We begin in the Lead Article with a discussion about how to avoid inner decay, a phenomenon that can cause people to drift away from what it means to be human by becoming lost in despair. This anguish spreads through the heart and body like a disease and subsequently causes everything to look bleak, taste bland, and feel pointless. It is contrasted heavily by the light of belief, which has the opposite effect and lifts the soul up into tranquility.

Our narrative by Lawrence Brazier that delves into the wonderful world of pottery and his thought process behind trying to make the best pieces. His discussion with his friend reveals how he believes, in his opinion, that attaining inner peace produces the best kind of art. His perspective is that art should calm and soothe as opposed to provoke and agitate, therefore encouraging a peaceful state of mind in order to achieve the desired result.

Celine Dan Tam Nguyen’s memoir explores how her grandmother, whose husband was killed in a war, had to strengthen her resolve every day in order to provide for herself and her five children. Her survival depended upon defiantly standing up to a patriarchal society that encouraged her to simply sit down and accept defeat. It is a harrowing story of the toll that war takes on innocent families, and how they must find peace within in order to persist during such trying times.

Irfan Yilmaz writes a beautiful article on the intricacies and immense qualities of the hummingbird, the world’s smallest bird. It is renowned for its speed, precision, and rapid heart-rate despite being such a tiny creature. We may also achieve inner peace by temporarily removing ourselves from the noise of our society and by ruminating on the beauty of the natural world around us in creations such as the hummingbird.

Biologist and physicians are trying to understand what kind of molecular mechanisms organisms are using to cope with dehydration in order to continue their lives.

Humans are incapable of preserving themselves by shutting down their metabolism completely. Human energy reserves can last for up to 70 days. Our ability to withstand life without water can vary between 1-10 days. In fact, when people suffer long term dehydration and hunger, they experience gastro-intestinal problems after they resume nutrient intake. However this is not the case for other organisms. There are interesting examples regarding this issue:

Easter pygmy possum

The eastern pygmy possum, Cercartetus nanus, one of the marsupials living in Southeast Australia, is a small mouse-like animal which sleeps during the day and hunts at night. They weigh about 15-45 grams and have a length around 7-11 cm. They live in an environment known for its irregular climate, sometimes receiving abundant nutrients, sometimes receiving scarce. This small creature takes advantage of the plentiful days and stores fat. They can hibernate up to 310 days by utilizing this reserve very carefully. That is why it holds the record for the longest hibernating organism among mammals! Another species belonging to the same genus lives in Tasmania (average length 6.4 cm, height 7 grams) however it only remains in hibernation for a maximum of 6 months. Both species live off eating insects, pollens and nectar.

The ground squirrel

The ground squirrel (Spermophilus parryii) of the Arctic tundra near the region of Alaska takes energy conservation very seriously. During hibernation, this organism can lower its body temperature from 37 °C to -2.8 °C. On the other hand, the American black bear (Ursus americanus) shivers in its spot in order to keep its body temperature at a normal level. A frog living in Australia with yellowish-green stripes on the back (Litoria alboguttata) can sleep up to five years without food and water in times of drought. This frog – obviously inspired from a reliable source of knowledge – digs a tunnel underground and covers itself with a tiny film of dirt in order to reduce the negative effects of the drought. It also slows down its metabolism by carefully consuming energy reserves to adjust itself for the food shortages and the drought. Frogs resurface with the start of the rainy season and begin their feeding frenzy. They can even eat organisms half their size since they will need the energy for reproduction.

Grey mouse

One of the typical examples of energy conserving animals is the fat-tailed dwarf (grey mouse) lemur (Microcebus murinus). This animal inhabits the dense forests of Madagascar and surrounding islands. It spends the day resting on tree branches and is active during the night. They hibernate up to seven months in hollow logs by pulling in their legs towards their abdomen. During this episode of their lives, they survive by consuming the fat reserves in their tail. They adjust their body to the ambient temperature just like reptiles to conserve energy. Body temperature therefore fluctuates depending on the weather in logs with poor insulation. However it is relatively stable in well insulated logs.

Malaysian night moth

Another amazing example is the local Malaysian night moth, Attacus atlas. Caterpillars of this species do consume a lot of food whereas adults do not eat anything. The mouth structure of this particular moth and other moths do not develop as much in adult form. Therefore, these moths must rely on larval fat storage and eventually die in two to three weeks when they run out of reserves.

Bar-tailed godwit

Another example is the Bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica). The Alaskan version of this bird migrates amazing distances without a break. It does not eat anything during flight, almost flying 7000 miles with one tank of gas. In one study, it was observed that a female bird left the nest in Western Alaska and without feeding in eight days, flew 7257 miles and arrived in New Zealand. Also observable is that these female birds, as a work of Divine mercy, experience a reduction in their digestive organs and convert half their body weight into fat before undertaking such flights.

European land snail

The European land snail, Helix pomatia, is another typical example of this phenomenon. These creatures lock themselves into their shells for days and weeks during seasons of long drought and cold. They secrete special mucus to seal the shell as soon as they pull themselves in. This mucus film slows water loss caused by evaporation. They reduce metabolic activities to conserve energy. Snails pop back out of their shells upon the arrival of warmer weather or water.

African gilled lung fish

The next example is the African gilled lungfish (Protopterus amphibius). This fish both possess gills and lungs and also conserves energy by a substantial reduction in its physical activity. It buries itself in a river or lake bed by digging tunnels. It secretes a protective mucus layer when water levels drop. This way it can withstand starvation for almost two years.

Python

The python is another animal also resistant to starvation. This snake, which can swallow animals as big as their size, or even bigger, shrinks its digestive organs when there is scarcity of food, and can survive up to a year and a half without eating. Apart from other animals and humans, their digestive system only functions when they consume their prey. Their intestines swell almost twice as much within 24 hours when they start eating. It shrinks back to its original size upon completion of digestion.

Emperor penguin

The final example regarding this topic is the emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri). Male penguins face starvation for up to four months because of paternal care and compassion. New chicks hatch into a -76°C world because breeding season coincides with the Antarctic winter. After laying their eggs, the female penguins leave the task of incubation to their male partners and depart towards the ocean to bolster their food and nourishment intake after laying eggs. Male penguins left in charge of incubation take care of the eggs inside skin folds and maintain the incubation temperature during this time without any food intake. Tasks are once again exchanged upon the arrival of the mother penguin and this time the male penguins head out for nourishment.

The sustenance of life in a majority of the species of animal kingdom depends on the sensitive balance between times of starvation and nourishment. In times of shortage and hunger, the trick to survival depends on how energy is utilized efficiently. If an organism successfully manages its hunger in the best way possible, the greater chance it has for survival. For life is built upon the principle of conservation and balance, and God-given equipment with various mechanisms for living things to be protected in harsh times of famine, drought and shortages. Animals can feel the changing conditions when nutrients increase or decrease in availability and develop behaviors accordingly, maintaining a life style adapted for these periods.

If we can analyze how these organisms that are adapted to starvation can switch into a long term stagnant life style and regulate their metabolisms under harsh conditions, maybe we humans can, too, develop treatments one day that will enable us to turn our metabolism on and off like a thermostat. Furthermore, molecular treatments that control weight loss and gain can also be developed. Survival methods in extremely hot and cold conditions could be put forth with some inspiration from the living world.

Reference

“The Superstarvers.” Zoology. Scienceillustrated.com. July-August 2010, pp. 60-66.

]]> https://fountainmagazine.com/all-issues/2008/issue-62-march-april-2008/miraculous-carrier-in-blood-hemoglobin/ Sat, 01 Mar 2008 00:00:00 +0000 http://107.21.79.195/all-issues/2008/issue-62-march-april-2008/miraculous-carrier-in-blood-hemoglobin/ By means of rapid and astonishing advances in science and technology, every day we witness amazing discoveries related to the mechanisms in the human body. Have you ever thought that your heart beats about 100,000 times a day to pump thousands of liters of blood? And what about the fact that during a person’s life span blood travels hundreds of thousands of miles? Do you ever wonder how your blood carries oxygen and nutrients to your cells by means of chemical reactions without asking you how to do it?

Blood is a highly specialized tissue circulating throughout the body to carry out essential functions for an organism. Some of the basic functions of blood can be listed as: warming or cooling the body, protecting it against infectious disease, supplying essential ingredients to the cells, getting rid of harmful and unwanted waste from cells, and carrying messengers to initiate physiochemical events at the cellular level.¹ An average adult has approximately five liters of blood which completes its cycle in several minutes.² Blood can be regarded as a flawless servant to human beings with a perfect design to fulfill delicate needs and tasks to maintain their lives. If blood stopped performing just one of these tasks in some way, the survival of humans would not be possible.

Plasma is one of the main components of human blood in which the red and white blood cells are suspended.³ These two “living cells” are responsible for the crucial job of maintaining the balance of the body. Blood cells have a definite life cycle, just as all living organisms do. The most generous and all-compassionate owner, God, even knows the needs of the tiniest creatures and for Him to recreate these two cells is as easy as resurrecting hundreds of thousands of fruits, vegetables and animals every spring. Interestingly, bone marrow acts as a factory to reproduce new blood cells in place of continuously dying cells.³

In order to generate energy required for all cellular processes, oxygen has to be carried into the cell and the resulting carbon dioxide should be carried away immediately. Red blood cells, known also as erythrocytes, contain an iron-rich protein called hemoglobin which performs this duty in an excellent way. Each red blood cell contains approximately 250 million hemoglobin molecules.⁴

Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body and carries carbon dioxide away from the body to the lungs by consecutive chemical events in harmony. Hemoglobin can bind oxygen and/or carbon dioxide reversibly and the preference for binding to either oxygen or carbon dioxide depends solely on the environment. Upon inhaling the air, the amount of oxygen will increase in the lungs and oxygen will bind to hemoglobin’s iron unit preferentially. Later, the heart pumps oxygen-rich blood all over the body to deliver it to where it is required. As blood travels through the body in artery veins, oxygen will be exchanged with the carbon dioxide, since the amount of carbon dioxide inside cells is higher than oxygen. Then, the bound carbon dioxide will be sent back to the lungs and this process will be cycled over and over again during the course of life.⁵ During these processes a lot of complex chemical and biological changes occur in a systematic way to optimize the speed, effectiveness and quantity of oxygen transportation.

Surprisingly, one hemoglobin unit can carry four oxygen molecules at the same time. However binding of four oxygen molecules does not happen at the same time, they rather prefer binding one after another. One of the most striking discoveries about these processes is that when the oxygen attaches itself to the iron in the hemoglobin, the shape of the hemoglobin changes and this phenomenon facilitates binding other oxygen molecules.⁶

At higher altitudes air contains less oxygen as compared to lower altitudes. In people accustomed to living at higher altitudes the amount of a chemical known as 2,3-BPG in blood was found to be higher than in people living at lower altitudes.6 Researchers showed that this chemical actually binds to hemoglobin to result in easier oxygen delivery in lower oxygen atmospheres. Without this chemical, at high altitudes people would start suffering from oxygen deficiency and some of the vital organs would start dying slowly. It is obvious that this is a decisive and self-evident proof that there is an ultimate power in the universe and He is the one Who is the most Merciful.

Also the hemoglobin in the fetus has a greater affinity for oxygen than its counterpart in adults. Fetal hemoglobin uses maternal oxygen from the mother’s bloodstream and this ability gives the fetus more access to oxygen for better survival.⁷ Otherwise, no baby would be able to grow fully in its mother’s womb. Divine mercy is aware of the need of even an incapable baby in the mother’s womb and His wisdom and generosity provide appropriate tools, decorations and ornaments to whoever is in need of them.

The human body can be seen as a perfect machine equipped with state-of-art components that functions magnificently to sustain human life without any conflict. It is designed to such an extent that even its slightest needs are satisfied with an amazing design planned by great wisdom and engineering. This beauty, extreme skill, and utmost perfection testify to the existence of the All-Wise Maker and All-Knowing Inscriber. Claiming that this masterpiece is not the work of a purposeful artist is as foolish as claiming that a beautiful painting is not the art of a good painter. Even in one of the sub-structures of red blood cells (hemoglobin) the highest degree of mastery and the exquisiteness of administration for each process show an irrefutable wise Creator who has utmost knowledge and proficiency. His unique power for marvelous creation is even more visible on the surface of the earth.

“He Who has created seven heavens in harmony. You do not see any fault or incongruity in the creation of the All-Merciful. Look yet again: can you see any rifts?” (Mulk 67:3)

Mutations somehow alter the sequences of genes responsible for producing hemoglobin and as a result of inheriting these genes, some kinds of hereditary diseases may occur in future generations, such as thalassemia and sickle-cell.⁸ Since hemoglobin in these cases does not have the ability to carry oxygen properly, in some extreme cases blood transfusion is necessary to supply healthy hemoglobin for survival of patients. Instead of producing super quality hemoglobin, mutations lead to malfunctioning of the system. No observable mutation can generate meaningful and healthy changes in an organism. Trying to explain the formation of these beautiful, complex, harmonious, and utterly perfect cells by chance or coincidence and attributing the creation of these systems to unconscious nature as their creator is far beyond any reasonable scientific explanation.

“Was he not once a mere drop of semen poured forth? Then he became a clot clinging (to the womb wall), and He created and fashioned (him) in due proportions.” (Qiyama 75:37-38)

Ibrahim Yildiz is a graduate student of chemistry at the Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami.

Notes

1. Previte, J. J. Human Physiology McGraw-Hill, 1982.

2. Cecie, S., Taggart, R. Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life. California: Wadsworth, 1989.

3. Jones, B. D. Delmar’s Comprehensive Medical Terminology. Thomson Delmar Learning, 2000.

4. Roberts, M. B. V. Biology: A Functional Approach Cheltenham: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1986.

5. Mehler, R. E. How the Circulatory System Works Blackwell , 2000.

6. Ganong, W. F. Review of Medical Physiology McGraw-Hill, 2005.

7. Champe, P. C., Richard, A. H. Biochemistry Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2005.

8. Steinberg, M. H. Disorders of Hemoglobin: Genetics, Pathophysiology, and Clinical Management. Cambridge University Press, 2001.

When we look at our bodies, we see that everything is taken care of already: respiratory systems, nervous systems, and all others work without our control. It is as if we dwell in a palace where everything is already optimized and automated for our living conditions³ Therefore, being the resident of this palace, the ego is responsible for using these given faculties in a way to keep harmony between inside and outside. This tells us that it is the ego that must emulate the concept of “accelerated motion.” If we rephrase this concept, we can say that it is the ego that must undergo a continuous change in order to achieve beauty and order inside and establish harmony between inside and outside. Considering that our knowledge of ourselves and of the world around us is limited, how can we educate our egos to achieve this harmony? Let’s make a journey into the major human to answer the question concerning the minor universe.

First observation

We see that everything in the universe changes, and nothing remains unchanged. Slow or fast, nature is in a continuous motion and change. Thus nature is never the same twice. Interestingly, within this continuous change, we see periodicities. Although things are never the same on a small scale, we see repeating epochs on a larger scale, such as the alternation of day and night, the cycle of the seasons, and the birth-growth-death period in all living things.

Second observation

We also observe that the great cycles of change that take place in the universe conceive a criterion or a point around which they rotate. For example, the planets assume the sun as their axis of rotation; the stars take the galaxy center as their axis of rotation.

Third observation

When we look at nature, we see that there is solidarity between the living and non-living things through which non-living ones become sustenance for the living ones. We also see solidarity among living things⁴ to sustain each others’ existence on Earth so that none of the species leave the stage.

Fourth observation⁵

Another fact that catches the eye is multi-tasking in nature. For example, we see air as a conductor of light, sound and heat; we see it entering our lungs and participating in our bodily reactions. Again the same air goes into other living things and functions in those systems in harmony. Soil is another example. We see the soil as a nest for all kinds of seeds, which function differently from each other; and the same soil is used for the construction of the bodies of living things and even their homes.

In order to have the beauty and the order of the major universe reflected on the minor one, i.e. human, the change and periodicity, the assumption of a criterion (an axis of rotation), the solidarity, and the multi-tasking must be represented in the human ego, which is responsible for the body it is dwelling in.

Role shift⁶

In our daily lives, we take on different roles depending on our positions. A successful person is the one who recognizes the requirements of each of these roles and, therefore, is able to adjust himself according to these requirements. A person who is a boss at work is not supposed to act like a boss at home. Either a parent role or the spouse role must be recalled. However, the following two mechanisms may prevent such a role shift: the resistance of the ego to change (inertia) and the strong desire of ego to become the axis of rotation for its surroundings.

Axis of rotation

Some of our attitudes imply rejection of any ties to a Supreme Power. This leads to a sub-conscious assumption by which we consider ourselves as the axis of rotation for everything and everybody else. However, the universe is not created according to our selfish comfort; and other people also have their own ego which tempts them to the same sub-conscious assumption by which they may consider themselves as the axis of rotation. It is obvious that in a family or in a society where everybody wants to be the axis of rotation, conflicts will arise, and soon the unity will collapse. A dynamic ego, on the other hand, would recognize a Supreme Power and try to change according to the manners described by Him. Recognition of the Supreme Power also requires introspection and self-criticism according to the criteria explained by that Power. As a result of this introspection and self-criticism, a dynamic ego will apologize for its transgressions, leading to self-change.

Sometimes it is possible to gain by losing

The solidarity embedded in nature represents itself in two main ways. One involves directly helping each other for survival, such as between a mother and her children. The other is by self-sacrificing for others’ survival, such as plants becoming food for animals, and animals becoming food for plants in a cyclical manner, etc. Based on these two solidarities, life on Earth has continued for thousands of years. Similarly, in a healthy relationship, people not only help each other but also self-sacrifice for others. If any of the members of this relationship tries to fix himself/herself as the center and incessantly ask for sacrifice from the other, the relationship collapses sooner or later. An example of such a collapse is the current state of the environment. The excessive and irresponsible actions of human beings towards nature in the recent centuries has led to human comfort at the expense of the strength of life on Earth.

The superheroes: soil, water, fire, air

In terms of multi-tasking, we observe in nature superheroes that do everything but do not get credit: soil, water, fire, air. None of these has an ego. They do not have a conscious mind, either. Somehow, they are working everywhere we see, doing miraculous things. Furthermore, they are obedient to us; we can use them however we want. The coexistence of super-powers and obedience is something that is in complete contradiction to the superhero picture we have in mind.

According to our perception, a superhero can do everything, solve every problem, etc., but most of all, a superhero works alone and has his own rules. Unfortunately, in real life, we hardly observe a superhero that is, say, a good family member or a good teacher who can educate new superheroes. This is because real life and super-powers have opposite requirements: patience vs. speed, self-sacrifice vs. self-realization, giving birth to multitudes vs. remaining as “The Hero.” Without proper education, super-properties will eventually lead to a super-ego that idolizes itself. This type of a character does not make up a healthy personality and is a threat to the survival of the society. From this, it can be deduced that self-improvement and self-realization, if not motivated properly, lead to self-idolization, which is not the way to go for an ego. So, what is the ultimate motive for an ego?

Based on the example of the supers of nature, a suggested statement of the ultimate goal or motive for the ego is being of use as much as, and as best as, possible without gaining credit. However, this statement is not going to satisfy and/or motivate the ego. This is because the ego’s nature requires some “food” for survival. We would not be humans without our egos. So what is the food of the ego? Some people feed their egos with self-satisfaction, which leads to arrogance or pragmatism. Some others choose to take other people’s pleasure as their ego food, which does not work in the long run, since nobody has the power to give all the time without receiving. As a third choice, some people prefer to choose God’s pleasure as a survival for their ego, which looks more promising compared to the other two in terms of self-satisfaction and service to other people.

Challenge in the ego education: Inertia

As human beings, the more we grow, the more we build our own personality/ego and show a sub-conscious resistance to change. This is similar to a train that has already accelerated and which will require a great force to change direction and/or slow down. In another way, it is similar to a piece of brittle solid, like ice, which will break into pieces when hit by a hammer. This solid form of ego is the result of lack of education and sincere love; it eventually becomes a thick, opaque veil in front of the eyes of its carrier, and filters all the warnings coming from outside that point to a need for change⁷ So, how are we going to keep our egos ready for change?

Based on the examples of the train and ice given above, two principles can be seen in order to facilitate the change for ego: obedience and love. The train is subject to the train tracks, therefore it is obedient to the direction shown by the track; it does not go as its inertia requires. Also a piece of ice will not shatter into pieces when hit by a hammer, if that ice is melted⁸ What melts the ego is the heat of love and affection sourcing from the heart. So, to keep our egos ready for changes, we must find a reliable track to obey and the heat of love to melt our egos.

The scenic view

The big picture drawn in this article is based on an alternating motion model with respect to a reliable point of reference. This vision is similar to the rotation of the Earth, both around its own axis and around the sun, which leads to the change of day and night and the alternation of seasons. This continuous change gives birth to the continued existence of life on Earth, where incredible beauties are displayed everyday, every moment. It is up to us to use the free will given by our Designer to preserve the dynamic character of our ego by which we can become the best of creation. It is also our free choice to give in to the inertia that is inherent in it.

Notes

1. Nursi, S., Epitomes of Light, Kaynak, p. 439.
2. Nursi, S., The Letters, Kaynak, Vol. II, p. 16.
3. Nursi, S., Epitomes of Light, Kaynak, p. 258.
4. ibid.
5. Nursi, S., The Words, Vol. I, Kaynak, pp. 211-214.
6. ibid, pp. 251-253.
7. ibid, Vol. II, pp. 238-239.
8. Nursi, S., Flashes Collection, Sozler Publications, p. 220.

By answering this argument we shall show that we do indeed accept the same biological facts, but do not agree about the ‘laws’ which try to explain them, nor about the limits and qualifications for the operation of those ‘laws’.

Unlike other Scriptures which claim Divine authority, there is no proposition in the Qur’an which can be contradicted by established scientific knowledge as untrue. The Qur’an does not underestimate the importance of reflection and argument, but it does indicate that our suppositions about the origin of creation cannot explain the reality of it: we simply were not present there.

I called them not to witness the creation of the heavens and the earth, nor their own creation: Nor is it for Me to take as helpers such as lead (men) astray (al-Kahf 18.51).

This verse should not be interpreted to mean ‘Do not ask questions or do not research’, for the Qur’an encourages scientific research explicitly. It is, rather, a warning about those who vainly claim to explain the phenomena which happen outside the normal course of events and cannot be described in terms of material causes and effects. Since the creation is the great, inclusive miracle, human beings can neither imitate it (that is, they cannot create out of nothing) nor explain it. To attribute the creation to God makes everything plausible and saves scientific inquiry from fruitless uncertainties and insecure speculations. To understand the basic principles of the reality of creation is most important. If they are properly understood, useful and worthwhile aspects of the theory of evolution can be sifted out from pretentious and false interpretations of it. For, in every idea, even if it is against common sense in general, there are some elements of truth. The biological facts, rightly so called, such as variation, adaptation, natural selection and mutation, in evolution theory, should be differentiated from the ideological and metaphysical baggage they have accumulated.

In our approach, evolution may be described as the changes and variations in the form of creatures, especially in living beings, and the genetic and environmental factors associated with those changes. We do not assert that living beings are fixed and unchangeable in their forms. To claim that would imply a limitation upon the knowledge and power of God which is contradictory to His Names, the All-Knowing and the All-Powerful. The creation reflects His Names through its novelty within renewal, its prolific variety amid abundance. Individual diversity is programmed into the genetic mechanisms which, as they unfold and evolve under the prompting of environmental factors, display (for our admiration and understanding) the action in the world of Divine grace and power. The many hundreds of apples on a single tree are not identical, nor are they identical over different seasons-they are only similar. Thus, the first emphasis in our definition of the concept of evolution is change which is vital for the maintenance of ecological diversity and balance.

To paraphrase the Qur’an: God imposes the law of change and evolution as a basic principle in the universe. In the enforcement of this law, He creates pairs and opposites which, interacting according to subtle purposes, are placed in the core of every being. Thus, the change-dependent evolution and the dynamic balance in the universe, have been realized through the intersection of the opposites continually since the outset of creation. There are many verses in the Qur’an (for example in Chapter 55, al-Rahman) which indicate change and balance.

The ideologues of evolution theory, however, ignore the Divine wisdom, measure and purpose in the universe, claiming that the change they observe is an effect of coincidences-random variations, aimless mutations.

In the light of recent findings, we know the apparent causes of change to be mutations, which are the hereditary alternations in the genetic information; the differentiation of an isolated population from its ancestor through multiplying inside the population; adaptation and so-called ‘natural selection’, that is the decrease or extinction of generations which are weak and unable to reproduce in their immediate environment.

Believers in the One God affirm that everything, from subatomic particles to galaxies, is created by Him, that He is Omniscient and Omnipotent, and everything acts under His will and command. Causes are created by God in the appropriate time and space and the appropriate order and combination as a sort of veil for His dignity and might. He only says ‘Be!’, and all the material causes, such as heat, moisture, air, chemical elements, radiation, etc., are. If such causes are seen in this way, if their being brought together into an order is understood to be a response to their need (their prayer) to participate in a collaborative universe-and if their being causes is confirmed by observations and experiments-then, we may regard causes as a useful way to explain biological phenomena.

We know that diversity in a species is realized through mutations in the genetic program, arranged by Divine wisdom, not by coincidence. The evolutionist idea that the mutations are arbitrary, that useful changes can occur by sheer chance and lead to the development of a living being, or that a lot of random mutations can accumulate to enable a sudden leap from one species to another, has not been confirmed by experiments and observations. To accept that the mutations are arbitrary interferences in the genetic order is like accepting that a rocket can be generated out of a sound aircraft by raking it randomly with machine-gun fire. Certainly, computer-aided probability calculations show that it is impossible for thousands of random mutations to accumulate on a living being and change it into another species. Any such change is manifestly against that organism’s survival and would have to overwhelm it suddenly, not gradually.

Some bacteria can be given the ability to synthesize insulin by means of genetic engineering. This is a kind of planned mutation. Such a transfer of ability is, though remarkable, a relatively small change: it is, in any case, only possible because of the relevant ability being present in the genetic material being transferred. It is sheer arrogance to claim that living beings having millions of such able genes have evolved from each other by arbitrary, random mutations.

Adaptation is a biological manifestation of the flexibility coded into the genetic programs of living organisms; it carries the potential, within the limits of the species, for the organism to survive in changing conditions and to sustain that survival through reproduction.

When environmental conditions change, responsive adaptations occur- e.g. change of colour or density of hair, size of ears-in proportion to the flexibility of the organism’s genetic potential. If the organism cannot adapt adequately, the species does not mutate into some new species, it goes extinct. That is what happened, we presume, to dinosaurs and dodos.

The diversity of various human races can also be explained by the flexibility of their genetic potentials in response to different geographical, climatic and environmental conditions, provided, as before, that the changes are contained within species boundaries. Intermarriages between the various races add to the diversity within the species boundaries, they do not yield another species. The working of genetic potential can also be seen in the way that insects adapt to pesticides, and certain bacteria acquire a nearly invincible resistance to particular antibiotics. Insects or bacteria become more resistant, but they do not become different species. Their potential for adaptation is understood, by believers, as a power to survive given to them by Divine Wisdom.

We do not wholly reject the concept of natural selection. However, it is necessary to criticize the extreme interpretation evolutionists make of it. First of all, there is not an absolute ‘cruel competition’ in nature which the strong dominate absolutely, nor a pitiless ‘selection’ process of exterminating rivals in the struggle for food (survival). Rather, there is a dynamic balance among the great variety of creatures which is characterized, overall, by mutual collaboration and solidarity. The killing of weak creatures by the stronger ones is not random, nor characterized by a drive to exterminate and monopolize resources for survival. On the contrary, it is, overall, purposive and beneficial. Predators prey, generally, on weak and sick animals, and this ‘selects’ the fit and healthy for survival and, quite probably, prevents epidemics within and between species. Also, it is manifestly obvious that the apparent ‘competition’ in nature is the outward face of a subtle and complex feeding chain which is vital for the overall balance of the ecosystem, providing niches for great numbers of species, not least those which feed on the left-overs of others thus cleansing and purifying the food-chain.

Another factor affecting natural selection is the difference in rates of breeding. One bacterium multiplies by millions in one day, a fly by thousands in two days. Vertebrates, except fish and amphibians on the other hand, breed far more slowly. From the base of the food pyramid to the top, the production of food increases in quality but decreases in mass, and consequently a lot of tiny living organisms are the food of larger ones. The difference in breeding rates among members of the same species causes rapid multiplying of a certain group, but not the change of its species. An organism with many young has more opportunity to survive in changing environmental conditions, because when the number of its young increases, so too do the combinations of genetic characters. Even after drastic environmental changes, a few may survive.

The concepts used by evolutionists used to explain biological realities have a merely nominal reality, they are far from being ultimate causes. Attributing reality or, worse, Divine power to concepts which can be useful only for building mental models, and ignoring the knowledge, might and eternal wisdom of the Creator, means binding our hearts and minds to nature, like nature-worshippers and polytheists generally.

More than 97 per cent of this water is in the oceans. The rest-about 37 million cubic kilometres-is fresh water but most of that is of little use since it is locked in icecaps and glaciers. Current estimates are that about 8 million cubic kilometres are stored in relatively inaccessible ground water and about 0.126 million cubic kilometres are contained in lakes and streams.

Like coal, oil, iron or soil, water is a natural resource. But there are many ways in which water differs from other natural resources. First, it moves. Second, its total quantity on the earth is fixed and can be neither increased nor decreased. Thirdly, water is essential for human survival.

The human being’s biological need for water is modest. A dozen or so cupfuls a day are all that are required for survival. Even so, there are many areas of the earth where even this requirement is difficult to meet. Rainfall in many desert regions is limited to a few millimetres a year, and this often falls at unpredictable times during the space of a few isolated days. Survival in these regions is impossible unless water is imported.

Biological survival, however, is not the issue in today’s water-stressed world. Water is required for household needs, for industry and agriculture. Household needs-drinking, washing and cooking-could be adequately met everywhere in the world by less than 100 litres per person per day, roughly the amount used for an average shower. Of this, only one litre a day is required for drinking. A hundred litres a day is the equivalent of about 35 cubic metres per person a year. If every man, woman and child on the planet were provided with 100 litres of domestic water a day, the water bill for a population of 5 billion people would be 180,000 billion litres a year; or 180 cubic kilometres. In theory, the Amazon river alone with an annual flow of nearly 6000 cubic kilometres could supply the domestic water needs of a world population more than 30 times as large as it is now.

A supply of unpolluted drinking water and the sanitary disposal of human wastes are fundamental to health. Water pollution moves through shared rivers, lakes and seas. An estimated 60 million people died of diarrhoea diseases due to unsafe drinking water and malnutrition, most of the victims were children.

Irrigation is by far the biggest use of water and also the most rapidly expanding. Plants use large quantities of water during their growth. Under dry conditions, it takes about 1000 cubic metres of water to produce one tonne of plant growth. The amount of water used for irrigation has increased 10 times this century and elaborate plans are still being made to extend irrigation to more and more areas. The basic addition is simple: 565 cubic kilometres for domestic, industrial, cooling and livestock use, plus 3,300 cubic kilometres for irrigation. As near as makes little difference, the answer is 4000 cubic kilometres a year, equivalent to 44 per cent of the total reliable run off.

In 1940, total water use was about 1000 cubic kilometres a year. It had doubled by 1960 and doubled again by 1990. The rising need for water has two components: One is that more and more people use water and the other is that they use more of it than they used to.

The Qur’an reminds us that water is the source of all life. “Do not the unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were joined together, then We clove them asunder and We made every living thing out of the water? Will they not then believe?” (21:30).

The phrase can equally mean that every living thing is made of water (as its essential component) or that every living thing originated in water. The meanings are strictly in accordance with scientific data. Life is indeed of aquatic origin and water is the major component of all living cells. Without water, life is not possible. When the possibility of life on another planet is discussed, the first question is always: Does it contain a sufficient quantity of water to support life?

References

• Robin Clarke (1991), Water: The International Crisis. Earthscan Ltd., London, UK.
• Maurice Bucaille (1983), The Bible, The Qur’an and Science, Seghers, Paris, France.
• The World Commission on Environment and Development (1987), Our Common Future, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
• Ahrned Zidan Ann Dina Zidan (1989), Translation of The Glorious Qur’an, Biddies Ltd., Guildford, UK.