Diabetes is one of the most serious public health risks today. The United Nations declared diabetes as a global threat in 2007 in order to highlight just how widespread and destructive diabetes had become.

Diabetes is one of the oldest known diseases, and was even mentioned in the ancient Egyptian, Indian, and Chinese texts. Ancient Egyptian texts defined diabetics as “… so thirsty that if they drank all the water of the Nile, their thirst would still not be quenched.” The ancient Indian and Chinese texts mention insects and flies swarming over the urine discharged by the diabetics.

Ancient scientists Al-Razi and Ibn Sina (Avicenna) made important findings about diabetes. Al-Razi linked diabetes with obesity and nutrition habits. Ibn Sina specified that no tissues or organs could survive diabetes, which additionally caused sexual dysfunctions and gangrenes.

There are two main problems that emerge in relation to diabetes:

• Type 1: Lack of adequate secretion of the insulin hormones from the pancreas
• Type 2: Non-functional and insulin-resistant tissues, regardless of adequate insulin secretion

These two types do not coexist in one patient. The first occurs mostly among children or young people. The second occurs mostly among the elderly who largely contract diabetes due to obesity. Diabetes can be detected by a surge of sugar in the blood and urine. If blood sugar exceeds a certain limit then sugar will appear in urine.

Diabetes reveals itself by a surge of sugar in the blood and the urine. It not only impairs the sugar balance of the body, but also disrupts the fat and protein metabolism. Cells fail to absorb sugar, fats, and amino acids, which in turn increases sugar, fat, and amino acid levels in the bloodstream. It can plainly be said that diabetes complications originate from an increase in fat levels, not sugar levels, in the blood. Additionally, diabetic disorders in fat metabolism cause the lethal appearance of acid levels in the blood (acidosis) and vascular stiffness (arteriosclerosis). Decrease in protein-synthesis ability among patients with long-term diabetes leads to depletion of tissues and multiple cellular dysfunctions. Consequently, diabetes originating from insulin deficiency disrupts the fat and protein metabolism along with the sugar metabolism.

The pancreatic gland is where insulin is released in our body. The surgical removal of this gland in experimental animals showed that fat levels in their bloodstreams increased faster than sugar levels. In diabetics, fat around the abdomen and hips oozes into the bloodstream, thus leading to an increase in neutral fat (triglyceride) and cholesterol levels in the blood along with an accumulation of fat in the liver.

If fats remain in the bloodstream after nutrition, then they begin to adhere to vein walls which can cause clogging and stiffness in blood vessels. That is why it is crucial to transfer fat from the bloodstream to fat storage around the abdomen and hips by means of sugar and insulin. The storage fat is called neutral oil, or triglyceride. A triglyceride molecule contains three units of oil and one unit of sugar. Therefore, almost 25% of the fat storage is sugar. Without sugar supply from bloodstream, as in the case of diabetes, the cells which by default store fat are unable to do so. Diabetes, as a serious disorder, even reverses this mechanism: fats start moving from the storage to the bloodstream, not from the bloodstream to the storage. This causes the surge of all fats including the triglycerides, cholesterol and phospholipids, and this is when the body becomes even more prone to disease.

Obesity or excessively fat-based (steatopygic) diet is one of the main causes of diabetes. People are already overweight before the disorder strikes. However, if they do not receive treatment after contracting diabetes, the diabetics start losing weight quickly and more than they should. This happens because relatively harmless fats in storage start to dissolve into the bloodstream.

The entity called metabolic acidosis, which can cause coma and death in diabetics, actually originates from the surge of fat products in the blood and the liver, not from the surge in blood sugar. In diabetics, when the cells cannot use sugar, they resort to obtaining their energy from fats. Consequently, stored fats start to dissolve and ooze into the bloodstream. Fats traveling to the liver through the bloodstream turn into acidic substances called ketone bodies (acetoacetic acid, beta hydroxy butyric acid, and acetone). These acidic substances pass from the liver to the bloodstream and are received by the cells to meet their energy needs. However, in diabetics, cells cannot convert these acidic fat products i.e. ketone bodies, into energy. Oxaloacetic acid from sugars is required for the energy production cycle called the Krebs cycle. In short, humans need sugar to burn fat. This is why it is normal for some people to feel the need to eat something sweet after a fatty meal, because they need sugar to dissolve the fats in their bloodstreams. Since the cells cannot draw sugar from the blood, they suffer from the deficiency of oxaloacetic acid to convert fats into energy. Fats and ketone bodies teem in the bloodstream and, since ketone bodies are acidic, they can cause acidity levels to surge to extremely high levels in the bloodstream which can result in a coma or even sudden death. The lethal substances here are not sugars but ketone bodies, or fat products.

The most crucial abnormality caused by diabetes is vascular stiffness (arteriosclerosis), which originates not from excess sugar but excess fat in the bloodstream. In diabetics, triglyceride, cholesterol, and phospholipid levels increase in the bloodstream due to the reasons described earlier. Fats in the bloodstream do not circulate freely; they are carried in micro-droplets called lipoprotein. The liver loads the fats onto lipoprotein “trucks” and sets them into the bloodstream to be used by the cells. However, due to insulin deficiency in diabetics, lipoproteins cannot empty their shipments of fat into fat storages. The most dangerous lipoproteins for vascular stiffness are classified as LDL (low-density lipoprotein) and HDL (high-density lipoprotein) types. HDLs are like empty trucks specially produced by the liver, which dispatches them into the bloodstream. While circulating in the bloodstream, these “trucks” collect the fat and cholesterol stuck on the vein walls like magnets and, after cleaning the inner vein walls, they return as loaded trucks back to the liver. Using the HDL “trucks,” the liver removes fat from the bloodstream. Physicians gauge the LDL and HDL levels while checking their patients for the risk of vascular stiffness. An increase or decrease in LDL rate is not good for patients, whereas high HDL rate is a positive sign.

Other causes of vascular stiffness include lack of exercise, sedentary life and work habits, smoking, alcohol consumption, obesity, overconsuming foods rich in animal fat, and high blood pressure. Vascular stiffness is one of the leading causes of cardiac dilatation (enlarged heart), cardiac insufficiency (heart failure), and heart attack. In addition to these complications, vascular stiffness may also lead to high blood pressure, cerebral hemorrhage, paralysis, kidney failure, and vascular occlusion in the brain or other organs. If not treated, almost all of these disorders result in death.

Diabetics should follow an effective treatment regime to keep their blood sugar level under control. Fasting is known to be beneficial for controlling blood sugar. If blood sugar is normal, the fats in the bloodstream will move to the storage and not damage the blood vessels. Among the elderly and the obese diabetics, any damage originating from high blood sugar does not surface immediately, and this may mislead patients. It is extremely crucial to check blood sugar in order not to fall into this error. Treatment should never be neglected. If blood sugar can be effectively reduced, it is not right to give up sugar completely in the diet. As mentioned earlier, humans need sugar for storing fats or converting fats (or ketones) into energy in the Krebs cycle.

In short, high blood fat is a more serious cause of diabetes than high blood sugar.

Our body is perfectly coordinated to regulate our blood sugar level. But when our insulin levels are artificially altered, serious diseases can occur.

The human body needs energy. ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is to each cell in the body what gasoline is to a car. This energy is stored inside the bonds of the three phosphate molecules attached to an adenosine nucleotide. The light energy that exists in the sun’s rays is converted into chemical energy, stored in the form of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats through the photosynthetic reactions taking place in the chloroplasts of plants. Molecules of chemical energy are broken down in the mitochondria organelle of the cells in order to utilize their energy for ATP synthesis. This chemical energy (ATP) derived from nutrients is used by the eyes to see, the ears to hear, the hands to grab, the feet to walk, the heart to pump blood, the stomach to digest foods, the kidneys to filter blood, red blood cells to carry oxygen, white blood cells to fight germs, and the brain to think, memorize, and remember.

ATP is primarily synthesized from glucose – commonly known as blood sugar (glycolysis) – in approximately 100 trillion cells in our body. Glucose means fast energy. A sensitive metabolic balance is established (homeostasis) to maintain a blood glucose concentration in between 70-100 mg/dl for a nonstop energy flow and to prevent any cellular damage. If this balance is thrown out of order, many medical problems will ensue, primarily cardio-vascular diseases. How is the homeostatic balance of blood sugar maintained in healthy people?

Maintenance of blood sugar balance

The blood sugar balance is provided by the assistance and cooperation of the pancreas, liver, fat tissue, muscle tissue, the brain, the digestive system, and the kidneys. The chiefs of the orchestra here are the insulin and glucagon hormones synthesized in the pancreas, which operate in great harmony and yet have opposite functions. Insulin is in charge of dropping blood sugar; however glucagon increases it.  

The fine balance of blood sugar is conserved before we sense it for various energy situations such as exercise, sleep, or various energy intake cases such as overeating or skipping a meal. The real hunger is the 8-10 hour long “night fasting” period. During this time, since there is no food intake, the glucose that cells require for energy production is obtained from reserves in the liver. Thus, cells get their energy and blood sugar levels are kept at normal levels. If there is no additional food intake and the fasting time becomes longer, the glycogen reserves of the liver get consumed within 10-18 hours and necessary energy is obtained from fats and proteins. However, real fullness corresponds to a period of 4-6 hours “after meal.” During this time, the complex and macro size carbohydrates are converted to glucose in the liver and this glucose is stored as glycogen. Because the glucose storage capacity of the liver, which has numerous tasks, is limited, the excess glucose is stored by conversion into fatty acids. The unspent excess calories from three meals eaten in five hour intervals will be stored in either the liver or as fat tissue during the 12-18 hour long fullness period. The utilization of fats stored in the humps of camels which form by food intake to compensate for their energy and water needs during long desert travel can be given as an example of this.

In fact, when we say “I am hungry,” we acknowledge that the time has come to resupply our ATP reserves of nearly 100 trillion cells. The most important stimulator for the secretion of insulin from the pancreas is glucose. With the first bite, the readied insulin reserves of the pancreas are released into the bloodstream. This event, which takes place approximately within the first 6-10 minutes, is called the first-phase insulin response. With the language of reduced glucagon as a result of increased insulin, the message that it is no longer necessary to release glucose into the blood is transmitted to the liver. The blood sugar levels increase with continuing food intake (hyperglycemia) and this information is relayed to the pancreas through hormones secreted by intestinal cells. As directed by this signal, the proper insulin amount necessary for blood sugar levels is secreted into the bloodstream from the pancreas. This is called the late-phase insulin response.

The tasks of insulin

Cells are in need of insulin to uptake glucose into capillary vessels. Insulin binds itself to its specific receptor on the membrane of a cell, conducting its message, especially to muscle tissue. It’s saying, “The glucose food that you need is brought here by the blood vessels, and you can retrieve it.” After receiving the message inside the cell, GLUT (glucose transporters) molecules, which are in charge of glucose intake and are stored in the cytoplasmic vesicle pool, are carried to the cellular surface. Molecular gates are established once these molecules merge with the cellular membrane for the entrance of glucose through it. Glucose is inserted into the cell via this gate. The retired GLUTs are collected back in the cytoplasmic pools after cellular energy demand is met.

While these events are taking place, commands are given to the liver to prepare for the load of glucose arriving from the intestines and for adipose tissue to store the excess fat. These meticulous processes last for approximately two hours. The blood sugar level recedes back to its normal limits, but the activities of the liver and the adipose tissue continue at a rapid pace. If overeating occurs, the liver cannot take such a load. This can cause a delay in its functions, which will cause the body to feel tired.

The insulin and glucagon hormones have a half life of 3-5 minutes and are rendered ineffective in the liver and kidneys once they conclude their tasks. Thus, the body prevents lower blood sugar levels because of high insulin concentrations (hypoglycemia) or because of higher glucagon levels; it also prevents higher blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia).

The disruption of the blood sugar balance

Diabetes is the chronic observation of blood sugar above normal limits. This happens when the insulin hormone levels secreted from the pancreas are reduced and not able to carry out their function. There might be genetic factors present that contribute to diabetes; however, stress, a lack of exercise, obesity, and the consumption of processed foods containing elevated levels of carbohydrates often lead to the onset of diabetes in adults. The fine balance in between the liver, pancreas, muscles, and fat tissue can be disrupted by the following reasons:

1. If the number of cells in charge of insulin production in the pancreas decreases, sufficient insulin cannot be produced.
2. The message of insulin cannot be retrieved completely because of a disruption occurring at the receptors where insulin binds on cells, or due to lower numbers.
3. There may be a problem with reactions regarding GLUT production in accordance with the internal message retrieved upon bondage of insulin to the receptors.
4. During fullness, if the necessary suppression of glucagon production in pancreatic cells is not adequate, the glucose release from the liver continues.
5. The secretion of late-phase insulin response hormones in charge of pancreatic stimulation from the intestines is reduced.
6. Emptiness of the stomach is delayed, and a longer absorption time of nutrients occurs.
7. The appetite center is over stimulated and the urge to eat increases.

If the reasons above take place, then the blood sugar level is above normal. Normal blood sugar drops below 140 mg/dl two hours after a meal in healthy people, whereas this cannot be maintained in diabetic patients.

An iron pipe with salty sea water running through it for years is similar to a capillary vessel that has blood with high sugar levels inside it in terms of the damage that they undergo. Once hypertension and cholesterol joins diabetes, the heart, eyes, and kidneys will not function properly. These organs are great blessings granted to our body which we often appreciate only once we lose them. Therefore we must follow an intermediate path in eating and drinking, just as in every situation, avoiding excess.

Among tropical fruits, bananas are probably the most popular, and with good reason. They are delicious and nutritious, and can be consumed by everyone, from babies to seniors.

The banana plant belongs to the Musa genus. The varieties preferred for cultivation are two hybrid species, Musa accuminata and Musa balbisiana. These types are mostly produced in Southeast Asia, Africa, and South and North America.

There are many varieties of banana. Short Cavendish, mid-sized Grand Nines, and longer Chiquita are some of those. The main harvesting occurs in September and October, but bananas can be produced year round in greenhouses.

Bananas are not reproduced by seeds. They reproduce through tissue culture – pieces of tubers or underground shoots. Underground perennial tubers spread horizontally and grow roots. Once the leaves and sheaths inside the annual aerial pseudostem reach a certain number, a flower bud is developed. The flower stalk, rising among the leaf bundles that are in the center of the pseudostem, carries the purple colored flowers that will become fruit.

When these flowers bloom, sounds can be heard. These sounds occur during the tearing of stem when the flowers force away from the crust to form the banana clusters; this is also known as inflorescence. While the buds are quickly developing, the purple leaves open and flowers become visible. Once the flower inflorescence emerges completely, it bends towards the ground. Fruits then form. Since the banana is a parthenocarpic plant, its fruit is generated without pollination from female flowers, like seedless grapes. The approximate time required for flowers to give fruit and become ripe is three months (1).    

Bananas are rich in nutrients. There is 1.1 gr. of protein, only 0.2 gr. of fat, 22 gr. of carbohydrates (fructose, glucose, sucrose and starch, cellulose, pectin), along with minerals like potassium, calcium, iron, phosphate, copper, zinc, and magnesium in 100 grams of a banana. It also contains fruit acids, along with vitamins A, B1, B2, B6, B9, C, D, E and P vitamins. Before bananas ripen, when they are still green, they contain approximately 1% sugar and 20% starch. As they ripen, the sugar content rises to 20% and the starch level drops to 1%.  

Bananas are harvested green and unripe and are matured in a closed environment. Unripe bananas can be stored for up to 15 days at 5-10 degree Celsius and 80-90% relative humidity. Maturation is enabled via ethylene gas, in storage rooms or during shipment. The shell becomes completely yellow, with brown spots, when the banana ripens. These spots indicate the sufficient conversion of starches into sugars. It is recommended to consume the ripe fruit as soon as possible.

In the past, the transportation of mature fruits to remote regions was a major problem, but this is not the case today. It is because methylcyclopropene (MCP) is used to delay the ripening of the fruit. When MCP is used, it binds to ethylene receptors, and slows down maturation (2). The proper storage temperature is 13-15 degrees (Celsius), so they get darker in the fridge faster. Therefore, it is advised to store them in a suitable place in a paper bag (3).

Even though they are usually eaten raw, as a fruit, some banana types are consumed after cooking. They can also be utilized as chips, baby food, puree, flour, or juice. In some places, banana flowers are used in salads and as decoration. Furthermore, bananas are employed in facial and skin care products. The leaves and stalks of the banana plant may also be used in the construction of roofs, and the fibers can be used as ropes, upholsteries, or even hats.  

According to the statistics of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the annual production was 55-60 million tons in 1995, whereas it is 90-100 million tons today. 25% of the production occurs in India, and the majority of the rest takes place in the Philippines, China, Brazil, and Ecuador. Even though they are grown in various parts of the world and traded widely, bananas are mostly imported by developed countries.

Benefits of the banana

Bananas can help prevent many diseases or provide complementary aid to different therapies. When a banana is blended with milk, it can serve as an ideal starter food for babies, and can also reduce wear and tear on the body, delaying aging.

Bananas have been shown to help after stomach or intestinal bleeding, and in patients with ulcers or various laryngeal problems. They can help prevent acid reflux. The sodium and potassium contained in bananas are effective for restoring heart beat rhythms and the body’s osmotic balance. Since bananas are rich in iron, they’re beneficial for anemia. Due to a high amount of serotonin, bananas can actually make people happier, improving our decision making and concentration. Because they can actually make us less depressed, bananas are a recommended snack (5).

Bananas help support the development of children’s skeletal structures, and can ease the pain of menstrual cramps. Aside from being an energy source, bananas help the nervous system function properly, maintaining the acid-base balance of bodily fluids and strengthening the immune system. Because of high magnesium and potassium, they help us sleep better – thus making a banana the perfect midnight snack!

Carbohydrates can cause instant blood sugar spikes, but they are also the most important energy source of the brain, central nervous system, and muscles. When blood sugar rises, it is stored as sugar or fat with the help of insulin secreted by the pancreas. This can cause obesity, or even diabetes, if a person ingests too many carbohydrates. Therefore, one must consume high sugar foods like bananas at the right time, and in the right amount.

Beta-carotene, one of the precursors of vitamin A, happens to be abundant in bananas. Beta-carotene helps with the neutralization of free radicals, supports the immune system, prevents cardio-vascular disease, and is protective against cancer. It’s more beneficial when taken together with vitamin E and C, which are also found in bananas.

The good news keeps coming! Due to a high amount of fiber, bananas are great for dieting and can also prevent colon and bowel cancers. Bananas can also help to regulate bowel functions.

Genetically modified banana plants are also employed for the synthesis of vaccine proteins used against Hepatitis, rabies, dysentery, cholera and other intestinal infections (7).

As you can see, the banana has been imbued with an extraordinary amount of positive properties. It’s not difficult to look at bananas as an amazing blessing bestowed upon humanity.

A sugar is a monosaccharide if it is made up of a single sugar molecule; it is disaccharide if it is built by two sugar molecules; and a polysaccharide if it is composed with multiple sugar molecules.

Sugars that we ingest are broken, in the digestive system, into monosaccharides of glucose, fructose, and galactose. Almost all of the absorbed monosaccharides are first converted into glucose in the liver. This conversion is a very important task of the liver: 80% of the sugars passing into the blood are glucose. As a result, very limited amounts of fructose and galactose are present in the blood. Therefore, when blood sugar is mentioned, normally glucose is taken into consideration and the fructose and galactose levels in the blood are ignored. Glucose, which is also called grape sugar, is most abundantly found in grapes, while fructose is called fruit sugar, as it is plentiful in fruits, and galactose is named milk sugar after its dense presence in milk. The most important characteristic of fructose is that it is sweeter compared to other simple sugars.

Insulin is secreted from the pancreas in order to lower elevated blood glucose levels after digestion. Insulin functions in the transport of glucose from the blood into cells to provide necessary energy, therefore reducing blood sugar levels; furthermore, it also plays a role in the storage of excess glucose as glycogen, which is found primarily in the liver. Once glycogen storage limits are reached in the liver and muscles, glucose is then stored as fat. Fat tissue acts as sustenance during long fasting periods.

Differences between fructose, glucose, and galactose

Glucose and galactose are absorbed actively, depending on salt. They cannot be absorbed without salt while passing through the intestines. Salt is necessary for the absorption of glucose which is present in the starches of potatoes and other foods. Thus, when potato is consumed with salt, the transport of glucose into the blood is facilitated.

However, salt is not necessary in the case of fructose absorption. The intestinal absorption of fructose contained in fruit is delayed by fruit fibers, since these fibers prevent or balance the transport of fructose into the bloodstream. However, when fructose is ingested as a fruit juice, it is absorbed and joins the bloodstream much faster because of the lower fiber content.

A person feels full after a meal when neurons in the satiety center of the hypothalamus are stimulated by elevated blood glucose. Then, hunger center neurons are repressed, eliminating the feeling of hunger. Therefore, a person reduces their food intake during a meal as their blood glucose levels increase. Increased levels of amino acids and fatty acids in the blood also suppress hunger and stimulate fullness after meal. However, one important point is that fructose does not stimulate fullness in the brain. Therefore, if the blood fructose levels are elevated instead of glucose, a person cannot generate a sensation of fullness sensation. As a result, a person desires to intake more food during consumption of fructose. It is only possible for fructose to generate fullness after it has been converted into glucose by liver.

How to consume fruits?

We should prefer direct consumption of fruits instead of drinking natural or industrial fruit juices because of the high fructose content of fruits. The Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, consumed fruits before meals, the wisdom of which we learn only today. Fruits should be consumed at least an hour before or two hours after a meal, for sufficient time should be given for the fructose of an ingested fruit to be absorbed by the intestines and converted to glucose by the liver. Such practices will result in a reduced appetite and food intake. If fruit is consumed after a meal, a delay occurs in the conversion of fructose into glucose since the liver will be occupied by other biochemical processes, along with a full storage of nutrients; this will increase blood fructose levels and fail to reduce appetite. Fatty liver occurs as a consequence of high fat content of the blood. Arteriosclerosis and cirrhosis of the liver may be seen in people with a habit of excessive post-meal fruit consumption.

In a research carried out on laboratory animals, it was found that glucose induces fullness in the hypothalamus and suppresses food intake, whereas fructose was found to repress this effect of glucose, stimulating food intake.¹ Insulin reduces the harms of accumulating sugar in the blood by increasing lipid synthesis. Insulin also takes place in leptin secretion from adipose (fatty) tissue. Leptin is important in the prevention of obesity; therefore, insulin helps in weight loss, too. The leptin hormone causes reduced food intake by stimulating nerve cells in certain parts of the hypothalamus.² Fructose does not cause any leptin secretion because it does not stimulate an insulin release; therefore, it is not effective in generating a sense of fullness.

Ghrelin is a hormone secreted into blood by stomach cells during hunger. This hormone, which produces stomach acids, is enacted through the hypothalamus. It induces hunger, and therefore increases appetite. Insulin secretion increases along with the blood glucose levels during satiety. This eventually causes the increase of the leptin hormone, which also leads to a decrease in ghrelin secretion. As a result, fructose gets absorbed more than glucose in the intestines. Elevated fructose in the blood leads to insufficient or reduced insulin secretion. In this case, a person continues eating.

Fructose and diseases

Free circulation of lipids in the blood damages arteries and veins. For this reason, lipids are transported in “molecular vehicles” that are called as high, low, and very low density lipoproteins (HDL, LDL and VLDL). Neutral lipids (triglycerides) that are present on VLDL (very low density) vehicles are broken down with an enzyme. These lipids are then unloaded from the vehicles by cellular uptake and stored as fats. This transfer of lipids into adipose (fatty) tissue is enhanced via the insulin hormone. In the case of fructose intake, without its insulin secretion effect, lipids accumulate in the blood and liver and eventually prepare ground for liver damage and arteriosclerosis.As the result of a fructose based diet in laboratory animals, it was discovered that lipid production shifted from adipose tissue into the liver, therefore elevating the risk of high blood and liver fat levels.

There are two reasons for this shift. The first one is that fructose acts on the fat producing enzymes of the liver whereas it does not act likewise in adipose tissue.

Secondly, fructose plays an inhibitory role in the conversion of glucose into lipids in adipose tissue. Also, fructose consumption in humans has been linked to elevated blood fat levels.

Overconsumption of fructose causes increased liver fat synthesis. Phosphofructokinase is the limiting enzyme regarding the breakdown of glucose in the liver. This enzyme is regulated by citrates and ATP produced by glucose catabolism and the Krebs cycle, limiting glucose breakdown. However, there is no such limitation in fructose breakdown. Through fructose catabolism, glucose, glycogen, pyruvate, lactate, glycerol and the acyl part of acylglycerol are synthesized. This synthesis can not be limited. As a result of this excessive output and high amounts of triglycerides, VLDL is produced.³ It has been found that persons who consume two or more boxes of fructose sweetened beverages every day carry a 35% higher risk of heart disease.⁴

This isn’t the only disease associated with fructose. In some studies on laboratory animals, it has been reported that a high fructose diet is associated with hypertension.⁵ A lot of research exists suggesting that excessive fructose consumption leads to insulin resistance in both the liver and peripheral tissues, which can often cause diabetes.⁶ In a recent study, it was claimed that excessive fructose intake poses risks for renal diseases leading to glomerular hypertension, renal damage, and inflammation and damage to renal tubules and tissues.⁷

In a study conducted on 21,483 Americans who were older than two years, daily consumption of 37 gr. of fructose (8% of total calorie need) was found to be elevated to 54.7 grams (10.2% of total calorie need) gradually between the years of 1988-1994, mostly consumed by younger people. Increased use of fructose syrup was linked to obesity during the last 35 years.⁸ Furthermore, in a study carried on 1,749 male and female children and teenagers, a positive relation was found between body mass index (BMI) and excessive consumption of carbonated beverages containing high fructose concentrations.⁹ There many studies that support this report.¹⁰ Excessive fructose consumption is known to cause “metabolic syndrome” in which many diseases like obesity, arteriosclerosis, and diabetes emerge together.

Are fruit juices harmful?

Fructose syrup is being used at increasing rates in the food industry. According to the annual report of US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the year 2000, fructose syrups are sugar solutions containing approximately more than 50 % fructose. It is often synthesized by a conversion of corn starch into glucose by glucose isomerase.¹¹ There is also a third syrup type containing 90% fructose, however this has limited uses.

The sweetness of fructose syrup is similar to that of table sugar. It prevents the dehydration of food with its hydrophilic character. It is mostly used in aromatic foods, especially carbonated beverages and fruit juices. It prevents the proliferation of microbes with its high osmotic pressure property and makes food more resistant against them. Syrups containing 42 to 55% of fructose are used in baked goods, cereal products, dairy products, processed foods, both carbonated and regular beverages, ice creams, and frozen desserts. High fructose syrups are used in foods to decrease water activity and prevent spoilage.

Fructose syrups have a very low ash level due to application of intense purification processes during production and product color is water-white. Therefore colors of fructose used industrial foods are white as well. Fructose syrups have a lower viscosity and density compared to glucose syrups and therefore it is runny like water and not as sticky.

How to consume sugars after a meal?

Especially after a fatty meal, our body seeks sugar. The reason behind this is the requirement of sugar for the storage of lipids into fat tissue. However, this sugar should absolutely be glucose instead of fructose. Therefore, some amount of sugar can be consumed to facilitate the removal of lipids from blood after meals. This is recommended to lower blood lipid levels. However, this should not be done with fruits but with natural sugars like grape molasses. A baklava or a dessert made with industrial sugars (fructose) will not be beneficial but harmful.

In conclusion, the consumption of corn-derived fructose syrup is gradually increasing in recent years. Fructose syrup is used both in various carbonated or regular soft beverages, and in desserts. The reason for our fructose syrup preference is that it helps preserve foods longer and it leads to food addiction because it enhances appetite due to its strong sweetness. Fructose syrup is synthesized by the conversion of natural glucose in corn into fructose by isomerase enzymes. In this sense, today’s increased consumption of fructose is altering the existing sugar balance of natural food items. Overconsumption of fructose can pave the way to obesity, metabolic syndrome, arteriosclerosis, diabetes, hypertension, and arteriosclerotic heart and kidney diseases.

Arifagaoglu is a professor of medicine in Ankara, Turkey.

References

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11. Melanson KJ, Angelopoulos TJ, Nguyen V, Zukley L, Lowndes J, Rippe JM. High-fructose corn syrup, energy intake, and appetite regulation. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008; 88(6):1738S-1744S.

The cell is the structural, functional, and biological unit of all organisms. All information needed for numerous processes in a cell, including repair and division, is contained in DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA is a huge single molecule with intriguing features. How can a single molecule have such a dominant role in preserving information essential for the continuation of life? What are the mechanisms and levels of organization during its function? What does DNA mean for a single cell or for a human being? It’s impossible to answer these great questions in a single article; however, understanding the ways DNA exerts its role, DNA’s impact on multiple levels ranging from a single cell to an organism, and coordination between various levels, can potentially open up new frontiers in our mind and in our perception of life.

“Double helix” architecture of DNA DNA has an elegant structure that forms the basis for all of its functions. DNA is a repeating structure of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is formed of a phosphate group, 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose) and a nitrogen-containing base attached to the sugar from outside to inside (See Figure 1a for a schematic view of DNA). There are four types of nucleotides in DNA, differing only in bases. We can consider bases as the identity of nucleotides. These four nucleotides are shown with letters A (adenine), T (thymine), G (guanine) and C (cytosine). Thousands of nucleotides bound with sugar-phosphate covalent bonds come together to form long strings. The sugar-phosphate backbone can be imagined as the steelwork of a skyscraper. The nice thing about nucleotides is their specific match to each other in double helix. A forms a base pair with only T, and G forms a base pair with only C. These pairs are bound to each other with hydrogen bonds. This feature is the key that makes DNA a double ladder. Two strings of nucleotides form a double helix by selective interactions of As with Ts, and Gs with Cs (See Figure 1b for 3-D structure of DNA). In DNA structure, hydrophobic bases tend to stay inside of double helix and hydrophilic sugar-phosphates stay outside interacting with water in nucleus. This feature helps DNA to form a double ladder. The length of the sugar-phosphate backbone is more than the bases. To compensate for the length difference, the sugar-phosphate backbone wraps around the bases inside, as a road wraps around a mountain to climb to the top. This simple difference is the main reason for DNA to form a helix.

The double-stranded nature of DNA with specific base pairing is one of its key features as genetic material. DNA is replicated using one strand as a template. Replication machinery reads one strand of DNA and builds the second strand by putting As against Ts and Gs against Cs. If a mutation occurs in one strand, it can be repaired using the second strand. This system is like photocopying DNA from itself instead of building it from scratch every time. That is why specific base pairing of nucleotides in the double helix makes it possible to replicate DNA through generations, protecting its integrity and information content. The code of DNA, an alphabet with four letters DNA contains the information to produce nano-sized cellular machineries called proteins. We mentioned that there are four types of nucleotides. Nucleotides are like letters in DNA, three of them are code for one amino acid of protein. We can make it more understandable by giving an example: “ATG-GCC-CTG-TGG-ATG” as a nucleotide sequence of DNA corresponds to the first five amino acids of a protein called insulin (a hormone regulating blood glucose level that is important in diabetes) and amino acid sequence is methionine-alanine-leucine-tryptophan-methionine. The code is so sensitive that even a single mistake in the sequence of DNA can cause serious diseases in humans such as sickle-cell disease or cystic fibrosis. With all these nucleotides, DNA can be thought of as a book containing amino acid sequence information for thousands of proteins (about 30,000 in humans). The amount of information contained in DNA is incredible: a typical human cell contains 2 meters of DNA that is tightly packed by proteins in the nucleus. If we tried to write the information from DNA into books, the book would contain over one billion words and 1,500,000 pages. DNA-protein interdependency and the cell as a micro-factory DNA can be thought of as an instruction manual that stores information for proteins and RNAs. Proteins, as molecular machines, perform particular tasks such as energy production and synthesis of DNA and RNA (See Figure 2 for the structure of proteins). Certain proteins read the information on DNA and make a transient copy of certain regions of DNA. These copies are called messenger-RNAs (mRNAs) and mRNAs are transported from nucleus to cytoplasm (See Figure 3 for representation of mRNA production from DNA by proteins). In cytoplasm, the information on mRNAs is read by protein complexes called ribosome. Ribosomes produce new proteins processing the data from mRNAs. This information flow from DNA to proteins is called central dogma in molecular biology (Figure 4). The data that is encoded in DNA can be read, translated, and put into the form of product only by proteins. We can conclude that for a protein to be produced, DNA is essential; for DNA regions to be read into proteins, proteins are essential. So, there is interdependency between proteins and DNA. Proteins without DNA have no future and no ability to regenerate and DNA without proteins is just like an instruction and manufacture manual of a computer without the user and computer itself. We can imagine the cell as a sophisticated factory, and proteins as the machines of the factory. DNA includes the instructions for the factory to be rebuilt and for itself to be rewritten for every new factory. It has instructions on how to build every machine in the factory. It has also codes for when and how much of these machines should be produced (we will discuss more about these codes on DNA in the next section). On the other hand, the timing and control of all these productions also depend on machines in the factory. Some of these machineries read and decode the instruction manual, some of them produce new machines by reading the decoded copies of the instruction manual, some of them act as sensors for the signals, some of them transmit signals to other machines, some of them produce signals by measuring the levels of materials in the factory, some of them function in communication with other factories, and so on. As we can see, DNA and proteins are meaningful for life only when they are together in the excellent cell context. This is a perfect example of the principle that the whole is bigger than the sum of its parts, because each element of the cell system has limited potential, until it comes together with the others to blossom into life.

The famous term “Gene” We can think of genes as functional units of DNA. A gene has the information content for at least one protein. Humans have about 20,500 genes that are read by protein machineries to produce proteins. Special proteins read the information on genes and make a transient copy of these certain regions of DNA. The process of making a copy of a gene as an mRNA is called transcription.

Genes don’t only store information; they have an intrinsic architecture of design to coordinate transcription utilizing three main components: promoter, coding region, and terminator. The promoter is the gene region that signals for the start of transcription. Protein machineries bind to the promoter and activate transcription. The coding region has the information for the amino acid sequence of the protein. The terminator region gives the stop signal for transcription. There are different functional regions on DNA located between separate genes such as enhancer regions that are platforms for binding regulatory proteins to tune the transcription.

The coding region of genes has multiple reading blocks for amino acid sequences and these reading blocks are called as exons. For some genes, different combinations of exons can be put together to give rise to different proteins. This mechanism allows one gene to be able to produce multiple proteins, increasing the efficiency of genetic material. A similar mechanism is used to produce antibodies (proteins recognizing foreign antigens) by the immune system. Different regional genes come together by a mechanism of DNA rearrangement (V(D)J recombination) and their differential combinations form many different antibodies. For example, a part of the antibody that is called a heavy chain is produced by a DNA region containing 65 variable (V) genes plus 27 diversity (D) genes and 6 joining (J) genes (5, 6). This produces a combination of 65 V genes x 27 D genes x 6 J genes = 10,530 heavy chains. There is a similar mechanism of rearrangement for light chain and variable region of antibodies, which result in millions of different antibodies for host antigens. A single example in the immune system shows us that DNA not only has a decent design for the coding system, but it also has ingenious and creative mechanisms to maximize its potential.

Gene expression is orchestrated during development and formation of organs The human body which consists of more than 1013 (ten trillion) cells is generated from a single cell called the zygote (see Figure 5). This tells us that, in a single cell, all the information and instructions to build and coordinate the systems of human body is encoded. Different tissues and organs including muscles, nerve cells, connective tissue, and eyes are fruits of one single cell. They all contain the same genetic information. Then what makes them different?

Promoters, enhancers, and repressors located in and nearby genes are important in spatial and temporal control of gene expression in different cell types of the body. Each cell type in our organs expresses a different subset of genes; this is what gives a cell its identity. For example, in muscles, myosin is expressed and in the eye’s retina, rhodopsin is expressed. Myosin functions in contraction and rhodopsin functions in vision. What determines the expression of rhodopsin in the eye but not in a muscle? The determination process occurs during development by programmed interactions of specific proteins called transcription factors, and restricted regions of DNA including promoters and enhancers. During development, certain regulatory proteins in a specific cell type, bind to DNA regions of only some genes (for example, in future retinal cells of the eye, rhodopsin gene would be activated but not myosin) and this predetermination orchestrates differential expression of genes to give rise to hundreds of different types of cells.

Different layers of complexity and organization related to DNA

There are different layers of function for DNA—each subtitle of this article tries to focus on a certain layer of function. DNA as a molecule has a double helix structure and is replicated through generations to preserve genetic information. It stores genetic information and has a four-letter alphabet for the expression of proteins. In the second layer, DNA has an informational unit called gene and thousands of genes are encoded in DNA to contain information for proteins. Each gene is controlled individually by making use of promoters and enhancers. In the third layer, all processes in the cell micro-factory as an entity are performed through interactions of DNA and proteins with each other and among themselves. Proteins read DNA code and work as cellular nano-machineries. In another layer, temporal and spatial expression of genes on DNA are orchestrated and different subsets of genes give rise to different cell types and organs. Organs communicate with each other to function properly and keep the balance and homeostasis of the body. The information stored in DNA not only coordinates highly sophisticated processes of a single cell, it simultaneously projects the whole body system of a human being, which is billions times bigger than a single cell.

DNA functions in all these different layers and keeps a great harmony in coordination between various layers of function. After grasping this complexity, organization and communication from a single molecule, to proteins, to a single cell, to tissues and organs, and to a human being by utilization of DNA, should not we ask ourselves, “can these elements come into existence by random forces and collisions?

References

1. Calladine, C. R. et al. 2004. Understanding DNA: The Molecule and How It Works, Academic Press

2. http://www.genome.gov

3. Li A, Rue M, Zhou J, et al. 2004. “Utilization of Ig heavy chain variable, diversity, and joining gene segments in children with B-lineage acute lymphoblastic leukemia: implications for the mechanisms of VDJ recombination and for pathogenesis.” Blood 103 June (12): 4602–9.

All the organs functioning in your body have a direct or indirect relationship with me. I can be compared to a kind of “chemical brain.” All metabolic activities are among my duties, including the control of excretions, digestion, and the composition of blood. You would be stupefied if I listed every single function I carry out, but let me tell you this much: biochemists have discovered that I am directly included in more than 80 different activities and related to more than 5,000 chemical reactions taking place in your body. Surprised? But this is only what they’ve learned so far; you do not know me in detail yet. My plain appearance is in contrast with my numerous functions. My size is about one-tenth of the body of a six-month-old fetus; now that you have become a young man, I weigh about one fiftieth of your body weight. Since I am the largest excretory organ in your body, I am firmly strapped with mesentery so you can run, jump, and make other movements without trouble.

Most people see me merely as a bile-producing organ, which happens to be among the simplest of my duties. Let me explain it another way: the heat I produce while working is equal to one-third of the heat your body produces while resting. I have a special circulatory system. Since I am located at a “junction,” the blood coming from the intestines which bear nutrient molecules come to my vein first together with the blood from the spleen, before joining the rest of the bloodstream. It can be compared to an obligatory customs check. The amount of blood I supervise within 24 hours is about 2,000 liters. With every heartbeat, almost 28 percent of the blood being pumped passes through me.

I adjust the level of blood sugar in a very sensitive balance. If you eat desserts or pastries I convert excess sugar into glycogen (animal starch) and store it. If your blood sugar decreases from hunger, I break down glycogen into sugar (glucose) and come to your help so that you do not come to a halt, like a car out of fuel.

I use various protein molecules to synthesize numerous enzymes. I also play a role in blood coagulation, red blood cell production, and storing the iron you need. You know, nothing is wasted in the divine system of nature. So how can I waste anything? When the aged red blood cells die, I help the spleen to break them down and store the iron they contain. My job in fat metabolism is no less important. Thanks to the bile I produce, the fatty food you eat is broken down to smaller molecules to be absorbed in a way similar to detergents remove oily remnants from dishes. Naturally, the fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) are also absorbed along the process. I store the excess of both these vitamins and fats. Fats are an important fuel particularly for your heart muscles. I excrete an average of 600–700 grams of bile a day. Two minutes after oily foods pass to duodenum the walls of my gallbladder are operated. Through contractions of 2–6 times a minute and a pressure of 25–30 mmHg, the bile is passed to duodenum in a time span of 15 to 90 minutes. What gives bile its yellowish-green color is the substance named bilirubin, which appears with the breaking down of the old red blood cells and disposed of through the bowels.

The Kuppffer cells—as you name them—have the duty of checking out newly produced blood cells one by one in addition to producing antibodies against germs. If any ill-formed blood cells come up, I must detect and destroy them. Otherwise they corrupt your blood. Thanks to the Kuppffer cells, the ill-formed blood cells are destroyed as soon as they are detected.

The average longevity of my cells varies between 150-180 days (220 days maximum). New cells are produced immediately to replace the dying ones and the system works smoothly. In each of these cells there are 1,000-3,000 mitochondria and millions of ribosome. An average of 180 new ribosome are produced every second. Although none of my cells have consciousness or intelligence, thousands of them come together to form little lobes resembling hexagons. The number of these lobes varies between 50,000 to 100,000.

Dear Peter, you intake various toxic substances together with the foods you eat. You don’t even realize that food has been corrupted by bacteria and fungi until its taste changes. Frankly, you should not have lived very long with so much toxic intake; Providence has given me an important duty to protect you from such harm. I capture these toxic compounds released into your bloodstream and neutralize them. The same goes for different medicines you take; I try to neutralize their toxic effects as well. But I have my own limits of tolerance; if I am faced with more toxic substances than I can handle, then I give signals of danger. You wonder how. Well, I shout “help” through red spots in your hands and itchy spots on your skin. You should be more careful about what goes down your throat.

Given that I fulfill various important functions, the littlest failure in me reveals itself as a health problem immediately. Hepatitis is among the common diseases heralding my failure. Excessive increase of bilirubin in your blood causes the white of your eye and your skin to turn yellow. I fear viruses most. Particularly hepatitis B and C viruses destroy my tissue. And alcohol, as you know, is my sworn enemy. I have to exert myself to neutralize even a tiny amount of alcohol. And if the hepatitis virus is added, I become knocked down and contract cirrhosis. It does not happen suddenly, though. Along the process which you know as liver failure I give various signals: skin eruption, digestion problems, sleepiness, and headache after meals, and so on. Since these symptoms are not serious problems, most people ignore these signals I give. Due to my various functions, the lab tests about me are more than a hundred.

Talking about my enemies may have upset you a bit, but it’s not all doom and gloom. After all, I am the organ with the highest capacity to renew itself. Sounds good, right? Otherwise I would have been finished off long ago, so this ability is a real blessing. Let me give you an example: although 90 percent of my cells are destroyed during hepatitis, I can help you survive with the remaining 10 percent if you rest well and control what you eat. If you ignore the disease, it might lead you and me to the grave. Do not ever believe those who take this lightly and say: “This doctor says that a small amount of alcohol is good for health.” Tell it to the marines. Those who say that should visit hospitals first. I’m sorry, Peter, but it really gets on my nerves. If they could only appreciate a work of art like me. Anyway, that’s all for now, please take good care of me.

Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) is a Mediterranean perennial plant having light blue flowers, feathery leaves, and a sweet, distinctively flavored root. Its generic name, “Glycyrrhiza,” comes from the ancient Greek words glycos riza, meaning “sweet root.”1 It has grown in the wild in many Middle Eastern, European, and western Asian countries.

Licorice is 50 times sweeter than table sugar, though some researchers have placed it at more than 150 times sweeter than sucrose. This intense sweetness can be traced to Glycyrrhizic acid, a multi-purpose molecule that consists of two sugar moieties. Glycyrrhizic acid, one of the main components found in Licorice root, is believed to contribute to the herb’s healing properties. The varied properties of this molecule have led to the surprising mix of products containing licorice today: medicines, cough syrups, herbal supplements, gum, drinks, and candy.

History of licorice as a healing herb

Licorice root has been used since ancient Egyptian, Greek and Roman times in the West, and since the second and third centuries B.C in the East. Hindus, Chinese, Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and eventually the Greeks and Romans all were acquainted with its sweet flavor. Egyptians used it as the main ingredient of a very well known drink, called erksoos,2 which is still popular in modern times. In Japan, the oldest specimen of licorice introduced from China in the middle of the eighth century still exists in the Imperial Storehouse. Ancient soldiers found that if they chewed the root on long marches, it would prevent thirst. The benefits of licorice were also known by physicians in the Middle East, so they prescribed it as a medicine. Ibn Sina (Avicenna), the famous physician and philosopher, said that: “the infused licorice purifies the voice and the trachea, and is useful in disorders and diets.”3 He used this plant in treating his patients nine centuries ago. Greeks and Romans ate licorice to treat coughs, asthma, colds, and sore throats. Today it’s still a popular flavor for cough drops and other medicines. During the Ottoman Empire Eastern Turks used to make a drink called “Meyan serbeti” by combining licorice and water. Even today it is sold by the street vendors in Southeast Turkey.

Medicinal uses and indications

In both the East and West, licorice has been used to treat a variety of illnesses ranging from the common cold to liver disease. This herb has long been valued as a demulcent (soother) and expectorant (which rids phlegm and mucous from the respiratory tract). It is particularly popular for relief from respiratory ailments such as allergies, bronchitis, colds, and sore throats. It is also used as a treatment for stomach problems, diseases of the skin, relief from stress, and diseases of the liver.

Today’s studies and findings have revealed the amazing properties of licorice, which will be a remedy in medicine for different diseases beside pharmaceutical products.

• Animal studies and trials in humans have supported the value of licorice for stomach ulcers. “If I had an ulcer, the first thing I’d go for is licorice,” says James Duke, Ph.D., botanist at the US Department of Agriculture. .Dozens of studies, he says, endow licorice root with formidable anti ulcer properties.4 Many studies have shown the licorice is just as effective as the commonly used ulcer drug Tagamet in healing ulcers.

• The Journal of Drugs in Dermatology July edition reports that licorice, among other natural products, is very effective for use in treatment of rosacea, atopic dermatitis, irritated skin, drug-induced skin eruptions, and psoriasis.

• Licorice is showing well in studies of its use in heart treatment. In recent research, people with high cholesterol experienced significant reductions in total cholesterol after taking licorice root extracts for one month. Systolic blood pressure was reduced by 10%. These measures returned to their previous elevated levels when participants stopped taking the licorice supplements.

• Researchers at the University of California have been studying licorice root to prevent cavities. Studies which have been done so far have shown that compounds isolated from licorice root could be inhibitors for microbes to cause tooth decay. “More studies are needed before it is proven that the compounds effectively fight cavities in humans. If further studies show promise, the licorice compounds could eventually be used as cavity-fighting components in mouthwash or toothpaste” says Wenyuan Shi, Ph.D, a microbiologist at UCLA’s School of Dentistry.”5

• Some people in the USA face a serious oral problem which is the severe pain in the mouth called “canker sores”. Dentists have been trying different types of treatments for this disease. Studies have shown that the best result received the treatment that is used the adhesive patch with the licorice extract.6

Even though there are many benefits to using licorice, at high doses there may be some side effects such as high blood pressure and low blood potassium levels, and fluid retention because of glycyrrhizin. Some licorice root extracts, with the glycyrrhizin removed, are known as deglycyrrhizinated licorice (DGL). This form retains many of licorice’s healing properties and is the better choice for long term use. Scientific studies have shown that DGL reduces inflammation and is as effective as prescription drugs for gastric ulcers without side effects. Natural health experts Phyllis and James Balch reported to naturalnews.com that “it’s best not to eat more than three ounces a day and it should not be used on a daily basis more than seven days in a row by persons with diabetes, heart diseases and high blood pressure.”

Food and other uses

Licorice root has a long history of being used to make candy. Two licorice candies that originated in England are Allsorts and Pontefract Cakes, which have been around since Elizabethan times when licorice was grown in the Pontefract district of Yorkshire. Allsorts are pastel-colored and round-square candies. Pontefract Cakes are soft, coin-shaped black licorice. Today, some of these candies are decorated with a stamp of Pontefract Castle. In Finland, red and black licorice is shaped like little smoking pipes, while in Germany it’s shaped into wheels. Salty licorice, shaped in coin-diamond, is very popular in Holland. Another popular Dutch candy is Katje, shaped with black cats and made of strong-flavored licorice [10]. Although it seems odd, many flavors such as mint, coffee, cherry, honey and chocolate are combined with licorice to make tasty treats. Unfortunately, many American candies that are called licorice actually contain no licorice at all. Licorice, fennel, and anise all have an essential oil called anethole, which gives them a distinctive taste. Many “licorice” candies are actually flavored with anise instead. Next time you eat licorice, check the package to see if licorice extract is one of the ingredients.

Although licorice is something to eat or drink, some of its more interesting uses have little to do with food. Much of the natural licorice grown today ends up flavoring tobacco instead of candy. But what about the parts of licorice that remain once the flavor is removed?

One of the products of licorice roots is a foaming liquid. This can sometimes be added as a flavoring in some beverages, but an unexpected use for the same liquid is found in fire extinguishers. It can extinguish fires in oil tanks, where other traditional methods are unsuccessful.

Even after every drop of liquid is removed from roots, they’re still useful. Pulp mills blend the root’s fibers with other ingredients to make boxes and wallboards. Walls with only a half-inch-thick piece of this fiber board are better insulators from heat, cold, and sound than six-inch walls of brick, stone, or concrete.

Until several decades, Scientists have emphasized only how plants do photosynthesis other than informing or searching other amazing functions. Today, scientists have been studying plants in order to get more useful benefits from them. The licorice plant needs further research in order for us to discover other benefits to human being’s ecology. In the light of explored results about licorice, numerous ways of using this plant have been proven and caused people to ponder about how a simple plant is able to carry the varied properties in its roots. It is basically wood, but sweeter than sugar.

Conclusion

Almost every day humankind faces a new health problem which can never be healed by medicine, nor can they determine the root cause. Today, by understanding the amazing properties of the Licorice plant, we should explore the earth for other plants in search for what has been created and its benefits to us. There are surely countless other unknown and useful plants waiting to be discovered and used for their real purpose of living.

Even though there have been many promising findings, there are ongoing debates in the scientific community regarding the value and side effects of licorice products. Further studies are needed.

Despite its long history, licorice may yet surprise us. Its presence in the candy aisle, at the pharmacy, among the natural food products, and on the checkout stand attests to the complexity and rich chemistry of this sweet beneficial root.

Sumeyra Dural Cokavci has a Master’s degree in Nuclear Physics, Georgia State University, Atlanta.

References

1. The Green Pharmacy Herbal Handbook: By James A. Duke p:194

2. Toxicology and clinical pharmacology of herbal products By Melanie Johns Cupp, p: 223

3. http://www.asehlicorice.com/

4. Food–Your Miracle Medicine By Jean Carper p:177

5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2632514?dopt=Abstract

6. http://www.food-info.net/uk/products/sweets/liquorice.htm

In order to answer these questions, let’s first take a closer look at the nature of leaves and how they function. Simply put, leaves are nature’s food factories. During spring and summer the leaves serve as factories where most of the food necessary for tree growth is manufactured. The process of transforming water and carbon dioxide into sugar is called photosynthesis, which means literally “putting together with light” (Figure 1). This food-making process is performed by the chlorophyll molecules that are present in the leaf cells. Chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight. While the water is sucked in from the soil by the roots and carbon dioxide is inhaled through the pores of the leaves, chlorophyll synthesizes carbohydrates, such as sugars and starch. During winter, when this process cannot continue due to lack of light or water, the trees rest and live off the food they stored during the summer.

What is most astonishing is that it is again chlorophyll that gives the leaves their green color. Along with the chlorophylls (green pigment), spectrums of pigments, such as carotenoid, anthocyanin, and xanthophyll, give different colors to the leaves (Figure 2). When chlorophyll is abundant in the leaf cells, as it is during the growing season, the green color of chlorophyll dominates and masks the colors of any other coloring pigments that may be present in the leaf. Thus, the leaves of summer are characteristically green. When for some reason the number of chlorophylls decreases significantly, the color of other pigments paint the leaves, such as in the fall. For example, maple and acer leaves turn to bright red because of the carotenoid and anthocyanin pigments while sugar maple leaves turn yellow due to xanthophyll pigments.

Time to change colors

At the end of summer and the beginning of autumn, the length of days and the average temperature begin to decrease. Then the trees “know” that it is time to get ready for winter, their sleep-time, and the leaves stop making food. Since there is no longer a need for them, the chlorophyll molecules break down, and so the green color begins to fade. As we, the grieving viewers of this process, say farewell to the color of life, we are surprised by the splendor demonstrated by vibrant colors ranging from yellow to orange.

All these colors are due to the mixing of varying amounts of the chlorophyll residue and other pigments in the leaf becoming visible during the fall season. For the realization of this beauty, mixtures of pigments give rise to the reddish and purplish fall colors of trees such as dogwoods and sumacs, while others offer the sugar maple its brilliant orange or yellow. In some trees, like the maple, a red pigment will be formed in the fall if the days are warm and the nights cold. These trees produce sugar in the leaves during the day, but this sugar cannot move out when the nights are cold, and the leaf’s connections to the tree begin to break down. After that the high sugar concentration favors the formation of a class of pigments called anthocyanin, which is red. Thus, the leaves left out in the sunlight turn red through this process. The brown color of trees (like oaks) that appears after chlorophyll breaks down comes from plant wastes left in the leaves. The autumn foliage of some trees is only yellow, so it is the combination of all these things that makes the beautiful colors we enjoy in the fall.

Thanks to scientific research, today we know the details of leaf color change. The approximate size of these pigments is so small that hundreds of millions of them, put edge to edge, could measure only 1 meter. Isn’t it amazing how the beauty of autumn is exhibited through the hands of such small and blind painters?

Abdullah Akpinar is a graduate student in Planning and Landscape Architecture at Clemson University, Southern Carolina.

1. Genes and inheritance
2. Obesity
3. Lack of exercise

The diagnosis of diabetes is described as a level of sugar that is above a certain amount in the blood stream. In fact, diabetes itself is the metabolic disorder of three food sources: carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids (Cholesterol and especially triglycerides). As healthcare providers we, doctors and scientists, are very much aware that the physiology-that is, the mechanism-of this wonderful sugar metabolism is one of many harmonies existent in the human body. While patients with diabetes seek help from us, our help is limited to what we have learned-and are still learning-from the human body. Thus, the medication we use today are not miracles, but rather a good example of understanding how one of the many mechanisms in body works.

Since the discovery of insulin in 1921, a hormone that is secreted from the pancreas and the only one to work at lowering the level of sugar in the body (several others increase the sugar level)-the development of treatments for diabetes has been focused on greatly in an effort to better serve humankind. Such developments include tiny, sharp needles and pens to deliver the insulin-known as insulin pens. Currently many alternative insulin delivery methods have been developed-via the skin or lungs-yet none of these are as successful as the human body’s normal program for dealing with a rise in the sugar during stressful conditions and after meals. Despite the incredible efforts and impressive studies carried out on both animals and humans, not every method of diabetes management (treatment) is suitable for every individual. Each person is unique regarding the capacity of their pancreas to generate insulin.

In the United States, more than 20 million people have diabetes; however this number is well below the actual number of sufferers. Having enough insulin is not the solution to the problem, while resistance to the action of this hormone can limit its efficacy leaving the glucose (sugar) level high. This further suppresses the pancreas’ ability to provide insulin and the remaining glucose becomes toxic to many vital organs, causing several of the following conditions:

• Heart (heart attack)

• Liver (fatty liver)

• Brain (stroke)

• Vessels (hardening of the arteries)

• Blood (easy clotting)

• Feet (gangrene and amputation)

• Immune system (suppression of the immune system, in turn leading to a tendency to infections, giving the opportunity of germs to invade various parts of the body; in the same way increase of tuberculosis bacteria, yeast infections, pneumonia)

• Skin (late healing after abrasions or trauma)

Excess sugar is converted into cholesterol which will further accelerate the detrimental effects to the vital organs (brain, heart, kidney).

Current suggestions for the management of the problem with sugar are education, better diets, correct and regular exercise, correct medication and careful follow-up. We know that God created cures for every illness. Respecting and thinking of this will encourage many of us to concentrate on solving the problem of diabetes. Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, indicates “Eat and drink, but never waste” and “Leave the food table before you are full.” The diet that is recommended for people with diabetes is to eat small amounts of food during the 3 main meals and to add 3 snacks to control the undesirable rise in sugar that occurs after eating a large amount. We are informed that we are full due to the induction of tension receptors in the stomach after the meal, the induction of the brain, and the digestion of food that leads to an increase in the level of sugar in the blood stream… etc. Unfortunately, most diabetics wait for the third mechanism to operate before leaving the table; as a result, they may continue to eat and further increase their blood sugar level, and this may in turn be the reason for early or late complications in diabetes.

Today, the greatest number of diabetics per population are the Pima Indians living in Arizona. Interestingly, a new molecule that has recently been developed seems to have a preventive efficacy for the development of diabetes and to assist in its satisfactory management, even after the diagnosis of diabetes. This molecule was actually found to be present in the saliva of Gila Monster again that is fairly close to the area where these affected tribes live.

Kelly J. Smith is a clinical diabetes research scientist in Arizona. 

With this act, the holy Pole meant, “Whenever your son’s spirit prevails over his body, and his heart over his carnal soul, and his intellect over his stomach, and he demands pleasure for the sake of thankfulness, then he can eat delicious things.” (Said Nursi, Nineteenth Gleam, 3rd point.)

I too witnessed a similar incident thirty years ago. With a large group of friends from university I was invited to visit a well-known scholar for whom I had a deep respect. We had the opportunity to attend a dinner with him and among the food served were some delicious cherries. My inner voice said, “If I sit near him, I will not be comfortable enough to eat as many of those cherries as I like.” This was exactly what happened. While I was thinking about how to get a chance to eat more of the cherries, that respected person took one of the cherries, excused himself, and left the table. I still cannot forget how ashamed I was of my thoughts at that time.

As a result of the story of Abdul-Qadir Jilani and my own experience, I started to ponder the activities that function so well in the human body. In medicine, the dynamic balance that entirely governs the body during eating, drinking and digestion is known as homeostasis. The most crucial body fluid in this balance is the blood. All the agents in the blood have a fixed quantity, a fixed measure and are supplied at a constant rate. Blood pressure is stabilized according to the characteristics of each vein. For instance, the average blood pressure of large arteries is about 100 mmHg. If the pressure exceeds this figure, then the result is hypertension. Hypertension can lead to cerebral hemorrhages, paralysis, renal failure, cardiac expansion, cardiac failure and heart attacks, all of which can result in death. As for hypotension, this is when the flow of the blood to the organs, mainly the brain, lessens. Another example of the importance of maintaining balance is that the agents which are responsible for maintaining the concentration of sugar in the blood (glycemia) must be kept at a suitable balance. If the ratio of the blood sugar (glycemia) rises, the person may go into a sugar coma, which is life threatening. However, if the ratio of blood sugar drops, the organs, in particular the brain, are deprived of energy. A hypoglycemia coma (when blood sugar is too low) is even more dangerous for the brain than hyperglycemia (when blood sugar is too high). The concentration of sodium, potassium, chlorine, calcium and fatty acids present in the blood, like sugar, are kept in a dynamic balance. If this concentration is upset, the result may be disease or even death. The Owner of Absolute Will and Infinite Mercy keeps all these in balance thanks to the marvelous mechanisms that He has placed in our bodies. However, we are free as far as actions like eating and drinking are concerned, for we are granted the willpower to choose our actions.

Balance in nourishment

One of the most often discussed medical subjects in recent years is obesity. This is an important health problem that poses a threat to life, and it is related to diabetes, hardening of the arteries (arteriosclerosis), fatty liver, cirrhosis, cardiac failure and heart failure. Apart from using one’s own will power and eating less, doctors have presented other harmless ways that are appropriate to human nature to treat obesity. Being overweight constrains the ability of a person to move (exercise) and this inactivity, in turn, leads to more and more weight gain. God has enabled us to seek nourishment wherever we like, within certain parameters. Naturally, our stomach has a certain capacity and when this capacity is met, we feel full and do not need to eat any more. Yet, even though we feel full and should not eat, as this is what is necessary for the health of our body, we are overcome by our lower self and tend to overeat extravagantly. The problem of obesity seems to be greater in developed countries.

Our Creator has not put any restrictions on the absorption of food into the blood. All the food we eat is taken into the intestines so that the nutrients can pass into the bloodstream. If the dynamic balance (homeostasis) were to be maintained here as well then the body would take as much as it needed and the surplus of food would be evacuated from the body without going into the blood; as a result, obesity would not be a concern, however much a person might eat. But by allowing all the food we eat to pass into the bloodstream, the Absolute Ruler has set a test for us, challenging our wills and warning us about self-control.

Most of the activity during digestion and absorption takes place in the small intestine. Our small intestine is a duct which consists of three parts, namely the duodenum, jejunum and ileum, each having different functions and structures. The length of the intestine is 3–4 meters, and it measures 2–4 centimeters in diameter, varying according to the position in the body. The area of the inner surface of this cylindrical structure is 1,600 cm2 (0.16m2) at its maximum. The inner perimeter of the intestine is not like a flat tube, but rather it has folds, each measuring about 8 millimeters, that stretch over the inner parts of the canal. These folds allow the absorption surface to be increased about threefold. If the inner surface of this structure were flat, the absorption capacity of the small intestine would not be more than 1/600 of its present capacity. The surface of these folds is also not flat, but covered with protrusions called villi that are shaped like a finger; these stretch into the vacuum of the canal by about 1 millimeter. There are between 20 and 40 villi to every square centimeter on the surface of the intestine. These villi allow for there to be a tenfold increase in surface absorption. The surface of the villi has cylindrical cells that are arranged in a single row and these help in absorption. The surface of these cells has extensions that are quite thin and dense, known as microvilli, or epithelial cells. Thanks to these cells with a brush border surface, the absorption surface can increase by about twenty times. Thus, although the surface area of a flat canal of the same size should be approximately 3,300 cm2, thanks to surface folds, villi and bushy edges, the total absorption surface of the small intestine increases to 2 million cm2 (200 m2). Moreover, some research has suggested that the total increase could be even greater (about 1,000 times as much). Normally, 100 grams of fat, 50–100 grams of amino acid, 50–100 grams of iodine, and 7–8 liters of water (consisting mostly of fluids produced within the body) are absorbed by the intestines daily. Furthermore, if one eats or drinks too much, the maximum capacity of the system allows the absorption of several kilograms of carbohydrates, a half to one kilogram of fat, a half to one kilogram of protein and twenty liters of water per day. Our intestines have been created with the capacity to transfer all this food into the bloodstream. If we do not control our eating, this capacity is abused and we can face conditions like obesity.

In this life, one of whose tests is in our body, and in which we are required to strive hard using our willpower, there is no limit to the absorption of foods that have high calories (lipid, carbohydrate, and protein), and this can lead to being overweight, as mentioned above. However, in the absorption of minerals, which are not normally considered as making up the basic components of nourishment, but which are of the utmost importance for the human body (in all the operations of the nerves, muscles, bones and in the balance of all the electrolytes), the rules of dynamic balance occur in our intestines, regardless of our will, by the help and mercy of God. For instance, hemoglobin, which is found in the red blood cells (giving the blood its red color) and is charged with the task of transporting oxygen, contains iron. When there is surplus iron in the body, hemosiderosis occurs, which leads to the destruction of organs such as the liver and the pancreas, or cardiac failure. If there is an iron deficiency, then a person suffers from anemia. It is for this reason that a quite sensitive iron-absorption balance exists in our intestines. Here, it is evident without question that there is Divine Aid and Mercy. The same mechanism works for substances like calcium.

Prophet Muhammad’s, peace be upon him, advice to stop eating before feeling full is a significant measure against obesity, for it eliminates “false” appetite. This has a psychological truth, for the brain responds to the feel of fullness a short time after eating. In fact, we all know by experience that we actually feel full a short while (fifteen–twenty minutes) after we stop eating even if it is a small meal.

To conclude, the Almighty One warns us against extravagance and orders us to use our willpower. At this point, we can see how important a role the blessing of religious belief and the training of the soul and the will play in eating habits. Likewise, the principles of Islam, which is in perfect keeping with human nature, are crucial for the well-being of the community as a whole; charitable alms and fasting, which urge us to help and think about those with less, are obligatory and all kinds of charity and good deeds are encouraged. In Islam extravagance is prevented, not only in eating and drinking.

Omer Arifagaoglu is a professor of medicine in Turkey.