk groups and determining specific protection measures.[6]

Although the number of melanosomes, or melanin-producing cells in the human skin, is the same in all humans, the color of the skin is determined by the genetic differences in the type, amount, and size of melanin pigments. Melonosomes in Europeans are small and light, while those of Africans are larger and darker.[7]

The importance of protection from the sun

The frequency of skin cancer has been increasing, which is precipitated by the fact that the ozone layer has gotten thinner and people are not well informed about UV protection. Many people take beach vacations and sunbathe, do mountain sports, have tanned skin, work in open air professions (such as construction workers, lifeguards, and tour guides), and they do so without much care.

For protection, we should first know that harmful effects of solar rays accumulate over time. The damage caused by the sun is stored in the body, just like change we save in a piggy bank. Unfortunately, we accumulate 40-50% of the total damage we are exposed to in a lifetime in the first quarter of life – that is, during childhood and our teenage years.[8] The skin’s natural protection mechanisms are not fully developed during these periods, nor is our understanding of protection. A research study carried out in Australia has shown that the rate of malign melanoma seen in young people can be reduced by 73% through effective solar protection methods.[9]

The major reason for wrinkles, the primary and fundamental indication of aging skin, is not in fact our age but the sun. UVA and UVB rays break down the connective tissue below the skin, disrupt the skin’s repair mechanisms, and cause skin aging (or photo-aging). Therefore, photo-aging takes place faster and earlier in people who work outside.[10]

{Picture: Photo-aging visible on one side of a truck driver’s face}[11] 

It’s imperative that we begin teaching children and adolescents about UV protection: having suffered five sunburns in childhood and early youth increases the risk of developing melanoma by 80%.[12] Children shouldn’t spend long hours in the midday, summer sun. 

Solar damage isn’t just more likely in children and teenagers, but also in people with skin type 1 or 2 (light skin), red hair, and/or colored eyes (blue); people, especially light-skinned people, with many skin moles; people whose family members have or had skin cancer; those who have a skin disorder triggered by the sun (lupus, dermatomyositis, rosacea); and people who have innate light sensitivity (albino, xeroderma pigmentosum, etc.). All these groups must be particularly careful about protecting themselves from the sun.

What are some ways to protect ourselves from UV Rays? Well, because UV radiation bombards the Earth most intensely at noon during the summer, staying indoors is greatly recommended between the hours of 10:00 am and 4:00 pm.  Additionally, the reflection rate of solar rays is higher by the seaside and in snowy environments.[13]

Wearing appropriate clothes is still the most effective and the least expensive method of sun protection. Clothing can have a solar protection factor (SPF) of 15-30. The level of protection is determined by the type of fabric, number of pores, and type, color, and thickness of weaving. The best clothes are made from cotton, silk, and denim and are unbleached and woven tightly. Wet clothes are more permeable. The use of wide hats, sunglasses, and umbrellas are also important for protection.

In addition to these measures, sun protection creams should also be used. The idea that protection creams will prevent the synthesis of vitamin D, voiced frequently lately, should not prevent the use of sun protection because the solar rays we receive during the day from the face and hands are sufficient for the synthesis of vitamin D. A person should pick a sun cream appropriate for their skin and apply it in sufficient amounts 20 minutes before going out. Babies should be protected through natural means, and physical sun protection should be used for children and pregnant women. A person should reapply sun protection products every two or three hours while outside, and, if planning to swim, they should choose water resistant products.

Besides physical protection that blocks, scatters, or reflects solar rays, there are also skin-absorbable chemical protections with cosmetically accepted formulations that eliminate light by absorbing it.

Generally speaking, a good sun protection should protect against both UVA and UVB rays. It should be cosmetically acceptable, non-toxic, water and perspiration resistant, and at the appropriate SPF (sun protection factor) level. However, because reapplication is required every two to three hours, protection above SPF 50 is the same. Therefore, it is no use buying a more expensive, higher protection product.[14] For people with type 3 skin (darker white skin with gold tone), SPF 30 is sufficient. For light skinned people, children, and pregnant women, however, SPF 50 is recommended.

SPF is the number indicating by how many more times a sunscreen protects the skin against UVB than the skin itself. Skin type is very important in sunscreen choice. The natural protection period of a person with type 1 skin is 5-10 minutes, while it may go up to 90 minutes for a person with type 6 skin. In other words, a light-skinned person gets a sunburn in 5-10 minutes of exposure, while a dark-skinned person may not get one at all. Therefore, these people should not choose products at the same SPF level. For example, if the skin’s self-protection duration is five minutes, a sunscreen with a SPF of 30 provides the same protection for 150 minutes.

Apart from sun protection creams, oral products can also help with sun protection. For example, oral zinc intake is proven to prevent cellular and DNA damage caused by UV radiation. Vitamin C is effective at preventing UVA rays due to its antioxidant properties and vitamin E at preventing UVB rays. In addition, the intake of beta carotene (a precursor of vitamin A) and bioflavonoids (also called vitamin P which generally has effects similar to vitamin C), found in orange and red fruit, protects against UV damage. Polyphenolic compounds in green tea also display protective properties against UV radiation.[15]

Finally, we should remember that using a sun protection product is a small part of our attitude toward your overall protection from the sun. Considering the role of the ozone layer in filtering the sun’s harmful rays, we should protect the perfect balance in the universe and re-evaluate our responsibilities and future actions for the maintenance of this balance.

Notes

[1] livescience.com.

[2] Gilchrest BA. “Sun exposure and vitamin D sufficiency,” Am. J Clin Nutr. August 2008, Vol. 88 # 2 570S-577S.

[3] Understanding UVA and UVB. skincancer.org.

[4] sciencelearn.org.nz.

[5] “The Protective Role of Melanin against UV Damage in Human Skin.” Photochem Photobiol. 2008; 84(3):539-549.

[6] laserdocs.co.uk/easy-way-to-find-out-your-fitzpatrick-skin-type/

[7] Ibid.

[8] Adele CG, Sarah C Wallingford and Penelope M. “Childhood exposure to UV radiation and harmful skin effects: Epidemiological evidence.” Prog Biophys Mol Biol. December 2011, 107(3): 349-355.

[9] Green AC, Williams GC, Logan V, Srutton GM. “Reduced Melanoma after Regular Sunscreen Use: Randomized Trial Follow-Up,” Journal of Clinically Oncology. 20 January 2011, Vol. 29 # 3:257-263.

[10] Fitzpatrick’s Dermatology in General Medicine.

[11] www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMicm1104059.

[12] Markovic SN, Erickson LA, Rao RD, et al. “Malignant Melanoma in the 21^st Century, part 1: Epidemiology, risk factors screening, prevention and diagnosis.” Mayo Clin Proc, 2007; 82: 364-380.

[13] Skin cancer prevention and early detection. www.skincancer.org.

[14] www.dermnetz.org.

[15] Halliwell B. “Free radicals, antioxidants and human disease.” Lancet 1994; 344-:721-724.

Being a native Indian tree, the Moringa also grows in tropical countries, such as Nigeria. Although its leaves have long been eaten or brewed for health benefits, its effectiveness has not yet been recognized in other parts of the world. Often called the “miracle plant,” there has been a significant amount of research done on the therapeutic properties of the moringa, and this research will hopefully spread knowledge of its healing qualities.

The literature mentions its antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial properties. Its leaves contain high-quality protein, and the seeds have lipid (fat) in abundance [1]. That is why moringa has a great deal of calcium, potassium, sodium, and iron [2]. It is claimed that moringa has twelve times more vitamin C than oranges, ten times more vitamin A than carrots, seventeen times more calcium than milk, nine times more protein than yogurt, and twenty-five times more iron than spinach.

Moringa is used to treat more than 300 illnesses, especially in Africa. The ancient Egyptians used it as skin cream. Since then, more and more of its cosmetic benefits have been discovered, and it has found a unique place among health-care products today [3]. Moringa is used to accelerate hair growth; treat illnesses such as excessive hair oil, dandruff, and inflammation of the scalp; treat skin wrinkles, blackheads, and pimples in the skin; and to manage eczema and psoriasis. To determine the plant’s ultimate effectiveness, more research and lab work are needed.

After oil extraction, moringa’s seeds and leftovers are used as an organic fertilizer which increases farming efficiency [4]. The seeds, leaves, oil, sap, shells, roots, and flowers are also used for cooking and treatment. The leaves of the plant can be brewed as tea and can be eaten raw as a vegetable.

More than 400 studies carried out over many years have looked into moringa’s effects on illnesses [5]. The significant findings can be summarized as follows: it has been shown to strongly reduce [6] cholesterol and blood fat as well as the atherosclerotic plaques; this effect can even be achieved with the oral consumption of the plant. When peeled, the moringa fruit’s shell reveals a soft white seed, like a chickpea-sized cotton. The seed can be consumed by swallowing it. The moringa’s roots and branches can be grounded and used as powder.

The studies have also revealed that moringa’s usage can help with improving numerous conditions, including but not limited to liver infections such as hepatitis [7], lowering the glucose levels in blood in patients with Diabetes Type-2 [8], various gastrointestinal problems, increasing milk production in nursing mothers, regulating kidney functions, Parkinson’s disease [9], and atopic dermatitis [10].

Some of the studies carried out examine how safe moringa is. People have a general inclination towards consuming natural plants without paying attention to how much they intake. Unfortunately, there are many life threatening and poisonous plants – and other plants that can be dangerous when taken in large quantities. Trying to identify the safety range of moringa, a study that lasted for 14 days examined the effects of it on mice that had depression and used anti-depressants. Researchers found out that moringa does not cause toxicity, provided that the dose does not exceed 2 grams per 2.2 pounds of weight [11]. It would be wise to utilize this plant after the testing process has been completed on humans, and a guide is prepared to show the types of illnesses and the corresponding doses.

Illness is a fact of life. Thankfully, the universe has been created with plants like moringa, which can be used to ease our pains and illnesses. We owe it to ourselves, and to other humans, to study all facets of the universe, including the moringa plant.

References

1. Stohs SJ, Hartman MJ. Review of the Safety and Efficacy of Moringa oleifera. Phytother Res. 2015 Jun;29(6):796-804.
2. Raimunda S, Nogueira B, Jamille AS et al. Research advances on the multiple uses of Moringa oleifera: A sustainable alternative for socially neglected population. Asian Pac J Trop Med 2017;10:621-30.
3. Fahey J. Moringa oleifera: a review of the medical evidence for its nutritional, therapeutic, and prophylactic properties. Trees Life J 2005;1:1-33.
4. Emmanuel SA, Emmanuel BS, Zaku, SG, Thomas SA. Biodiversity and agricultural productivity enhancement in Nigeria: Application of processed Moringa oleifera seeds for improved organic farming. Biol J N Am 2011;2:867-71.
5. Matic I1, Guidi A2, Kenzo M3, Mattei M2, Galgani A2, Investigation of medicinal plants traditionally used as dietary supplements: A review on Moringa oleifera. J Public Health Afr. 2018 Dec 21;9(3):841. doi: 10.4081/jphia.2018.841. eCollection 2018 Dec 21.
6. Chumark P, Khunawat P, Sanvarinda Y, et al. The in vitro and ex vivo antioxidant properties, hypolipidaemic and antiatherosclerotic activities of water extract of Moringa oleifera Lam. leaves. J Ethnopharmacol 2008;116:439-46.
7. Almatrafi MM, Vergara-Jimenez M, Murillo AG, et al. Moringa Leaves Prevent Hepatic Lipid Accumulation and Inflammation in Guinea Pigs by Reducing the Expression of Genes Involved in Lipid Metabolism. Int J Mol Sci 2017;18:E1330.
8. Kumari DJ. Hypoglycaemic effect of Moringa oleifera and Azadirachta indica in type 2 diabees mellitus. Bioscan 2010;5:211-4.
9. Giacoppo S, Rajan TS, De Nicola GR, et al. The Isothiocyanate Isolated from Moringa oleifera Shows Potent Anti- Inflammatory Activity in the Treatment of Murine Subacute Parkinson’s Disease. Rejuvenation Res 2017;20:50-63.
10. Choi EJ, Debnath T, Tang Y, et al. Topical application of Moringa oleifera leaf extract ameliorates experimentally induced atopic dermatitis by the regulation of Th1/Th2/Th17 balance. Biomed Pharmacother 2016;84:870- 7.
11. Kaur G1, Invally M1, Sanzagiri R1, Buttar HS2. Evaluation of the antidepressant activity of Moringa oleifera alone and in combination with fluoxetine. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2015 Oct-Dec;6(4):273-9. doi: 10.4103/0975-9476.172384.

We eat, sleep, and go to the bathroom. Yet, we never think about how all these physical needs are processed in the systems of our body when they are functioning normally.

Yes, our bodies are created with perfect systems by which our all kinds of needs are met. The digestive system is one of them. Our intestines are key elements of this system, so much so that asking someone “How are your intestines?” would be as comprehensive as asking “How are you?”

Digestive system

Food is critical to life. A human being can bear hunger for one month at most and can only endure a few days of drought. Thus, eating and drinking is crucial.

Foods as we eat them are not convenient for use by the cells. Food must be broken down into smaller pieces. This process begins in the mouth and ends at the anus, and it is called digestion.

The main task of our stomach and intestines is digestion. The teeth, salivary glands, the tongue, and the gullet – as well as swallowing – are essential secondary elements. Additionally, if the pancreas or liver fall ill, it can paralyze the whole system. While also working with the circulatory system, kidneys have the task of reabsorbing useful substances like glucose, amino acids, and water.

Our digestive system works together with the urinary system and the digestive organs like a factory. How these parts work together is still not fully understood, but more detailed research has been performed and revealed more secrets of the digestive system. By means of every discovery, it is realized that this perfect creation has a more intricate structure than is known.

The brain in the intestine

There are more neurons in our intestines than in our spinal cord and the intestines are created in a way that can move independently from the central nervous system. They have their own nervous system, known as enteric nervous system (ENS), which is also called the “second brain. “Within those yards of tubing lies a complex web of microcircuitry driven by more neurotransmitters and neuromodulators than can be found anywhere else in the peripheral nervous system. These allow the ENS to perform many of its tasks in the absence of central nervous system (CNS) control…” [1]. Thus, “… isolated segments of intestine can independently coordinate propulsive movements and propel content without any neural connections to the brain or spinal cord [2].

The intestines take action when food comes into the stomach. This movement is known as colonic migrating motor complexes (CMMC), and it moves the substances that cannot be digested, like bone and fiber. According to neurophysiologist Nick Spencer et al, “The gut wall contains a complete network of intrinsic nerves capable of propelling contents along the bowel, without any requirement of nerves originating in the brain or spinal cord” [3].

Eat different types of food

70% of our immune system cells are in our intestines. A big part of the approximately 38 trillion bacteria in our body are in our intestines, and they are useful; they have a big role in digesting food. Different groups of bacteria feed on different types of food; so for intestinal flora it is very important to have a variety of food on our table. For the ideal day on a plate Dr. Megan Rossi recommends people should “aim for at least 30 different plant species per week.” “The reason for this is that each plant contains different types of fibres and phytochemicals (the super healthy components of plants) that feed different good bacteria. The more plant variety, the more variety of gut bacteria – which is associated with health and happiness” [4].

Pets in our body

For Dr. Megan Rossi, “microbes are like our pets, so you have to take care of them and feed them” [5].

Of course, germ flora in our body is not just limited to the ones in the intestines. Bacteria, viruses, and fungi in our body are nearly scattered throughout the whole body. These living things produce pellicle on our head skin, irritate the gaps between our toes, live on our skin, are on duty among our teeth, and have ecosystems and assigned positions convenient to them. According to the situation, they keep their living spaces healthy or unhealthy. Although they number 50 trillion, they are approximately 200 grams of our body weight.  

Useful microbes

An average size human adult houses about 10¹² bacteria on the skin, 10¹⁰ in the mouth, and 10¹⁴ in the gastrointestinal tract [6].

These microorganisms are useful microbes with duties in our body. The harmless flora of microbes is generally present on the skin, mouth, teeth, nose, throat, and bowel and genital areas. There isn’t normal flora in internal organs except the large bowel. Internal organs have no microbes. If we look closely, flora is inserted in every part of our body which is dirty and has contact with the outer environment. If it was not for the useful flora, microorganisms causing illness would settle instead. Only intestinal bacteria are permanent microbes which are useful. For example, vitamin K plays a part in a crucial event like blood clotting and is produced in the intestine.

Control your stress

Research has revealed that mental and psychological stress affects the health of the intestines. Serotonin is produced automatically in case of need, and 85% of it is produced in the digestive tract. Stress suppresses the level of serotonin produced. Psychological illnesses are associated with low levels of serotonin.

Studies have shown that relaxing practices like meditation for 15-20 minutes can be good for health and reduce stress. At this point, daily prayers are a kind of therapy. Other ways to stay healthy include: avoiding things like alcohol and caffeine, and sleeping well.

Our body has ways of telling us when it’s not healthy. For instance, we can learn the digestive tract isn’t healthy if we have to use the toilet more than three times a day and fewer than three times a week.

References

1. Gershon, Michael D. “The Enteric Nervous System: A Second Brain.” Pdfs.semanticscholar.org.
2. Spencer et al. 2018. “Identification of a Rhythmic Firing Pattern in the Enteric Nervous System That Generates Rhythmic Electrical Activity in Smooth Muscle.” http://www.jneurosci.org/content/38/24/5507
3. http://www.flinders.edu.au/neuroscience/lab_visceral.html
4. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-5543159/Doctor-debunks-myths-surrounding-gut-health-say-surprise-you.html
5. https://navva.org/brazil/health/why-the-bowel-is-considered-our-39-2nd-brain-39-and-other-5-amazing-facts-about-the-organ-news/
6. http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/normalflora_3.html

Every essential oil gets its uniqueness not just due to one of its components but because of its delicate and complex admixture. The individual perfume and therapeutic value of each essential oil depends on this balance.

What is aromatherapy?

Aromatherapy is the practice of using essential oils, also known as volatile plant oils, for physical and psychological health. These essential oils and/or essences are concentrated liquids that are extracted from many different types of wild or cultivated plants. Essential oils can be obtained from different parts of the plant, such as the flower, leaves, fruits, bark, roots, and resins. Some examples of essentials oils are Agar oil, highly coveted for its wonderful fragrance, and Geranium oil, used in herbal medicine. As for essences, they can be obtained not only from flowers and resins but also from chemicals such as benzoins, and plants such as gaiacs and pines. Some examples of resins that can be used for their essences are Asafoetida, which is dried latex that certain Ferula plants exude from their tap root, and Myrrh, which comes from thorny plants of the genus Commiphora.

A brief history of aromatherapy

It’s hard to say when people first started using aromatherapy, partly because the practice of using plant-derived ingredients for medicinal (and other) purposes is as old as time. There is evidence that the Chinese may have used aromatherapy several thousands of years ago, with an emphasis on maintaining harmony and equilibrium. Some years after this the Egyptians were able to develop a machine that could distill cedar wood oil. Later on, the Greeks adapted aromatherapy from the Egyptians. “Istenshaque,” a form of aromatherapy, was first practiced in the Greek system of medicine by Hippocrates (460-370 BC). In the 11^th century, the renowned Avicenna developed a coiled cooling pipe that made the essential oil distillation process much faster. The term “aromatherapy” was eventually coined by the French chemist and scholar Dr. Rene Maurice Gattefoss’e (1881-1950) in 1930 and thereafter practiced as a medical science for the treatment of various diseases.

What are essential oils composed of?

From a chemical analysis standpoint and by chromatography it is evident that essential oils are not single entities but can instead be classified as compounds. Additionally, essential oils are volatile in steam, which means they will turn into a gas in the presence of steam. They differ entirely in both chemical and physical properties from fixed oils, which are also known as non-volatile oils. Animal or vegetable oils are very common types of fixed oils. Essential oils consist of many organic constituents which unite in a delicate and complex balance to produce a wide range of therapeutic and olfactory qualities. For example, the oil of the eucalyptus leaf contains no less than 250 different constituents. In one study, researchers were able to identify 40 different compounds in tea tree oil using chromatography methods (Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry). Every essential oil gets its uniqueness not just due to one of its components but because of its delicate and complex admixture. The individual perfume and therapeutic value of each essential oil depends on this balance.

Scope & methods

• Olfaction (shamoom): Aromatic medicines either in dried or liquid forms are kept in a vessel and the fumes are inhaled. Rose oil is often used in this manner.
• Inhalation (lakhlakha): Aromatic medicines or pungent medicines either dried or liquid forms are kept in a wide mouthed bottle and then inhaled. With this method the vapors of the medicines not only reach up to the nose but can reach down in to the respiratory passage as well. Camphor is a common choice for inhalation therapy.
• Massage (dalak): Some treatments involve massaging the oil into the skin directly, and can be one of the more effective treatment methods.
• Poultices: Essential oils used in poultices bring out impurities of the skin. These treatments sooth irritation and relieve congestion and pain. Most frequently, poultices are made up of linseed (Alsi) or mustard. These are particularly useful for chest complaints and skin diseases.
• Compresses: Used externally, particularly on eyes. They can be either hot or cold depending on the effect required.

Base oils and carrier oils

Most essential oils are not used in their pure, undiluted sate. Rather, they are mixed into a fixed plant oil base, like almond, soya, or wheat germ. These base or carrier oils act as balancing and stabilizing agents. They are typically pure, have little to no smell, and are easy for essential oils to dissolve in. The ratio of essential oils to base oils differs for each oil. For example, 2 to 3 drops of essential oil to 5 ml of base oil can be used for the body, and 1 drop essential oil to 5 ml base oil can be used for the face.

Some commonly used oils

• Almond oil: Oil extracted from bitter and sweet almond.
  Constituents: Olein is the chief constituent. Other constituents are glyceride and linoleic acid.
  Action: Skin softening agent, lubricant, nourishing and revitalizing.
  Uses: Wonderful for dry, wrinkled hands. Very beneficial for eczema and skin irritation of any kind.
• Castor oil:
  Constituents: Major constituents are palmatic, fatty acids, ricinoleic acid and glycerine.
  Uses: as soothing agent for skin rashes, in embalming, eczema, dryness of the skin.
• Soya oil:
  Constituents: Oleic, linoleic, stearic and palmitic acid.
  Action: Lowers cholesterol levels.
  Uses: To be taken every day in salad dressing or with rice dishes.
• Sage leaf (Salvia officinalis)
  Action: Antiseptic, astringent.
  Uses: Mouth washes and gargle, Alzheimer’s disease, memory loss.
• Thyme & thyme oil (Thymus vulgaris)
  Action: Antiseptic, anti-tussive, expectorant, spasmolytic.
  Uses: Cough cold, spasmodic pain.
• Lavender oil (Lavendula angustifolia)
  Action: Masks disagreeable odors, heals skin burn and acts as relaxant in premenstrual tension.
  Uses: In ointment, rheumatic pain.
• Aniseed (Pimpinella anisum)
  Action: Carminative, appetizer, hepto-tonic, stomachic, diuretic, emmenogogue, galactogogue, analgesic.
  Uses: flatulence, loss of appetite, liver disorders, indigestion, renal disorders, to stimulate lactation, for pain.
• Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare)
  Action: Carminative, stomachic, diuretic, emmenogogue & galactogogue and vermicide.
  Uses: flatulence, loss of appetite, indigestion, renal disorders, to stimulate lactation and worm infestation.
• Cumin (Cumin cyminum)
  Action: General tonic, digestive, antiseptic, bactericide, carminative, detergent (Jaali)
  Uses:Indigestion, loss of appetite, infections, flatulence, skin disorders.
• Cinnamon oil (Cinnamomum zeylanicum)
  Action: Rubefacient, carminative, powerful germicide, anti-rheumatic, digestive, analgesic, detergent.
  Uses: Skin disorders, flatulence, infection, arthritis and indigestion.
• Camphor (Cinnamomum camphora)
  Action: externally: rubefacient, internally-mild antiseptic, carminative, antipyretic.
  Uses: skin disorders, infections, flatulence and fever.
• Caraway (Carum carvi)
  Action: Carminative, antispasmodic, galactogogauge and emmenogogue.
  Uses: Flatulance, colic, stimulate lactation and dysmenorrhea.
• Myrrh (Commiphora)
  Action: Antiseptic, antibiotic, stomachic, emmenogogue, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, wound healing properties.
  Uses: as an essence and in perfumes, mouth wash, in anti-ulcer treatment and is cytoprotective.
• Clove oil (Eugenia caryophyllus)
  Action: Stimulant, antiseptic, stomachic, expectorant, sedative, carminative, antispasmodic, digestive.
  Uses: Mouth and tooth infection, flatulence, rheumatic pain, bronchitis, cold.
• Eucalyptus oil (Eucalyptus globus)
  Action: Decongestant.
  Uses: Internally: Mixtures, inhalations, lozenges. Externally: In ointments and liniments.
• Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla)
  Action: Antiseptic, anxiolytic, digestive, disinfectant, carminative antipyretic.
  Uses: Insomnia, headache, migraine, facial neuralgia, sinusitis, dermatitis, acne, eczema, abscesses, boils, amenorrhea, pre-menstrual tension, cystitis, colic, loss of appetite.
• Sandal wood (Santalum album)
  Action: Calming action on dry skin, aphrodisiac.
  Uses: For dry and chapped skin.
• Rose oil (Rosa domascena)
  Action: Cardio tonic, resolvent, anti-inflammatory.
  Uses: In perfumery, palpitation, inflammation.

Precautions while using essential oils

Although essential oils are useful for treating a number of ailments you should still take the necessary precautions before using them. For example, you should always perform a skin test before using an essential oil, since everyone is unique and reacts differently to different oils. Body size, age, and sex also makes a difference. As for storage, essential oils should always be stored in dark glass bottles away from sunlight.

In our era that is characterized by stressful environments and ever-changing life styles, essential oil aromatherapy offers an optimal answer to the emerging health burden of degenerative diseases. It not only offers therapeutic but also preventative and restorative health benefits, without most of the side effects of modern treatment schedules. Hence aromatherapy with its wide scope and application potential offers a therapeutic solution for not only diseased body systems but also soothes the soul and the spirit, thereby taking care of the stress component that is prominent in many illnesses.

Sharks are categorized in three groups according to their feeding style: those that feed on 1) plankton, 2) floating creatures, and 3) creatures on the sea floor. Although sharks are known as the best hunters in the sea, one out of two of their hunts ends with success. The prey is very unlikely to escape when caught by a shark. The great white shark has about 300 sharp teeth that bite with a force predicted to be as powerful as 18,000 Newtons, whereas a human bite can be as much as 1,300 N. Sharks use a sonar system (sound waves) to locate prey. The absence of swim bladders and the fact that their skeletons are cartilaginous rather than bony allow them to move quickly and swiftly underwater. Sharks also have an acute sense of smell. Their nostrils are only for smelling, not for breathing.

The unique design of their skin is part of what makes sharks such effective predators. In fact, suits made to imitate shark skin are banned at international swimming competitions. If you touch shark skin from front to back, it has a silky texture; but if you touch it from back to front, the texture is like sandpaper.

The surface of the skin is covered with geometric shapes similar to tiny teeth – or like roof tiles. There’s almost no gap between these shapes. These tiny, hard, and smooth structures have roots tightly attached to the skin. The denticles (microscopic scales) provide a hydrodynamic advantage to sharks when swimming by reducing the friction between water and skin.

The German paleontologist, Wolf-Ernst Reif examined the denticles of 46 shark species and researched on their features that enable them with hydrodynamism. Reif showed that the grooves and canals on the denticles are what reduce the friction with water. The hundreds of thousands of denticles come together to form a common flow path, reducing the turbulence caused by friction, preventing speed loss. These denticles allow sharks to swim 12% faster.

Swimmers wearing apparel using this technology swim about 7% faster. The denticles not only reduce friction, but they also increase repelling force. It was discovered that during the Beijing Summer Olympics in 2008, 23 of the 25 world record-breaking swimmers wore apparel made from the aforementioned fabrics. Thus, the garments were banned.

The swimming pool isn’t the only place where we can see the influence of shark skin. Hospitals, perhaps unexpectedly, have also been improved by the design of shark skin. Most exposed surfaces in hospitals are germ magnets. And because of the environment, hospital germs are resistant to antibiotics and disinfectants. The use of copper and silver coatings with anti-microbial structures is quite costly.

Researchers designed a material called Sharklet. According to a study published on September 17, 2014, in the journal Antimicrobial Desistance and Infection Control, researchers found it is possible to almost permanently disinfect surfaces using special coatings inspired by shark skin.

Simulating the grooves and canals of shark skin denticles results in 94% fewer germs. Sharklet coating material outdoes its competitors in applicability not only for wares, but also for medical devices. Of course there are different coating materials made in the same way. Another material made from silica, and also based on shark skin, solved one of the biggest problems facing ships. Water algae and lice adhere to the surface of ships and accelerate corrosion. In experiments conducted in the North Sea, it was found that the vessels with the shark-skin inspired coating saw 67% fewer mussels and 85% less algae adhering to them.

The work of human beings inspired by examining the skin of the shark is wonderful, but when we think of the number of all living beings, it is like a drop in the sea. There are millions of animal and plant species waiting for scientific study and perhaps hiding great inspirations. The keys to our discoveries and inventions are revealed when studies are done. Perhaps the creatures we know as useless today will show that they are the wonders of creation in the future.

Observing Majorana fermions in the ferromagnetic atomic chains on a superconductor. Nadj-Perge et al. Science, October 2014.

In the universe, matter and antimatter particles are always produced as a pair and, if they come in contact, they destroy each other in a flash of energy. In 1937, an Italian theoretical physicist named Ettore Majorana had proposed that there can be unique exceptions to this rule: a stable particle could exist in nature that is both matter and antimatter. Scientists have been looking for that indefinable particle, also known as the “Majorana fermion,” for seventy years. A group of researchers recently reported that they were able to detect the Majorana particle which behaves simultaneously like matter and antimatter. Researchers designed an experimental system allowing them to observe an emergent particle inside a material. They first generated an extended chain of pre magnetic iron atoms on a superconductor made of lead. Then, they cooled the material to -272 C, just about one point above absolute zero, and monitored it using a giant two-story-tall scanning-tunneling microscope, which can track electrical signal changes with very high precision. Finally, they were able to capture a glowing image of an electrically neutral particle at the ends of atomically thin iron wires. The Majorana particle was surprisingly stable and the opposing properties make the particle neutral so that it interacts very weakly with its environment. The discovery of the Majorana particle has exciting implications for several areas of modern physics, engineering, and astrophysics. For example, Majorana particles are very similar to neutrinos, as they both have very weak interactions with the matter. Neutrinos are thought to make up most of the dark matter that fill the Cosmos. Perhaps, neutrinos are simply Majorana-like particles and Majorana particles are also a candidate for what dark matter is. As an industrial application, Majorana particles can be utilized in quantum computing which aims to create computers to handle incalculable systems. The current quantum computing technology uses electrons, but they are known to be very unstable due to high interaction rates with surrounding materials. However, since Majorana particles are neutral and highly stable, they can be engineered into a variety of materials to produce more reliable and powerful quantum computing applications.

The Bitter Side of Artificial Sweeteners

Artificial sweeteners induce glucose intolerance by altering the gut’s microbiota. Suez J. et al. Nature, September 2014.

There have been conflicting and confusing findings about the health effects of artificial sweeteners over the past several decades. Some studies found that they cause weight loss and others found the exact opposite. Some studies linked them to diabetes and other studies argued otherwise. A recent study provided a series of experimental evidences that artificial sweeteners disrupt the body’s ability to regulate blood sugar, and thus may cause metabolic diseases and diabetes. Researchers, using animal models and human studies, found that sweeteners significantly alter the gut’s microbiome – the collective name of bacterial colonies living in our intestines. The composition of our gut microflora plays a critical role protecting us from pathogenic bacteria, the metabolism of indigestible components of our diet, and modulating development and regulation of the immune system. Sweeteners – in the form of saccharin, sucralose, or aspartame – are found to alter the mix of microbes in our intestines and consequently change how our bodies metabolize glucose. Constant use of sweeteners in mice and human test groups caused typical glucose intolerance symptoms in which glucose levels rose higher after eating and declined more slowly than expected. Glucose intolerance can ultimately lead to serious illnesses like metabolic syndrome and Type 2 diabetes. Although this study will cause a lot of discussions and headaches in the food industry, the link identified between microbiome and glucose intolerance will definitely inspire novel therapeutic approaches to metabolic disorders such as diabetes.

Brainy Fingertips

Edge-orientation processing in first-order tactile neurons. Pruszynski JA and Johansson RS. Nature Neuroscience, August 2014

A new study found that neurons in human skin are able to perform advanced calculations that scientists thought only the brain was capable of performing. A group of sensory neurons that extend into the skin and record touch are called first-order neurons in the tactile system. Each nerve ending branches in the skin to form about 5mm2 elliptical receptive field, with up to 8 highly sensitive zones that are unevenly distributed within the field. It turns out that these neurons not only transmit information about when and how intensely an object is touched to the brain, but they also send complex information about the touched object’s shape. Researchers found that the sensitivity of individual neurons to the shape of an object depends on the layout of the neuron’s highly-sensitive zones in the skin. Computations that require untangling geometric shape information are classified as feature extraction computations in neuroscience and are typically attributed to the immensely complex circuits of the cerebral cortex. This study showed that neuronal populations localized outside of the brain, such as first-order tactile neurons, can have advanced processing capacity similar to brain neurons. These results can also potentially improve treatments for nerve injury and rehabilitation, as scientists previously assumed that the cerebral cortex was doing all the work.

Where am I?

There are 46 chromosomes in your body, carrying 20-25 thousand genes. Chromosomes and the genes they contain shape the genetic memory of a human being. Genes can contain hundreds of features, and these are revealed over time. For instance, you do not have any teeth when you are a newborn, but the time when you will get your teeth is encoded into your genetic memory. Once genes receive the action command, teeth start to emerge.

There are hundreds of genes located on chromosomes, all the way from the chromosome number 1 and 2, to chromosome number 46. For example, there are around three thousand genes found on chromosome number 1. The Y chromosome, in charge of male development, only contains 125 genes. A distinct address (locus) for each gene on the chromosomes is recorded. If you ask about the address of the fibrillin gene that synthesizes me, it is 15q 21.1, i.e., 15th Avenue, Long arm street, 21st pl, Number 1.

In other words my residing address is the 1st subband of the 1st band of the 2nd region located at the long arm of chromosome number 15. We are three siblings, known as fibrillin1, fibrillin2 and fibrillin3.

We stretch and relax like an arch. We can expand and tighten like an inflated balloon and then return to our previous state. If by an error, we happen to fail to restore ourselves after inflation, the tissue’s architecture gets deformed and expanded fibers cannot regain their original shape anymore. When observed in veins, this situation is called an aneurysm. The frequency of this disease is approximately one in ten thousand, which is also called ballooning. That said, my flexing is necessary. Veins flex so that the blood pumping through them doesn’t cause any turbulence, as it would otherwise be during a vacuum occurring inside metal water pipes. Flexible sportsmen who do acrobatic moves do not compare with me. I can bend, curve, flex, relax and constrict, inflate, deflate and transform like elastic, from one shape to another, for your health and overall convenience – all because of the wondrous features granted to my nature.

What kind of a fiber am I?

I provide structural support for the fabrication of elastic fibers in the connective tissue as a protein synthesized according to the code of the fibrillin gene. In case of my failure or absence, weaknesses occur, especially in the connective tissues of organs that are rich in elastic fibers, such as the aorta, lungs, and eye balls. The iris (the colored part of the eye), pupil, and eye lens display changes in accordance with levels of light or distance of objects observed. These changes are controlled perfectly according to my work, and humans often don’t even notice this. We also help the eye lens constrict and relax. It can be understood that we are such a great blessing granted for your service. Of course, if we tried to count all the blessings we’ve been given, and never even consider, it would be impossible!

My weight is 350 kilo daltons. A Dalton is an atomic mass unit approximately equal to one hydrogen atoms’ mass, which is 1.66×10-24. I consist of 2.871 amino acids. I am formed by the sequential arrangement of 20 amino acids that exist in your body as the smallest unit of proteins. We bind each other to become 10-12 nanometers wide microfibers as the result of a process called polymerization that brings loops of a protein chain together. These microfibers are brought together with the elastin protein that provides elasticity in our body. The system that we form with elastic fibrils constantly serves the body’s blood vessels, primarily the vessels located in your eyes, heart, and many of your tissues, such as your skin and nerves.

What do I do? We fulfill commands that are requested from us in many tissues and organs, without any flaws. Scientists call us the wonderful building blocks of the body’s architecture. We can extend twice as much of our length. We are always on task: while you are breathing, when your heart is pumping blood and your stomach is digesting food, or the moment you are gazing at nature with your eyes. We are given the duty to prevent many organs from tearing, including the heart, lungs, stomach, and blood vessels. One of the places I work most frequently is the aorta, the body’s major artery. Your heart beats approximately a hundred thousand times a day. A high level of pressure develops in the arteries during the pumping process. You would suffer greatly without the help of our elastic fibers. Blood vessels would rupture, ending your life. This high pressure is tolerated only through the expansion of the vessel’s diameter without any decrease in length of the artery. This diameter regulation is designed so wondrously that blood flow remains the same; no shaking or waves are observed. This diameter control happens via the fibrillin protein located inside the vessel.

I also play a role in the vitality and tension of your skin. Skin is essentially a dense fibrous connective tissue composed of a protein called collagen. I am also one of the main elements of this connective tissue. As you age, this layer starts to dry and has lesser fibrous proteins; therefore, as fibers decrease, so does my tension, and I start to wrinkle. Elderly people do not like getting wrinkly, but this is your fate. Whatever you do, I will also age and die.

I cannot go without pressing this important issue: Staying under the sun for a long time degrades me. If done properly, sun light is useful for skin. But solar radiation damages the live tissues and organs. This radiation is an effective factor both in degradation of protein structures, and the formation of varicose veins and skin damage. It is reported in various sources that exposure to sun rays leads to alterations in the genetic material of skin. Ultraviolet rays speed up the degradation of skin. In medical language, this is called oxidation via free radicals. Please do not burn us and yourself while sunbathing. Even if you do not care for yourselves, you should still be considerate of us. If you say that sunbathing both helps, with vitamin D synthesis and reducing the risk of osteoporosis, I would like to remind you that for the vitamin D synthesis of skin, it is sufficient to expose your hands, feet and face to the sun.

How is life without me?

Though we were wisely designed, sometimes, you are tested by certain diseases in which we are not present. Absence, as they say, makes the heart grow fonder!

Life without me is unbearable. I could give a couple of examples, should you like. If I was not created, your skin would not be flexible. You wouldn’t be able to control your eye lenses. Your aorta would not be flexible and your heart, which beats thousands of times a day, would be torn under the high pressure in a short amount of time. Major problems would occur with the development of your stomach, lungs, and other organs.

I also have a significant job keeping TGF-Beta (which helps cells grow) function under control. To give you an idea of how important this is, imagine your communication system turned upside down. Now imagine how complicated are the communication systems connecting billions of people around the world, how a mess it would be when they are out of service. These are nothing when compared to the human body. There are 100 trillion cells in the human body, communicating with each other instantaneously. A cellular community that is fifteen thousand times more crowded than the earth’s population communicates via small molecules, like us. Cellular proliferation and tissue differentiation would fail if cells failed to communicate. The full spoon of food in your hand would not end in your mouth but maybe in your ear or your eyes.

If a mutation happens with the Fibrillin-1 gene, Marfan syndrome can occur. This disease, which was defined in the 1800s, is named after its discoverer. The frequency of this disease is one in five thousand. One of the major lethal consequences of Marfan syndrome is an aorta tear. This is in addition to many problems with the eyes, skeleton, and cardio-vascular systems. Many of the patients die in their 30s or 40s because of the flaws in the cardio-vascular system. Of course, death may occur at any age because of an aorta rupture. 14% of the patients with Marfan syndrome display chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which is associated with breathing problems, because the integrity of lung tissue is compromised. Another disease I help prevent is called Ektopia lentis, in which the eye lens is displaced from its original position. Normally, I help eye functioning. When my fibers relax or constrict, depending on light, I help the eye to relax, enabling both near and far sightedness. With Ektopia lentis, anomalies on the front vestibule of the eye, a high degree of myopia, and retina damage occur.

If overproduced, I can cause another problem with the eye, called exfoliation syndrome. This is when fibrous connective tissue, like me, accumulates in the eye – it’s commonly called glaucoma, or ocular hypertension. In some people, as they age, a fibrous material like hair dandruff collects on the eye lens. This material, dislocated by movements of the iris, blocks the drainage channels that discharge the intraocular fluid. Eye pressure increases as the result of failed drainage. As you see, I am not a problem when I am synthesized normally, but can be trouble if over produced! My final request from you!

You have seen our amazing works and complicated functions. Therefore, please remember me and my friends. Please do not ignore our efforts and activities. Be grateful for the blessings provided through us, even if you can’t see them. And take care of us, please – don’t get carried away with too much tanning!

We tend to overlook our skin, but it performs many vital functions for our bodies – including coming to our rescue in emergencies.

Since it is designed to function within very precise limits, our body is very susceptible to small temperature changes. Since abnormalities in these changes occur, the body has various mechanisms to keep its temperature constant. One of these mechanisms works by changing the amount of blood in the veins underneath the skin. When talking about body temperature, it is important to distinguish between the internal and external body temperature. The internal temperature is the temperature of the brain and internal organs, while the external body temperature is the temperature of the skin.

Normally, arteries that transport clean blood, and veins that carry dirty blood, are not connected; therefore clean and dirty blood never mix. However, as a consequence of some illnesses or birth defects, an abnormal bridge between arteries and veins may be present. This kind of condition is usually called arteriovenous shunts, or arteriovenous fistula. In these kinds of situations, blood is pumped directly from arteries to veins. In other words, clean blood flows towards dirty blood. Normally, the clean blood has to travel the body, providing oxygen and other supplements to cells, while collecting carbon dioxide and returning to the heart to be cleaned again.

An incredible network for the transportation of substances from the blood in arteries and veins has been created. If this system, known as the “capillary network,” did not exist, none of our organs could be fed, and the circulatory system would not be able to provide its vital function.

The system is necessary for two reasons. The speed of the blood in the arteries and veins is too fast for anything to be transported to the organs, and their walls are too thick to allow transportation of substances. Therefore, the blood travels from the arteries to the capillaries, and after the trading of oxygen and other substances with carbon dioxide is completed, it flows to the veins. If any kind of abnormalities exist, the blood flows directly from the arteries to the veins, therefore skipping the capillaries. As a consequence, the organs aren’t fed and the blood gathers in the veins without fulfilling its purpose. Naturally, the oxygen and nutrition balance of the organs gets messed up. The blood is pumped out of the heart with no purpose and heart failure becomes inevitable.

The capillary network has been assigned the task of communication between arteries and veins. The skins is our only organ where the blood flows directly from arteries to veins; AV shunts accomplish a very important duty in this function.

There is a network of veins underneath the skin. The number of veins in this network is so many that if they were completely filled up, they could hold up to two liters of blood in the skin. Blood is pumped to the skin for two purposes: to provide oxygen and nutrients to the cells, and to collect carbon dioxide and waste products in the cells, as is done with every organ; and to monitor the internal temperature of the body by sending blood to the skin if the temperature gets too high, similar to what radiators in cars do when the engine gets too hot.

There is also the subcutaneous fat tissue underneath the skin which acts as an insulator. The vein network mentioned above is inside this fat tissue. There is a continuous flow of blood from the capillaries that feed the skin towards this network of veins. Moreover, especially in areas where the skin is exposed – such as the hands, feet, face and ears – there is a blood flow from the small arteries towards this network of veins. Contrary to other organs in the body, blood flows directly from the arteries to the veins. If this direct blood flow did not exist, the amount of blood in the skin’s veins would be close to zero, because the amount of blood necessary for skin nutrition is very little. However when the internal temperature rises too much, the amount of blood, which is normally close to zero, can suddenly increase to as much as 30% of the blood pumped by the heart. In this case, the body’s internal temperature is being transported to the skin. This is an incredibly efficient cooling system. However, if the weather is cold, the AV shunt veins are switched off and the skin’s blood flow is decreased until close to zero, therefore maintaining internal temperature. The fat tissue underneath the skin also has a very important function, as it acts as insulation, helping maintain temperature.

Body temperature and the body’s systems work in perfect coordination with each other. We can observe a very simplified version of this system in computer based air conditioners. However, when we reflect upon the incredibly sophisticated cooling system of the human body, we come to the conclusion that no other system is as perfect as that.

The hypothalamus, which has various vital duties for the brain, was also given the very important mission of controlling the body’s temperature. There are hot and cold heat receptors in various parts of the hypothalamus. When body temperature increases, these receptors are activated. As a consequence of this warning, skin veins all over the body expand. Simultaneous with the expansion of the veins, sweat is excreted.

The hypothalamus also has the duty of suppressing the mechanisms that produce heat throughout the body. For example, trembling is stopped and general metabolism is slowed down to decrease body temperature. As metabolism slows down, the production of heat becomes minimal, and cooling takes place. In conditions where the body temperature is too cold, some hormones secreted in the hypothalamus trigger the pituitary, and then the thyroid, hormones. Since thyroid hormones are responsible for increasing metabolism, body temperature increases. However if body temperature increases above normal, the control of the hypothalamus on the thyroid is reversed, and thyroid hormones are decreased, therefore decreasing body temperature.

There is one more reason for placing so many veins in the perfect and miraculous body’s skin: except for extremely cold weather conditions, quite a large amount of blood exists in these veins that are not used for nutritional purposes. Some of our organs act as storage for blood; two of the most important ones are the spleen and liver. Another one is the skin. In the course of losing blood, or an illness that increases the need for blood, the spleen and liver shrink. As a consequence of this shrinkage, the blood inside them is sent to the heart, through veins, and distributed to the areas in need of blood. This increases the heart rate.

A similar scenario occurs in the skin. The veins responsible for cooling shrink, and the blood they contain is sent to the heart with the help of the main veins, therefore helping the heart pump. During heavy loss of blood, the blood in the skin comes to the rescue. Patients who are losing blood have incredibly cold and pale skin. This is because the blood in the skin has reduced to a minimum.

The obverse of this happens in an illness called erythromelalgia, where more blood than normal flows from the arteries to the veins in the skin. This is mostly seen in the hands, feet, nose, and ears, since AV shunts are more prevalent in these areas of the skin. The symptom of this illness is burning pain, which is triggered by heat and soothed by cool temperatures. The nutrition of the skin decreases and some substances produced because of the absence of oxygen increases redness, heat, and pain, since some of the capillaries feeding the skin shut down and all of the blood flows from arteries to veins with the AV shunts.

Our skin protects our muscles and bones, and contributes to the beautiful aesthetic of our body. It provides our sense of touch, and is therefore a means for us to experience the material world, as well as providing temperature control for our bodies. It can clearly be seen that the relationship between the skin and the veins could not have evolved by the consequence of coincidence.