Bennet Omalu^[1] is a physician specialized as a forensic expert and pathologist, which means he examines the tissues and organs of dead people to determine their cause of death. One day, he was asked to prepare an autopsy report about the corpse of a 50-year-old man named Mike Webster, a former professional US football player^[2]. Having examined the corpse in detail, the physician reported his cause of death to be “heart attack.” While examining the brain structure during the autopsy, he noticed a pathology normally seen in the brains of boxers, and decided to study this player’s life. Mike Webster had been an American football player since his childhood and had been a professional player for 18 years. Dr. Omalu watched this player’s games and noticed that Webster often played in the most dangerous positions where collisions with rival players were the highest, and he had sustained very serious blows to his head. Taking into consideration the number of the games he participated in, Omalu calculated that this player had sustained more than 70,000 blows to his head. Realizing that Webster suffered from short-term blackouts after collisions as well, Omalu concentrated his studies on his brain.

Dr. Omalu found out that these shocks triggered a neurological reaction, which in turn led to chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)^[3]. He was the first scientist who demonstrated that American football players face the risk of developing this disease.

Having autopsied other people who played American football, Dr. Omalu identified deaths due to brain damage. These deaths were caused by depression-induced suicide, substance abuse, heart attack, and accidents due to damage to brain tissues. He published his findings, despite obstruction and threats from the executives of the National Football League (NFL), a billion-dollar business, as well as other people who profited from this business. Following this publication, new safety measures, such as designing new football helmets and wearing neck protectors, were taken to minimize the damage to players from collisions.

Skull and brain

Our skulls are created in the form of a special cage that protects our brains with a robust bone structure and ovoid shape formed by flat bones. Impacts in sports like American football, wrestling, boxing, ice hockey, or in various accidents will cause no problems up to a certain level. However, collisions bigger than 60G on head may result in concussions and even death. In American football, players may suffer from concussions of the brain as big as 100G upon head-to-head collision even if they wear helmets as this impact is equal to that of getting hit by a sledgehammer.

Akin to a suit of armor made up of bones, our skull protects our brain. It may appear like one simple, unified structure, but our skull is made up of 22 different bones, including the eight bones that surround our brain (excluding those of inner ear)^[4]. Unlike other bones, the bones in our skull are fused to each other in an indented or zigzagging pattern. In this way, they perfectly fit into each other in a mutually supportive manner.

Adults have solid and robust skulls while babies have more flexible skulls. As babies grow, their skulls grow proportionally. If the skull grew more slowly, it would have exerted pressure on the brain; in contrast if it grew too quickly there would have been greater space between the skull and the brain and thus would have left the brain more subject to impacts. Moreover, in babies the eight main bones that surround the brain have not fused completely into each other. There are soft gaps between cranial bones called “fontanelle.” This is a vital characteristic for babies during birth. If the skull of a baby had been rigid and without these gaps, their skull would be very likely to be crushed during birth. These gaps provide room for flexibility. As babies grow, their skulls grow as well and become rigid as these gaps are filled. The fontanelle also plays a role in the balance mechanisms of babies and it takes some 18 months to become rigid.

Nature

Such protective mechanisms can be observed in nature, too. For instance, gannets are great divers, and they can dive from a height of 30 m with an approximate speed of 100 km/h. Although they dive with such a speed, they sustain no damage. These birds are equipped with “air bags” on their faces and under their skins, which can dampen the impact from the water. Woodpeckers as well as horned animals like rams and deer, which use their heads in hunting or defying their enemies, have skulls created specifically for these purposes.

Woodpeckers, the master carpenters

Woodpeckers uses their bills like a drill and can dig holes in tree trunks to build their nests or hunt for food. They generally feed on woodworms, ants, termites, caterpillars, bugs and larvae. Some woodpecker species use these holes as a storeroom and store certain foods, such as acorns, for the winter. Woodpeckers are picky about the trees in which they will build their nests^[5]. They choose dead or very old trees, because these trees have thick bark. They prefer pines, spruce, and certain fruit trees. Scientists note that these birds have an excellent sense of hearing and they can hear the sounds of worms and bugs beneath the barks of trees and select the trees with these worms^[6]. A woodpecker can peck a  tree trunk at a rate of 15-20 times a second and with a speed of 40-100 km/h. A special locking system protects its bill from the impact. With this system, it can withstand a force of 1,000 G.

Sang-Hee Yoon and Sungmin Park from the University of California demonstrated that these birds’ system for dampening impact shock have four main components^[7]. These are their hard but elastic beak; spring-like hyoid bone that stretches up to the rear of the skull; the spongy portion in its skull; and the interaction of the spinal fluid with the skull. This magnificent mechanism that absorbs the impact in woodpeckers are similar to dampers used in cars but are more effective because they can absorb shocks in rapid intervals. Woodpeckers have very strong muscles in their necks, and their cranial bones are completely fused. Like a safety belt, their tongues go around their heads and stretch up to their noses.

This perfect system for absorbing shock has inspired scientists to design the black box protection system used in aircrafts^[8]. Thanks to this protection mechanism, black boxes are now capable of withstanding impacts of up to 60,000 G.

Scientists from the University of Bath in the United Kingdom have developed a special tool with inspiration from woodpeckers^[9]. This specially designed electrical hammer moves back and forth rapidly to perform a hammering motion by utilizing less energy than would be expected. In this way, nails can be driven in a short time. Hammer drills that help us break through hard surfaces have been developed with a similar inspiration.

As we learn more about the amazing creatures that inhibit our world with us we are astonished to realize how magnificently created they each are so they can survive, seek out their sustenance, and fight against their enemies.

Notes

1. wikipedia.org/wiki/Bennet_Omalu
2. wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Webster
3. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2945234
4. Dr. Arif Sarsılmaz, “Ben Hasan’in Iskeletiyim” (I am Hasan’s Skeleton), Sızıntı, January 2001.
5. com/why-are-woodpeckers-making-holes-in-my-trees
6. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3548892
7. newscientist.com/article/dn20088-woodpeckers-head-inspires-shock-absorbers
8. popsci.com/technology/article/2011-02/woodpecker-heads-inspire-new-cushioning-systems-electronics-and-humans/
9. researchgate.net/profile/Julian_Vincent/publication/245387767_A_woodpecker_hammer/links/0a85e53cd2be397e97000000/A-woodpecker-hammer.pdf

Gómez-Valdés et al. Lack of Support for the Association between Facial Shape and Aggression: A Reappraisal Based on a Worldwide Population Genetics Perspective. PLoS ONE, 2013; 8 (1)

It is a common misconception that some people are profiled to be angry or aggressive because of their physical appearances, particularly their craniofacial shapes. In addition, there have been some studies suggesting that men with certain facial traits (round-shaped faces) are more likely to develop aggressive and unethical behavior. A new study using a sample of around 5000 individuals from 94 different countries has found no correlation between facial shape and aggressive/criminal behaviors. Researchers analyzed fWHRs (facial width-to-height ratio) and 2D/3D craniofacial landmark coordinates to estimate any possible correlation between skull shape and aggressive behaviors in men. First, they utilized the famous skull collection in Hallstatt/Austria to investigate any potential correlation between skull features and life history parameters of individuals, such as their overall fitness. Second, they analyzed the male prisoners convicted of crimes like inter-personal aggression (homicide, robbery etc.) from Mexico City Federal Penitentiary to see whether there is any relation between skull shape traits and aggressive crimes. Analyses of both databases have found no significant correlation between skull shape traits either with the fitness of males or with their aggressiveness. This study has very important social and political implications in today’s societies, as we unfortunately see many ethnical, racial and even physical prejudices. This comprehensive study has undoubtedly showed once more that physical traits cannot be a reliable predictor of complex human behaviors, which are mostly shaped by external factors such as education and socio-cultural practices.

Biggest Structure in the Universe Discovered

Clowe et al. A structure in the early Universe at z ∼ 1.3 that exceeds the homogeneity scale of the R-W concordance cosmology. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, January 11, 2013

Throughout history, mankind has been trying to answer the questions of “how big” or “how far,” when looking into the vast expanse of the universe. As new technologies are developed, bigger discoveries and consequently bigger numbers are brought to light. An international team of astronomers recently discovered a collection of 73 quasars which form a single structure; the largest structure ever observed in the entire universe. A quasar, short for quasi-stellar object, is the luminous center of a galaxy that surrounds a super massive black hole. The distance of these newly large quasar groups to the earth is about 9 billion light years (1 light year is approximately 9.5 trillion kilometers). The size of these structures is simply mind-blowing. Even if we have a spacecraft that travels at the speed of light, it would still take about 4 billion years to cross. If we put this overwhelming size into perspective, the Milky Way—earth’s home galaxy—is only about 100,000 light-years wide and our neighbor galaxy Andromeda is only 2.5 million light-years away from the Milky Way. So these quasars are 1600 times larger than the distance from the Milky Way to Andromeda. This discovery seriously challenges the size calculations based on the widely accepted Cosmological Principle which assumes that the universe is essentially homogeneous when viewed at a sufficiently large scale. Cosmological Principle predicts that there should not be any structure in the universe larger than 1.2 billion light-years. A four billion light-years wide structure would obviously be an outlier when compared to other structures in the universe and it might contradict with the homogeneity of the universe. However, scientists think that such contradiction would not necessarily falsify the Cosmological Principle originally established by Albert Einstein. It might only change the assumptions of the theory that define at which scale the universe can sufficiently be viewed.

More Twists on Double Helix

Biffi et al. Quantitative visualization of DNA G-quadruplex structures in human cells. Nature Chemistry, 20 January 2013.

About 60 years ago, on April 25th 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick published a one-page paper where they described the “double helix” structure of the DNA, the molecule that carries genetic information from parent to offspring. This discovery not only revolutionized the biological sciences and medicine but also dramatically changed the way we perceive life, nature and most importantly ourselves. Yet, new findings on DNA structure keep surprising us. Scientists from Cambridge University discovered the first quadruple helix—a four-stranded DNA structure in human cells which they named “G-quadruplex.” These structures were previously observed in test tubes but they were never found in cells. The building blocks of DNA molecules consist of four different bases: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T). G-quadruplexes (G stands for Guanine) are formed by four guanine bases that forms a square DNA helix. Researchers found that these structures are enriched in rapidly-dividing cancer cells, specifically at the ends of chromosomes called telomeres. When researchers targeted and trapped these quadruple DNA structures with synthetic molecules, they found that DNA replication slows down and cell division is blocked. Researchers suspect that these quadruple DNA structures in telomeres of cancer cells could explain why cancer cells rapidly proliferate and divide. It is still not clear whether G-quadruplexes exist in healthy cells but targeting these structures in cancerous cells with pharmacology seems to be a promising method to stop the spread of cancer.

I consist of 217 bones in your body (however, since the bones in the thigh and sacrum areas fuse together in order to form a stronger bone, their number decreases, and the anatomists accept the number of bones as 206). I have 22 skull bones, 33 spinal bones, 24 rib bones, 64 bones in the hands, the forearms, the arms and the shoulder girdle and 66 bones in the feet, the legs, the thighs and the hip area. In addition, I have 6 small ear bones, 1 breastbone and 1 hyoid bone (at the root of your tongue), which make up the total of my 217 bones. It is quite amazing that so many different bones have cooperated with each other and contributed to such a perfect system.

Each piece of my skeleton has been created with special shape and quality that is proper to its place and duty. The bones that protect your brain are flat, whereas the bones in your arms and legs are long and cylindrical; while the bones in your wrists and ankles are short and rounded, your hips and girdles have been made of wide and big bones. The craggy surface of my bones makes it easy for the muscles to attach to them firmly. Each bone has certain durability that protects me from undue weight, flexure, twisting, and pressure. Bioengineers carefully examine my bones that have been created in a perfect form for where they are positioned and for what they do. They take my wonderful structure as a model, and they use it for producing new technology such as buildings or bridges. As you know, constructional engineers have to be very careful in their estimates of material and durability. They have to use different materials for different places, and these points will be exposed to forces like pressure, compression, tensile, or flexure (bending). If the estimates of the materials are not made accurately, the building or the bridge can easily collapse. When you humans build a strong building, it might be too heavy and bulky, resulting in a waste of material and money. Even if you use good quality material, if you do not use it in the right place, all your work might be unusable. Unlike human beings, the Creator has made me such a delicate and well-balanced system, in which you cannot find any material missing or unnecessary or any wrong line in a particular bone. That can only be explained with the boundless knowledge of God the Almighty. He knows exactly how you will be able to do hundreds of different movements in all your life-including running, lying down, jumping, lifting a heavy item, playing sports, writing, and eating. In order to allow you to perform those actions, He has created a perfect design for each piece of my bones and the joints that connect them.

In building my structure, He has used materials in different hardness and durability to make your movements easy. The first material is the bones. Not all bones are the same. Compact bone (dense bone) is found in my hardest parts. For example, the long bodies of the femur, the tibia, and the fibula (bones between knee and ankle) are made of compact bone, and they are very rigid and strong. Softer bones, which look like a sponge, are found at the edges of those long bones and within my flat bones. The second material, my cartilage, is placed at the bone edges and on the joints where, by absorbing excessive pressure, the cartilages are able to prevent damage to the surface of joints and to the nerves that go through the vertebra. My cartilages achieve this thanks to their soft and flexible substance, which also provides a perfect aesthetical quality. In addition, because of this flexibility given by God, cartilages protect the bones from breaking easily (depending on the rigidity of the bones), and they balance your strong and abrupt movements. If it were not for the cartilages on the joints, not only the bony surface would be damaged but also my movements would be mechanical and harsh just like those of a robot. My third material is the ligament, and its main substance, the fibers, that are made of collagen protein. The fibers of this ligament are very strong straps, which hold my bones and cartilages together.

All my joints and tendons that fasten the muscles to my bones are tied up and strengthened by those ligament fibers, which vary in shape, length, and quality. The collagen fibers are also used as the basic substance of my bones and cartilages. Those fibers, which are placed among the cells of the tissues of my bones and cartilages, provide the tissues with strength and durability. The distribution of the fibers in my bones is determined according to the direction and intensity of the pressure coming upon me. To see an example, you can look at the head of my femur (between my knee and thigh) where it makes a joint with the thigh bone. The spread and design of the fibers placed right at this joint requires a flawless calculation, which you can better understand by examining a diagram of it.

Not all my joints are flexible in the same degree. For example, the joints in your skull, which protects your brain and sensorium, resemble the toothed blade of a saw. They are strong joints, which are firmly locked with each other, and they allow no mobility. Of course, it can be no one but God who is able to give my skull such strength and hardness, since He knows exactly how much protection my delicate brain, eyes, and ears need. Moreover, my skull is not shaped simply as a bony capsule; at certain places, God has put little channels for the blood vessels to go through, little cavities for the sensory organs, and a big hole for the spinal cord to connect to the brain. Can any of these be formed by coincidence? The joints between the vertebrae (little bones of your spine) are more movable than the skull and less movable than your fingers. They help to allow you stand upright and sit, twist, and bend or lie down. The joints in my shoulders and legs are freely movable, which enables you to do movements in all directions. Perhaps the most wonderful of all are the joints in your hands! It would not be a distortion to say that-behind all your work to make a discovery or an invention or a new technology-is the skillful creation of my hand joints. Everything that you use with your hands-including all kinds of tools, furniture or appliances, art works, and books-can be produced or utilized only through the perfect ability of my joints to move. If my fingers lacked that great ability to move freely, many of my thoughts or intentions would not be able to be translated into actions.

Your muscles that help in the movement of all my movable parts have to attach to my bones to be supported. While one end of your muscle holds my bone firmly, the other end pulls another bone with the help of the joints. That is how movement in your body occurs and how you can take a step, do exercise, or wave your hand.

Although not as much as the skin, I have a very good ability to renew myself. When one of my bones is broken, if you line up the two pieces exactly in relationship to each other, the bone cells, called osteoblast, quickly divide to produce new cells, fill the gap, and repair the break. Then, I take calcium salts, which harden and strengthen the area, and gain back my health. Calcium is a vital mineral in the growth of bones. When you are a little but growing fetus in your mother’s womb, you need plenty of calcium for your bones to develop. If your mother gets sufficient amounts of dairy products, fish, and green vegetables, there will not be a calcium deficiency. But the good news is that, even if an expectant mother does not get enough calcium, the unborn baby is unlikely to have calcium deficiency. That is because Our Lord God, whose Mercy is infinite, provides baby with calcium by making it be absorbed from the mother’s bones and teeth and ensures the healthy development of the baby’s tiny skeleton. The mother has the willpower to feed herself, but since the baby is helpless, its need is met by the calcium taken from the mother’s body. After birth, the baby has to be nourished well with calcium and vitamin D by means of healthy foods, and it has to have enough exposure to sunlight. In order to maintain my health, my biggest need is calcium salts and vitamin D, a vitamin that needs the body’s exposure to the sun in order to contribute to healthy bone growth. For this reason, you have to take care of me especially at your young age. If you do not get those salts and vitamins, your bones will not develop well, and this could result in skeleton disorders.

The cavities within my bones are called marrow cavities (or medullar space) and they have important duties too. If your bones were filled merely with bony substance, my weight would be too much, and you would not even be able to stand up. Moreover, my bones would not be as strong as they are now. According to calculations with static forces, a rounded iron stick, which is filled, is less durable than the one with a hole in it, and the stick with a hole in it can be bent easily. My long, rounded bones have been designed according to that principle, and they are more resistant to twisting and bending. Another important function of my marrow cavities is to house the production of little red blood corpuscles, which have important duties within the blood. When you are young, all my bone marrows are red, and they produce red blood cells. Then, slowly after the puberty, the bone marrows in my long rounded bones start to turn yellow, get fatty, and produce white blood cells. The spongy bone marrows in my flat bones, however, stay red in color during your entire life, and they keep producing red blood cells.

The shape and size of my bones and their proportions to each other all determine the shape and quality of your body. Although I develop according to my genetically inherited qualities, the loads that you made me carry and outside impacts all affect my development significantly. When you are a baby, my bones start out as cartilages. At young ages when I am just starting to become bony, if I have to carry too heavy things, I start to harden and become bony too fast. This leads to the incomplete growth of the length of your neck bones, and your arms and legs which will remain too short. Playing basketball or volleyball stimulates the growth and elongation of your bones. Mineral salts, vitamin D, and the hormones secreted by the parathyroid gland play role in the ossification of my bones. The elongation of my long bones is achieved by the cell division and formation of new cells in the areas called epiphysis, which are the rounded ends of the long bones. This bone-lengthening process ends after puberty. While the lengthening of bones stops earlier in girls around ages eighteen or nineteen, it continues in boys until the ages twenty-one or twenty-two, which is the reason why men are generally taller than women.

When you were born, all of my components were cartilages, which are very soft and flexible. That is the measure that the all-knowing and all-caring God has taken, to ensure that neither you nor your dear mother gets any harm during your birth. If I became bony before the birth, your mother could die, and many of your bones could break during the birth. However, thanks to the cartilaginous components, which are like plastic, the risk of death and becoming disabled decreases greatly. As you become older, the cartilages are replaced with bone cells, and the accumulation of calcium salts make me hard and bony. The cartilages remained only on the joint surfaces and at the ends of ribs.

Dear Peter! Now it is time to ask a question that might bother you a little: have you ever been at a reopening of a grave? Sometimes in graveyards, when they do not have extra space for new burial, the dead person’s body is buried next to a body that belonged to a family member. When the grave is reopened, you can clearly see that, except for the newly buried body, all parts of the other dead body have been mingled with the earth. You can see that only my skull and other bone components have remained without decaying. After a very long time, those bones will decay too but much later than my other tissues. In the past, when the Holy Qur’an was just being revealed, some people refused to believe in God and the Day of Judgment, and asked: “Who is going to resurrect those decayed bones?”(Qur’an 36:78). The following verse is an answer: “Say, ‘He who created them in the first place will give them life again: He has full knowledge of every act of creation’” (Qur’an 36:79). In many other verses of the Qur’an, which deal with both the first creation and the Judgment Day, also mention decayed or dried bones, which still exist after many years. This means that God wants to draw your attention to the bones of your body! Perhaps, He is saying: “O, Peter! I created your bones, your joints, and your whole skeleton flawlessly. I took all measures for you to be able to live your life perfectly; to the littlest details, I created a delicate body, mind, and soul free of defects or faults. When I created you that perfectly, do you think I took something else as a model, or applied someone else’s plans? Not at all! Therefore, I, who created you out of nothing with my infinite knowledge and might, will of course be able to recreate you!”

Well, Peter! That is how I understand my Creator and the message of His Holy Book, which appeals to all of humanity. Your ability of comprehension and appreciation is more perfect than mine. Therefore, each time you move your body or body parts, just think of the wonderful pieces of bone accompanying and supporting your organs. Reflecting on them for some time will gain you a fresh view of life. That is what I wish as your skeleton!

Irfan Yilmaz is a professor of biology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.