MicroRNAs as tiny regulators with big roles

Tiny RNAs, known as microRNAs, have been shown to regulate many components of the body’s cellular machinery. They are called microRNAs because they are only 22 nucleotides in size (compared to the 2200 nucleotide-long messenger RNA). Amazingly, these small non-coding RNAs can turn off the translation of their target genes. They act as control switches by targeting the 3′ untranslated regions of messenger RNAs (mRNA) for translational repression or cleavage, thus resulting in a reduction of protein levels. Because each microRNAs can regulate hundreds of messenger RNAs, there are probably few cellular processes not affected by microRNAs. For instance, microRNAs have recently emerged as playing important roles in a variety of cellular processes, such as heart development, stem cells, insulin secretion, and cholesterol synthesis. MicroRNAs were first discovered in worms more than 20 years ago. For many years, scientists thought that DNA was transcribed to RNA, and then translated to protein. Those proteins are major regulators in the cell. Now, they appreciate that there are more levels of control and a number of non-coding RNAs that regulate the level of cellular components. About one thousand microRNA genes have been discovered in the human genome. This makes the microRNAs one of the most abundant classes of regulatory genes. As a result of the discovery of this new and major level of regulation in the cell, Dr. Andrew Z. Fire and Dr. Craig C. Mello were awarded the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

MicroRNA biogenesis

Unlike other RNAs, the production of microRNAs is quite different. As depicted in figure 1, the generation and activity of microRNAs requires special microprocessors, known as RNA polymerase II, Drosha, Exportin, Dicer, and RISC complex. RNA polymerase II transcribes (reads the microRNA DNA code) primary microRNA transcripts; then the Drosha process transforms primary microRNA into precursor microRNA in the nucleus. For activity and further processing, precursor microRNA are exported into cytoplasm by Exportin. In the cytoplasm, Dicer cuts precursor microRNA and generates mature 22 nucleotide long microRNA. Then, mature microRNA are incorporated into the RNA inducible silencing complex (RISC) where they target messenger RNAs (mRNA), either for degradation or translational repression. Even though there are extensive studies on microRNAs, it is still mostly unknown how microRNAs target specificity is determined and how they target messenger RNAs for mRNA degradation or translational repression. For a functional microRNA in the cell, it is amazing that a series of microprocessors should take place. They recognize different microRNAs as substrates and do their job as they are supposed to. It seems that the existence and regulation of microRNA processing abilities cannot be by mere chance.

MicroRNAs as therapeutics

MicroRNAs are considered “fine tuners” of cellular processes because of their subtle effects on their targets. However, because microRNAs can target a number of genes and genetic pathways, the study of microRNAs and their regulation and role in diseases is highly promising in terms of developing new therapeutic approaches. Treatments by targeting microRNAs using microRNA inhibitors (antisense RNA nucleotides) are under intense study and several of them have been shown to be effective in animal models. A MicroRNA known as miR-122, for instance, has been shown to regulate cholesterol levels. Scientists targeted this liver-specific microRNA by using a microRNA inhibitor and they found that the downregulation of miR-122 resulted in a 40% decrease in cholesterol levels in the blood.

MicroRNAs in cancer therapy

With the discovery of new and better tools to detect and manipulate microRNA levels in cell cultures and tissues, researchers are now attempting to identify the specific features of each microRNA and their role in cancer and other devastating diseases. There are some microRNAs that are highly correlated with cancer formation. Cancer is cellular anarchy characterized by a proliferation of cells without control. A group of miRNAs known as the miR-17-92 family have been found to increase, and their higher levels result in cancer formation as found in some lymphomas and solid tumors. It is believed that better understanding and use of microRNAs or microRNA inhibitors could enable doctors to treat diseases like cancer. In the near future, microRNA studies are also expected to provide early detection of progressive diseases, better markers for cancer initiation, and cancer specific drug selections.

MicroRNAs as cancer drug boosters

The most straightforward application of microRNA research has been cancer chemotherapies. The potential of use of microRNA applications to increase the effectiveness of current cancer drugs seems highly likely. Companies and universities are looking for microRNA partners to increase the effects of drugs like Taxol, which is currently used in chemotherapy. Taxol, for example, currently works for about 30% of lung cancer patients. But, if we can find a microRNA partner with that drug to make it 40%, it will mean saving thousands of lives. This is a hopeful sign for the future of cancer treatment. On the other hand, it is known that in the case of any chemotherapy, there are unwanted side effects. Although use of higher dose of drug will kill more tumors, the side effects of this drug will cause other issues. Discovery of partners like microRNAs that boost the effectiveness of cancer drugs or decrease side effects can help to treat more patients or help them overcome unwanted side effects.

Taking microRNAs to the heart of the matter

Heart diseases represent the primary cause of death in developed countries. Recent studies have identified microRNAs associated with heart diseases, including cardiac hypertrophy, heart failure (inability of the heart to pump sufficient blood to the organism), and myocardial infarction (the death of the cardiac muscle resulting from interruption of the blood supply). Mir-1 expression levels, for example, are low in human heart disease and it is known to regulate Hand2, a protein required for the growth of heart muscle cells. The levels of another microRNA, called miR-21, have consistently increased through cardiac stress and have been shown to regulate cardiac growth as well. Importantly, miR-133 is believed to repress cardiac hypertrophy, thus the use of synthetic miR-133 molecules is possible as a therapeutic for patients with pathological hypertrophy. However, more studies to understand heart-associated miRNAs are needed in order to have clinical trials for the treatment of heart diseases.

Figure 2. MicroRNAs in the heart. Recent studies have identified microRNAs that are associated with heart diseases, including arrhythmic heartbeat (Arrhythmias), cardiac hypertrophy (enlarged heart), septation defect, and cardiac muscle overgrowth (myocyte hyperplasia).

Micromanaging insulin secretion

MicroRNAs are also associated with the onset of diabetes. Diabetes affects about 23.6 million people in the United States. It can lead to serious health issues and even early death. Diabetes is marked by high levels of blood glucose (also called blood sugar). Complications of the disease are due to defects in insulin production and insulin action. Insulin is among the major regulators of sugar levels in the blood. The human genome contains a number of microRNA genes, whose functions are only beginning to come to light. One such microRNA, miR-375, is already implicated in the secretion of insulin from pancreatic cells, thus it represents a novel pharmacological target for the treatment of diabetes.

The mentioned cases above are examples of the tiny RNAs which regulate cellular processes. The loss of the control in such a small component of the cellular machinery can lead to serious problems, like cancer. To use a metaphor, the regular and healthy government of a state does not allow for the presence of multiple governors. Similarly, regulatory tiny RNAs require a controller who knows how the human body works at the macro and micro levels. This forces us to consider that whomever is controlling the human body must be all sustaining and all knowing. With each new scientific breakthrough, the wisdom of creation becomes more and more apparent. The field of miRNAs is a young research area. New discoveries about microRNAs have brought us new hopes for novel therapies to human diseases. However, future discoveries are required before these therapies can be used in a clinical setting.

Resources

• Qur’an: The Family of Imran 191 and The Cow 255.
• Caldas & Brenton. “Sizing up microRNAs as cancer genes”. Nature, 2005.
• Scott M. Hammond. “MicroRNA therapeutics: a new niche for antisense nucleic acids” Trends in Molecular Medicine, 2006.
• Rooij et al. “Toward MicroRNA–Based Therapeutics for Heart Disease” Circulation Research, 2008.
• National Diabetes Statistics, 2007. Retrived from http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/DM/PUBS/statistics/
• ScienceDaily. Not ‘Junk DNA’ After All: Tiny RNAs Play Big Role Controlling Genes. 2007.
• Callis & Wang. Taking microRNAs to heart. Trends in Molecular Medicine. 2008.
• Poy et al. A pancreatic islet-specific microRNA regulates insulin secretion. Nature,2004.
• Average mRNA length: B. Lewin, Genes 5, Table 2-2. Oxford University Press.
• MicroRNA biogenesis figure: http://content.nejm.org/content/vol359/issue25/images/large/14f1.jpeg

One of the signs of anarchy in a region could be the marching of an army to get a particular situation under control and, if it is indispensible, destroy or suppress anarchists. Similarly, the first response of the body to such uncontrolled growth is the destruction of tumor cells by activating inner mechanisms that lead to cellular suicide (apoptosis). Anarchy is by definition not to accept any border and authority, causing disorder or upheaval. According to twentieth century thinker Nursi, anarchy cuts and throws away norms and laws that organize social life, one by one, thus destroying the order and leading to mischief and rebellion. In addition, anarchism does not consider the rights of any. Analogously, one by one, cancer breaks genetic rules that organizes cell proliferation and eliminates pathways that suppress tumor formation. Thus, it eradicates the order and triggers chaos and malignancy. Again, cancer works against the life of the body without considering the rights of other cells.

Another characteristic of anarchism could be the elimination of its leaders. Thus, once you get rid of the key players, anarchy may not resurface. Likewise, you can use a strategy in certain cancer types where you can specifically target cancer stem cells. As a result, cancer growth could be suspended and it may bring an opportunity to shrink tumor through chemotherapeutical approaches. One such example is the targeting of CD24, a putative cancer stem cell antigen expressed by a minority of adenocarcinoma cells. This cell-based cancer immunotherapy method uses genetically engineered cancer killing T cells, which are directed towards cancerous tissues using chimeric antigen receptors. This is similar to the taking over of trained Special Forces when anarchy becomes malicious and unceasing. Both natural and genetically engineered cancer killer T cells in our body resemble trained Special Forces that patients need to fight against cancer.

Cancer treatments

Cancer is nowadays mainly treated with chemotherapy, radiotherapy and surgery, and to some extent with immunotherapy. The many purposes of chemotherapy include relieving or preventing the suffering of the patient, prolonging the life span, and if possible, completely curing the cancer along with surgery or radiotherapy regimens. Chemotherapy mainly uses cytotoxic drugs that kill cells by attacking one of the main properties of cancer cells—rapid division. Unfortunately, since cancer cells are not the only rapidly dividing cells in the body, chemotherapeutic agents also harm healthy cells. Another fall back of chemotherapy drugs is the lack of specificity that does not provide a therapy against a specific cancer type and their efficacy vary from patient to patient. In these cases, the indispensable path is synergistic use of radiotherapy with chemotherapy.

As its name implies, radiotherapy involves the use of ionizing radiation to kill cancer. It relies on the destruction of dividing cells by introducing DNA damage, which leads to induction of cellular death through apoptosis. Radiotherapy is therapeutically useful in cancers that are localized to one part of the body. It is also useful to prevent tumor relapse after surgical removal such as in breast cancer. However, radiation, which radiotherapy depends on, is itself the potential cause of cancer and leads to various side effects.

Citizens of the body need justice

Chemotherapy or radiotherapy, which harms both healthy and cancerous cells, recalls the practice of absolute justice versus relative justice. Absolute justice requires protection of every individual while punishing the criminals. On the other hand, relative justice is the justice where the rights of one person are ignored for the betterment of the whole. Absolute justice is always the best practice if it can be properly established. However, relative justice may be sought if absolute justice is absolutely out of reach. Current chemotherapy and radiotherapy treatments are like the practice of relative justice, which harms both cancerous and healthy cells. Of course, these treatments are considered as the last resort for many cancer patients but this analogy regarding absolute justice toward cells in the body urges us to seek for cancer therapies that follow absolute justice. In other worlds, we need to practice an approach that is more specific toward cancer cells. This could be, as we mentioned above, the use of cancer immunotherapy where cytotoxic T cells are directed towards cancer cells through genetic engineering by introducing chimeric antigen receptors (CARs). CARs should be able to recognize unique or relatively specific antigens located on the surface of cancer cells to execute them.

Cancer killing T-cells: Equipped with chimeric antigen receptors

There are three main approaches in cancer immunotherapy including immunization, use of antibodies and cellular immunotherapy. Immunization by administering a cancer vaccine prepares the patient’s own immune cells to recognize tumor cells as targets to be destroyed. The use of therapeutic antibodies specific to cancer cells recruits immune cells in the patient to abolish tumors. Cellular immunotherapy, on the other hand, uses patients’ own immune cells like the natural killer cells, cytotoxic T cells and so on. Basically, those cells could be stimulated in patients with the administration of interleukins or they could be isolated from the patients’ blood and cultured in the laboratory and following expansion and in vitro training, then transfused back to the patient to fight against cancer.

Cytotoxic T cells are unique immune cells that recognize target cells via T cell receptors. Over the past decade, scientist engineered T cell receptors and developed chimeric antigen receptors that specifically recognize target antigens. This recognition lead to signaling pathways that resulted in apoptosis of tumor cell through the production of granzymes, perforins and cytokines such as IFN-γ, and TNF-α (Figure 1). There are a number of success stories using CAR+ T cells for cancer immunotherapy used in patients. Encouraging results were obtained with CARs targeting lymphoma (by targeting CD19 antigen), coleractal Cancer (by targeting CEA antigen), and melanoma (by targeting melanocyte-specific markers MART1, MELOE-1 and gp100).

Universal chimeric antigen receptors

Two recent studies published by two different groups increased the hopes in the battle with cancer. They developed novel and universal CAR technologies that combines cell based immunotherapy and use of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies. This new approach relies on the recognition of specific molecules such as FITC and Biotin by corresponding Anti-FITC and Anti-Biotin (Avidin) CARs. The decent thing about these specific molecules is that you can attach them to any antibody, ligand, or aptamer known to target specific tumor antigens (Figure 2). One of the universal chimeric antigen receptor, for instance, uses FITC, a fluorescent molecule widely used in flow cytometric assays. Since it is easy to label antibodies, this provides wide range of antibodies to target cancer cells. In addition, scientists using this approach could target more than one tumor antigen or could use another antibody that targets different antigen even if cancer relapses. Moreover, since antibodies used to activate CAR+ T cells will degrade and their bioavailability will decrease in the body by time, there will be no need to kill injected T cells with suicide mechanisms. Once FITC labeled antibodies are stopped from being given to patients, CAR+ T cells will stop attacking cells and cease-fire since their guns (CARs) cannot recognize tumors or anything nonspecific. This approach is highly encouraging and has brought with it great hopes in the treatment of cancer.

Anarchy, spirituality, and prayer therapy

Hunger, poverty, social inequality and economical issues could be asserted as the basis of anarchy within a society. However, according to Nursi, the real basis of anarchy is spiritual weakness and poverty. Similarly, the basis for cancer could possibly be the lack of appropriate spiritual diet that may eventually make a person fall spiritually and physically weak. For example, fasting is a physical and spiritual fast prescribed in monotheistic religions which increases spirituality and has been shown to be synergistically effective in chemotherapy with cancer treatments. It has been observed and scientifically recorded that patients with strong beliefs and continuous prayers and spiritual support overcome diseases much faster than those without. This raises certain questions regarding our spiritual makeup and many other dynamics involved in being sick and getting well. So, are we getting ill because some evil spirits are manipulating our biological condition by settling in the tumors and propagating cellular anarchy? Is radiation, which leads to cellular mutations, a result of spirits that are created of “scorching fire” (The Qur’an 15:27)? Is cancer a result of such manipulations and should we seek cure for it not only through biological medicine but also through spiritual healing?

Various scientifically proven causes are known to increase the likelihood of cancer, which includes, but is not limited to, smoking, viral infections, radiation, and pollutants that lead to internal genetic faults within cells. Considering the fact that there are many cases in which patients have been reported to have recovered from their illnesses by reciting prayers, then such cases are worth examining to find out whether and to what degree non-material factors are involved as causes for our illnesses. Studying these cases may offer science new opportunities to be able to remove the present obstructions and make greater advances in the medical field by perhaps developing cancer therapies that combine prayer therapy and cancer immunotherapy using genetically engineered T cells during the treatment of patients.

Ali Fethi Toprak is a PhD candidate at University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center.

References

Döğen, Şaban. 2005. “Bediüzzaman and Anarchy.” Köprü Dergisi, No 89.

Nursi, Bediüzzaman Said. Işarâtü’l-I’caz. Şahdamar Yayınları.

Chmielewski et al. 2012. “CAR’s made it to the pancreas.” OncoImmunology 1:8, 1387–1389.

Tamada et al. 2012. “Redirecting Gene-Modified T Cells toward Various Cancer Types Using Tagged Antibodies.” Clin Cancer Res.

Urbanska et al. 2012. “A universal strategy for adoptive immunotherapy of cancer through use of a novel T cell antigen receptor.” Cancer Res.

Gülen. M. Fethullah. “Cinler, Hastalıklara Sebep Olabilir mi?” Retrieved from http://tr.fgulen.com/content/view/708/3/ on 12/24/12.

Bukhari, i’tikâf 8, 11, 12; Muslim, Salam, 24; Ibn Maja, Siyam 65; Abu Dawud, Sawm 79; Adab 81; Muslim and related hadith narrated by Abu Hurayrah, Bukhari 7.582.

¹ See Yücel, Salih. 2010. Prayer and Healing in Islam, NJ: Tughra Books.

In this article we will review these three concepts and the relations among them by giving examples from the realms of both physical and metaphysical concepts.

Even though there is no universally accepted definition of analogy, or metaphor, or literal similarity, the purpose of their use is unanimously defined as “throwing light on an unfamiliar concept or situation using a familiar one.” The past few decades have witnessed several attempts of redefining these terms or at least extending a definition that is somewhat agreed-upon to an all-encompassing one. In so doing, researchers tended to employ mathematical structures that are by no means simple. What seems to differ from one approach to another is the method used in the process of establishing a correspondence between the familiar and the unfamiliar. Our purpose is not to give a full account of these approaches here, as there are so many of them, but rather to adapt one that is more convenient for conveying our examples.

Analogy: The word analogy is derived from the Greek word analogia. Originally, this was a mathematical (actually a musical) term before becoming a grammatical and linguistic one, meaning “proportion” (Szabo 1978, 23). An example of Aristotelian analogy is “spine is to fish as bone is to animal.” This simple analogy is generally formulated as A:B = C:D. We say, in this case, A and C are analogous. The sense in which A and C are analogous could be a property they have in common as well as the similarity between their relations to B and D, respectively. In the spine and bone example above we observe both. In the analogy “feet are to animal as wheels are to automobile,” however, feet and tires have virtually nothing in common, but they are analogous with respect to their functions within the bodies that they are part of, i.e., both are used as a means of transportation. Therefore, common relations are essential to analogy, but common objects are not. (Gentner-Markman 1997, 46).

One of the recent approaches to analogy which is widely used is the structure-mapping theory (SMT) (Dedre Gentner, 1983). It presumes a mapping between the familiar (domain or base) and the unfamiliar (target). The domain and the target consist of objects and relations among objects. SMT establishes a one-to-one correspondence between the objects of the domain and the target in a way that preserves the relations between objects (Those who are familiar with the category theory in mathematics will notice the resemblance of this mapping to a “covariant functor” between two “categories”). This is a “structural alignment” between the domain and the target (Gentner-Markman 1997, 47). In the “feet and wheels” example the mapping occurs between a body and an automobile. It maps feet to wheels and the relation TRANSPORT (feet, body) to the relation TRANSPORT (wheels, automobile). One can find more matching elements between a body and an automobile. For instance, we can match the heart of the body to the engine of the vehicle and observe that the relations RUN (heart, body) and RUN (engine, automobile) are preserved.

One might ask where do the arms get mapped? The answer is “nowhere.” We do not expect this mapping to match every object in the domain to an object in the target. The “power of the analogy” is not in the number of objects that are matched or the common attributes that the objects share. It is rather the degree of matching among relations that makes an analogy more powerful (Gentner 1982, 110).

Having introduced the concept of analogy by using some simple physical examples let’s now consider a not-so simple metaphysical situation.

In the 1920’s two mathematicians proved a very interesting but at the same time very puzzling theorem, known as the Banach-Tarski Paradox. In plain English, the theorem states that it is possible to divide a solid ball into a few pieces and reassemble those pieces together to make two balls, each of which has the same size as the original ball that was divided. A more striking consequence of their theorem is (you may want to sit down before you read this) a solid ball the size of a small pea can be cut into a number of pieces and reassembled into a new ball the size of the sun! Strange as it may sound, it is a valid mathematical argument, not a myth. (We have to note that it is not something one can do at home using a knife and a cutting board, because some of the pieces have no volume!) The analogy that we would like to establish under SMT is to map that solid ball of the theorem to a small amount of water which could quench the thirst of an army of about 30,000 in Tabuk in year 631. This was a miracle given to Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him. A similar miracle of Prophet Jesus, peace be upon him, is described in the Bible, Matthew 14:21 (Volker Runde, in the Sky 2 (2000), 13–15).

Metaphor: The essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another. (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, 104) Simple examples are “What a sweet baby!” “Your car is a lemon, let’s take mine.” Obviously babies are not candies, nor are vehicles some sort of fruit. We use this sort of “identification” in order to communicate our ideas/feelings in a more striking way. Here are more examples of metaphors: “he is the apple of my eye,” “it’s raining cats and dogs,” “he has a golden heart,” “she cried rivers” etc. As these examples show, the distinguishing characteristic of metaphors is substitution, for example, rivers taking the place of tears in the last example. And this substitution takes place between different domains. If we say “a nightingale is a bird,” that’s not a metaphor; it’s a literal categorization, as both nightingale and bird signify the same domain (Gentner 2005, 200).

As long as the correspondence is not purely attributional, but some relations are also preserved we can also talk about structural alignment for metaphors (Gentner 88, 49). From this perspective, many metaphors are in fact analogies, but it’s the form of the language that helps us differentiate them. For example, “the engine is the heart of an automobile” is a metaphor, but it uses the same structural alignment of the analogical comparison that we mentioned above.

Nonetheless, not every metaphor is of this sort. Consider, for example, the verse (48:10) “God’s hand is over their hands” from the Qur’an; this was revealed in connection to some 1,400 believers’ pledging allegiance to Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, under a tree in Hudaybiyah in year 628 by giving their hands to him. Whatever “God’s hand” in this verse refers to, whether it is to His power, His victory, His protection and blessings for the believers, or His acceptance of their pledge, it is far from being a physical hand. Therefore, we can not imagine a relation between dissimilar objects (Gentner 1982, 109; Gentner 2001, 204) that is mapped to the relation (Hand, God) under a structural alignment using SMT.

Literal similarity: If there is a considerable number of common attributes that are shared by the objects of the domain and the target then the comparison is more likely to be a literal similarity (Gentner 1982, 110). For example the comparison in the following verse of the Qur’an is a literal similarity: “Indeed, the example of Jesus to God is like that of Adam. He created him from dust; then He said to him, “Be,” and he was” (3:59). In this example there are a great number of attributes that Jesus and Adam (peace be upon them) share but only one of them is the subject of the comparison here, which is that both Jesus and Adam had no father. If Jesus also had no mother this would be an “identity,” not a similarity (Gentner 1982, 110).

The statement “Jesus is like Adam” makes much more sense than “Jesus is Adam,” even if we make it clear in what sense we use this identification. Typically metaphors use the word “is” and literal similarity comparisons (similes) use either of the words “like” or “as.” Mathematically speaking, if metaphors are equalities, then similes are approximations (Casnig).

Even though metaphors are substitutions, they are not necessarily “two-way” identifications. In other words, most of the times they are asymmetric; i.e., there is a sense of direction in the “identification.” For example, we never substitute a car in the place of a lemon and say “this lemon is a car.” This is because the first and foremost requirement of any comparison is that it be informative. What information do we obtain from the statement “rose is love” or “iron is fist”? In that respect many metaphors are irreversible, like similes: “a butcher like a surgeon” is quite different than “a surgeon like a butcher.” One is a compliment but the other is not! (Gentner 2001, 224). Perhaps irreversibility can also be taken as a distinguishing character of (at least attributional) metaphors.

Mathematical and metaphysical examples: Although there is no consensus on how mathematical ideas come about, it is certain that they are introduced into our world of knowledge by symbolism. Whether we associate a symbol to something physical, such as the symbol 70 to the weight of an object or the letter g to gravitational force, or to an abstract mathematical concept, such as the letter i to √–1, we are substituting one thing to mean another thing. We even associate symbols to concepts we cannot even describe, such as the concept of infinity and the symbol ∝ that is used to represent what it signifies in mathematics. From this perspective, mathematical symbols can be viewed as metaphors (Pimm, David 1981).

On the other hand mathematical formulas preserve the relations among the objects or concepts that they represent. In that respect, it is possible to see them as analogies as well. Therefore, they can be subjects of structural alignment. In the next example we will use SMT to form an analogical comparison between infinity and human life in order to better understand a Qur’anic verse.

In verse (5:32) of the Qur’an reads: “…he who kills a soul unless it be (punishment) for murder or for causing disorder and corruption on the earth will be as if he had killed all humankind; and he who saves a life will be as if he had saved the lives of all humankind…”

In a sense this verse means “one equals many.” How can that be? How can one be equal to a million? Or a billion? Those who know something about mathematics with infinities will remember that it is a quite different thing from mathematics with ordinary numbers. For example, if we add two infinities we still get infinity, i.e., ∝+∝=.∝=∝, something that never happens with any finite number, except for 0 (0+0=2.0=0). Likewise, if we add any number of infinities together we still get infinity: ∝+∝+∝+…∝=∝.Therefore, for any positive number m if we write m.∝=∝ it would be a perfectly acceptable mathematical statement.

Now, everyone will agree that there is no value one can associate to human life. Therefore, it’s fair to say that the value of human life is infinite. Let’s map “∝” to “saving the life of one person” under a structural alignment and let counting people in the target correspond to adding infinities in the domain. Now, if m represents the total number of lives on earth then what element should we associate to saving them altogether? The answer is m infinities added together, in other words m.∝ But seeing that m.∝ is equal to ∝ we can say that saving the lives of all people on earth is no different than saving the life of one individual! That’s how one can equal many. Now, if we map “killing an innocent person” to “–∝” then we clearly see that the mathematical statement m.(-∝)=-∝translates into “killing all innocent people on earth is as grave a sin as killing one.”

Note that this “one equals many” situation is not a violation of the requirement that structure mapping be one-to-one (Gentner-Markman 1997, 47). It’s a relation that occurs between the objects of the domain and the objects of the target and that relation is preserved under a one-to-one structure mapping.

Another relation between infinities is that “∝-∝” is indeterminate. In particular “∝-∝” is not necessarily 0. Using the analogy we just constructed we can translate this as “killing one innocent person and saving the life of another does not balance out.” Then, “∝-∝” is indeterminate” translates as “we cannot know if God will forgive that person for saving a life or punish him/her for taking one; it depends on which ∝ is greater!” Indeed, those who have taken calculus will remember that “∝-∝” sometimes turns out to be a positive number and sometimes a negative number; as well as 0 or ∝ or -∝

One could ask, what about m.0=0? Isn’t this also true? Yes, indeed “the sum of m zeros is equal to zero” is another mathematically accurate statement. Then, what meaning could this equation be given? Perhaps this would be the “murderer’s” version of the Qur’anic principle that we mentioned above: “When the life of an individual has “no value” in your heart, killing one person or a million people should be equally disheartening (!)”

Another mathematical tool that would be helpful in interpreting the above-mentioned principle is a technique that is used in mathematical proofs. When proving a fact about a set of elements in mathematics one proves it for an arbitrarily chosen member of the set and it is automatically generalized to the rest of the elements in the set. For example, in order to prove the statement “the square root of every prime number is irrational” we choose a prime number, say p, arbitrarily and prove the statement for it. Once we do that it is as if we proved that √2 is irrational, √3 is irrational, √5 is irrational etc. It covers all the numbers in the form √p, where p is a prime number. In the same way, when one kills an innocent person the message that it is acceptable to kill “any” innocent person is given, as the choice of person has been made arbitrarily. Therefore, this can be likened to killing all of mankind because being able to kill one person is simply generalized to all people who could be in that person’s shoes.

Summary: In this article we have given examples of analogy, metaphor, and literal similarity and have tried to indicate some distinguishing characters that set them apart. We included some uncommon metaphysical phenomena which have been placed in analogical correspondence with mathematical quantities with the intention of showing that mathematics can be used to shed light on purely religious concepts as well.

Yusuf Ziya Gurtas is an assistant professor of mathematics in Queensborough Community College, CUNY.

References

• Casnig, John D. 1997–2009. A Language of Metaphors. Knowgramming.com. Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
• Gentner, Dedre. 1982. “Are scientific analogies metaphors?” in David S. Miall (Ed.), Metaphor, Problems and Perspectives, Brighton, England: Harvester Press, pp. 106–132.
• –. 1983. “Structure-Mapping: A Theoretical Framework for Analogy.” Cognitive Science, 7, pp. 155–170.
• –. 1988. “Metaphor as Structure Mapping: The Relational Shift.” Child Development, 59, 47–59.
• Gentner, Dedre & Markman, Arthur D. 1997. “Structure Mapping in Analogy and Similarity.” American Psychologist, 52, 45–56.
• Gentner, Dedre, Bowdle, B., Wolff, P., & Boronat, C. 2001. “Metaphor is like analogy” in D. Gentner, K. J. Holyoak, & B. Kokinov (Eds.), The Analogical Mind: Perspectives from Cognitive Science, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 199–253.
• Gentner, Dedre & Bowdle, Brian F. 2005. “The Career of Metaphor.” Psychological Review, 112, pp. 193–216.
• Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. 1980. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Pimm, David. 1981. “Metaphor and Analogy in Mathematics.” For the Learning of Mathematics, 1, 47–50.
• Runde, Volker. 2000. “The Banach-Tarski Paradox or What Mathematics and Miracles Have in Common.” in the Sky, 2, 13–15.
• Szabo, A. 1978. The Beginnings of Greek Mathematics. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel.

Virtues such as sincerity (ikhlas¹), loyalty, refraining from backbiting or suspicion² are among the essentials of good conduct every believing person must adopt. I think everybody agrees on that. However, my personal assumptions do not mean much in practical life. What matters is each individual’s adopting this understanding and striving for its establishment in society. Naturally, this cannot be expected to happen all of a sudden.

Internalizing good or bad conduct as part of our nature is a very long process.

The most important point to pay attention to is our actual determination on the matter. Take sincerity for instance. It is something that almost everyone who regularly prays requests from God in their prayers day and night. We pray to God saying, “O God, please make me attain sincerity in faith, or make me one of those whom You have rendered sincere.” But how sincere are we in our wish? Being a loyal servant to God and attaining sincerity in faith… how important are these for us? How deeply do we ask for-and this is another dimension of sincerity in faith-attaining the good pleasure of God? Even if we mention it in our words, what about our actions for the sake of achieving that? While making a decision about a matter in real life, from marriage to having children, or continuing with our job or not, are we able to comfortably say that we make our decisions in the direction which we think pleasing to God? Can we even say we prefer the good pleasure of God over Paradise-though they are not opposite things-or over viewing the “Face” of God? We can extend the questions in this direction. Now, if we are not able to choose sincerity and what is pleasing to God, and if we are not acting in the way that we prayed for, then it definitely means we are being disrespectful toward God, or worse, it means that we are “lying against God.” In the Qur’an (Anam 6:21) fabricating a lie against God is mentioned as the ultimate wrong.

If we do not really wish to attain virtues like sincerity, the good pleasure of God, loyalty, and faithfulness as much we wish to marry, have children, have worldly possessions-a car, a house, a summerhouse and so on-or to have our business run smoothly… or if these virtues do not have as great a place in our hearts as the worldly matters, please let us not be disrespectful against God and let us avoid paying lip service about being sincere in faith. Attaining the good pleasure of God is an incomparably greater aim than any other. So, we should not hold these worldly matters, which we are supposed to keep under our feet, at the same level as attaining the good pleasure of God. As I repeat many times over, we need to value matters of this world and the next as they deserve.

What I have explained so far is only one aspect of the issue. Another aspect is that we should not fail to ask for high virtues in our prayers. There might seem to be a conflict between this sentence and what I have previously said. In fact, there is no conflict at all. The issue explained above points toward a certain perspective and provides us with a target. Until reaching that target, a natural process will be experienced as mentioned at the beginning. While proceeding toward the target, the one thing we should never give up is praying. Praying sets a target for us, it feeds the conscience, lets our hearts take wing, makes us comprehend the finiteness of our power, and makes us feel a need to take refuge in an Omnipotent One. As Nursi puts it, supplicating to God in a heartfelt and sincere way is already a profound form of worship in itself. Sooner or later, God accepts the prayers of people who believe in such a way.

I would like to cite two examples here concerning how prayers set targets for us. Here is the first example: One day God’s Messenger saw Abu Umama al-Bahili sitting in the mosque, looking shaken. When he asked for the reason, the reply was “poverty.” Upon hearing this, the Prophet taught him the following prayer:

“O God, I take refuge in You from worry, grief, incapacity, sloth, cowardice miserliness, the burden of debt, and subjugation by men.” We can consider these one by one and see how each sets a target in order to free oneself from poverty:

“I take refuge in You from worry, grief….” Now think about it please. Does someone who wishes to be free from worry and grief just sit there and worry? Does he get entangled in things that lead him to grief? Or, on the contrary, does such a person get up and seek ways to overcome them?

“…from incapacity, sloth….” Complaining about poverty and passively sitting in the mosque-even if it is the Prophet’s Mosque-this just means incapacity and sloth, doesn’t it?

“…cowardice, miserliness,” and finally “the burden of debt, and subjugation by men.” As it is seen, every component of this prayer sets a target for a person who suffers from poverty and takes refuge in the mosque and shows him the ways to free himself from that situation. After that phase, what falls to the individual is to put into action what he prayed for.

The second example is about one of my childhood memories. My father once told me that “anyone who recites the sura Nasr (Qur’an 110) two thousand times at night will see the Prophet in his dream.” I believed this with the heart of a child and recited the sura two thousand times and went to sleep. That night, even if it lasted until the morning, I would recite it again; for my desire to see the Prophet in my dream could make me sacrifice not just one night, but hundreds of nights. So, if a person’s heart is truly in something, then he should definitely seek ways to obtain it.

To conclude, as much as wishing to attain good conduct, our efforts to realize this purpose are important. These two are the halves of a whole. And prayer, in many respects, is such an important act that it cannot be substituted by anything else.

Notes

1. Doing something purely for the sake of God.
2. See Hujurat 49:12.

Radar, a contraction of the words radio detection and ranging, is an electronic device for detecting and locating objects. It operates by transmitting a particular waveform pattern and detects the nature of the echo (return) signal.1 Radar is used to extend the capability of the man’s senses, especially that of vision. We can think of radar as being a substitute for the eye, although it can do so much more: it can see objects through such impervious conditions as darkness, haze, fog, rain, and snow, for its wavelengths are much longer than those of visible or infrared light. The human eye works as a passive device, since the object is illuminated by sunlight or other light sources. However, radar produces its own illumination via electromagnetic waves, which means that it is an active device. 

APPLICATIONS OF RADAR AND RADAR IMAGING

Radar is used in civilian applications as air-traffic-control radar to guide aircraft to a safe landing, and in commercial aircraft as radar altimeters to determine height and weather avoidance, as well as wind-shear radars to navigate in severe weather conditions.

The military uses radar for surveillance and weapons control. Examples of such radars are DEW (Distant Early Warning) and AEW (Airborne Early Warning), which detect aircraft, long-range search radars, and guided missile radars.2

Research scientists use radar as a measurement tool. Radars have been placed on satellites, space modules, and shuttles to explore meteors, planets, and other objects in the solar system.

In the case of an imaging radar, the radar travels along an airplane’s or a space shuttle’s flight path. The area underneath is illuminated by the radar, and the radar architecture builds the image as it moves on the top of its footprint (Fig.1). The radar image’s finer resolution is achieved by using a very long antenna array to focus transmitted and received energy into a sharp beam.2 The beam’s sharpness defines the resolution. Similarly, such optical systems as telescopes require large apertures (mirrors or lenses that are analogous to the radar antenna) to obtain fine imaging resolution. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) is a common and very popular technique in radar imaging that achieves a very fine resolution.3 In the following sections, we introduce and explain different types of SAR imaging techniques.

SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR (SAR)

SAR refers to a technique that synthesizes a very long antenna by combining echoes received by the radar when it travels.4.5 Typically, SAR is used to produce a two-dimensional (2-D) image. One dimension in the image is called range (or along track), and is a measure of the “line-of-sight” distance from the radar to the target (Fig.l). Range is determined by precisely measuring the time from a pulse’s transmission to receiving the echo from target. The range resolution is determined by the transmitted pulse’s width (i.e., narrow pulses yield fine range resolution).

The other dimension is called azimuth (or cross track), and is perpendicular to range. Usually, the length of the radar antenna determines azimuth resolution. However, a good azimuth resolution requires a radar antenna that is not practically carried by an airborne platform, for imaging radars are much lower in frequency (1 to 10 GHz) than optical systems (4,000 to 8,000 GHz). The length of the required antenna could be around several hundred meters, which obviously cannot be carried by an air vehicle.

However, SAR differs from other radars in that it collects data along the flight path when it travels, instead of using a large antenna. Therefore, a very small antenna is adequate for the job. After collecting the data, it processes this aperture data as if it came from a physically long antenna. The distance the aircraft flies in synthesizing the antenna is known as the synthetic aperture. A narrow synthetic beamwidth results from the relatively long synthetic aperture, which yields finer resolution than what is possible from a smaller physical antenna.

SARs are not as simple as described above. Transmitting short pulses to provide range resolution is generally not practical. Typically, longer pulses with wide-bandwidth modulation are transmitted, which complicates range processing but decreases peak power requirements on the transmitter. For even moderate azimuth resolutions, a target’s range to each location on the synthetic aperture changes along the synthetic aperture. The energy reflected from the target must be “mathematically focused” to compensate for the range dependence across the aperture prior to image formation. Additionally, for fine-resolution systems, range and azimuth processing is coupled (dependent on each other), which greatly increases computational processing. The trick in SAR processing is to correctly match the variation in frequency due to motion (moving target or moving radar) for each point in the image.

An example of SAR imaging is shown in Fig. 2. The colors in the image reflect the received signal intensity. The strongest signal level is red, whereas the weakest is black. The figure is a SAR image of San Francisco, California, obtained by the Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C/X-band Synthetic Aperture (SIR-C/X-SAR) imaging radar when it flew aboard the space shuttle Endeavour on October 3, 1994. The size of the image is about 26 miles by 36 miles. The center of the area is 37.83 degrees north latitude, 122.38 degrees east longitude.

This particular SAR image is a good illustration of how SAR distinguishes urban areas from nearby relatively less populated areas. Such densely populated regions as downtown San Francisco (center) and the city of Oakland (at the right across the San Francisco Bay) show up as red images due to the alignment of streets and buildings vis A vis the incoming radar beam. The bridges in the area are easily detected by the imaging radar, including the Golden Gate Bridge (left center) at the opening of San Francisco Bay, the Bay Bridge (right center), and the San Mateo Bridge (bottom center). All dark regions on the image represent smooth water. Radar also easily detects the major faults in the area: those bounding the San Francisco-Oakland urban areas and the San Andreas Fault (at the lower left), As seen from the image, faults are shown as dark straight lines in the SAR image.

INCERSE SAR (ISAR)

While SAR images a region of the Earth from an airplane or an air shuttle, Inverse SAR (ISAR) images a flying object, such as airplane or an asteroid, from land-based radar. ISAR is very popular, and also very critical in military applications.6 It is commonly used for identification purposes. In a possible war scenario where there are too many aircraft in the sky, it is almost impossible to guess which one is friendly or hostile. In that case, ISAR imaging technique is used to identify the approaching aircraft and classify it from a collection of possible targets.

In theory, ISAR is an imaging technique that maps the locations of dominant scattering points of a target based on the multi-frequency, multi-aspect, backscattered data.7 In this data, the signal’s amplitude reflects the magnitude information of the scattering points on the target, while the backscattered signal’s phase is related to the location information of the scattering point off the target. After collecting this 2-D raw data, several signal-processing tools extract from this data the amplitude and location information of the scattering centers. Then, a 2-D image of the target is constructed by using a convenient image processing technique.

An example of ISAR imagery is shown in Fig. 3. The model of the test airplane (C-29 model) is shown at the lower portion, while a 2-D ISAR image of the airplane is constructed at the upper portion of Fig.3. The measurement is taken at the center frequency of 10 GHz, where the frequency bandwidth is 16 GHz. The data is collected from 0.10 steps to cover the entire 3600 azimuth. At the end, a 2048 by 2048 2-D grid is constructed by using the ISAR algorithm. By comparing both, it is seen that ISAR imaging provides accurate target information. By looking at this image, it is very easy to identify and classify the aircraft.

ISAR is an active operation of the radar at the target’s far field. Both receiving and transmitting antennas must be far away from the target. Recently, new ISAR imaging techniques that allow passive radar operation have been discovered. Antenna SAR (ASAR) and Antenna Coupling (ACSAR) imaging techniques use direct radiation from an antenna mounted on the near field of an airplane or a ship to image the dominant radiation points off these platforms. In these cases, the radar functions only as a receiver, for the target’s own antenna provides illumination to the target. These techniques are mainly used to determine the dominant radiation points off the target to explore ways to cancel or mitigate undesired extra radiation from the target’s platform.

The development of fast computers during the 1980s allowed researchers to apply intensive computational electromagnetic (CEM) tools that ultimately led them to develop new SAR/ISAR algorithms. One of the most appreciated and widely used tool is Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (INSAR) imaging, which allows the extraction of height information that can be used to render 3-D topographic views of a SAR scene.

INTERFEROMETRIC SAR (INSAR)

Radar interferometry involves coherently combining radar measurements made by two or more radar antennas displaced by a relatively small distance.8 Depending on the relative geometry of the two antennas, the combined measurements can be turned into measurements of surface topography, topographic change, or displacement over time. Mapping precision of around 2m in three dimensions over a wide area is now possible from airborne interferometric radars.

Here is how an INSAR works: A radar system launches electromagnetic energy to scan the ground terrain to be imaged. Two radar antennas collect the backscattered wave to obtain two different snapshots of SAR image. To avoid phase ambiguity, these antennas must be close enough to each other. Since the waves travel different distances from a particular scatterer to each antenna, the resultant phases of each SAR image is different. In the next step, an image called interferogram is formed by multiplying one SAR image by the complex conjugate of the other SAR image. The phase of the interferogram represents the differences in range to the scattering centers of each pixel in the image. These differences are caused by the terrain’s topography. Then, a signal-processing algorithm converts this phase information to extract the terrain’s topographic features. Finally, a 3-D INSAR image of the region is formed by combining the SAR images with the height information.

An example of INSAR imaging is illustrated in Fig.4, which depicts the Long Valley of east central California. The images were taken by the Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C/X-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SIR-C/X-SAR) aboard the space shuttle Endeavour during its two flights in April and October 1994. The four images show the steps necessary to produce 3-D data from radar interferometry. The image covers an area of 21 by 37 miles. The radar illumination is from the top of the image. The bright areas are hilly regions of big rocks and pine forest; the darker areas are the relatively smooth, sparsely vegetated valley floors. The curving ridge running across the image’s center from top to bottom is the northeast rim of the Long Valley caldera, a remnant crater from a massive volcanic eruption roughly 750,000 years ago.

The image in the upper right is an interferogram of the same region, constructed by combining data from the April and October flights. The different phases are shown as different color levels. These variations are caused by elevation differences in the area. The same color levels indicate that those regions have same altitudes. The image in the lower left shows a topographic map derived from the interferometric data. The black bold contour lines represent levels of elevation. In this particular image, elevation levels are spaced at 250-meter intervals. The last image is a 3-D view of the northeast rim of the caldera, looking toward the northwest. As can be seen from the image, it is possible to extract such geologic structural and landform features as elevation, vegetation, and soil type with the help of INSAR processing.

Another example of INSAR imaging is shown in Fig. 5, which depicts the Washington, DC, Mall area. A similar approach is used to form this 3-D image. The region starts from the Capitol building (top) to the Lincoln Memorial and the Arlington Memorial Bridge (toward the right bottom). The Washington Monument is very easy to observe at the center of the image. The bright areas (from white to yellow) represent higher elevation places; darker colors (from green to dark blue) represent the areas of lower elevation. The Potomac river (right bottom of the image) and the reflecting pool (from the Lincoln Memorial toward the Washington Monument) are all in dark blue because of the water and the lowest elevations. We can also clearly distinguish Constitution Avenue running from bottom to top. The green regions are intermediate elevation consisting mostly of vegetation. As seen from the image, the highest elevation is the top of the Washington Monument, the Library of Congress building, and the Capitol building.

CONCLUSION

In this paper, we presented a survey study of radar basics and radar imagery. It is obvious that radar has been a very important and useful tool throughout the 20th century, both in the military and industry. With developments in the computer era and new imaging algorithms, it looks like it will be a very critical tool in the 21st century as well. It is now possible to simulate very complex models and targets in a reasonable computation time in radar frequencies thanks to new developments in computational electromagnetics methods (CEM). Examples of those are Xpatch9 (a high frequency code that can predict the scattering from large, complex bodies) and FISC10 (a fast simulator of electromagnetic bodies at high frequencies). While computers continue to grow faster and faster, new electromagnetic simulators are also getting faster and more efficient. As a result, more compact, fancier, faster, and more accurate radar-imaging techniques are being developed.

REFERENCES

1. Morris, G. V. and Harkness, L. (1996) ‘Airborne Pulsed Doppler Radar’, Artech House.
2. Mensa, D. L. (1981) ‘High Resolution Radar Imaging’, pp. 185-189, Artech House.
3. Wehner, D. R. (1994) ‘High-Resolution Radar’. Artech House.
4. Carrara, W. C., Goodman, R. S. and Majewski, R. M. (1995) ‘Spotlight Synthetic Aperture Radar: Signal Processing Algorithms’, Artech House.
5. Franceschetti, G. and Lanari,. (1999) ‘Synthetic Aperture Radar Processing’, C. R. C. Press LLC.
6. Baltes, H. P. (1980) ‘Inverse Scatteiing Problems in Optics’, Springer-Verlag.
7. Chu, T. H. and Lin, D. B. (1991) ‘Microwave diversity imaging of perfectly conducting objects in the near-field region’, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. 39, pp. 480-487.
8. Askne, J., et al. (1997) ‘C-band repeat-pass inter ferometric SAR observations of forest, IEEE Trans. on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, vol.35, pp. 25-35.
9. Lee, S. W. (1992) ‘Test cases for XPATCH’, Electromagn. Lab. Tech. Rept., ARTI-92-4, Univ. of Illinois.
10. Ctr. Computat. Electromagn. (1997) ‘User’s Manual for FISC (Fast Illinois Solver Code)’, Univ. Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, and DEMACO. Inc.

Virtues such as sincerity (ikhlas¹), loyalty, refraining from backbiting or suspicion² are among the essentials of good conduct every believing person must adopt. I think everybody agrees on that. However, my personal assumptions do not mean much in practical life. What matters is each individual’s adopting this understanding and striving for its establishment in society. Naturally, this cannot be expected to happen all of a sudden.

Internalizing good or bad conduct as part of our nature is a very long process.

The most important point to pay attention to is our actual determination on the matter. Take sincerity for instance. It is something that almost everyone who regularly prays requests from God in their prayers day and night. We pray to God saying, “O God, please make me attain sincerity in faith, or make me one of those whom You have rendered sincere.” But how sincere are we in our wish? Being a loyal servant to God and attaining sincerity in faith… how important are these for us? How deeply do we ask for-and this is another dimension of sincerity in faith-attaining the good pleasure of God? Even if we mention it in our words, what about our actions for the sake of achieving that? While making a decision about a matter in real life, from marriage to having children, or continuing with our job or not, are we able to comfortably say that we make our decisions in the direction which we think pleasing to God? Can we even say we prefer the good pleasure of God over Paradise-though they are not opposite things-or over viewing the “Face” of God? We can extend the questions in this direction. Now, if we are not able to choose sincerity and what is pleasing to God, and if we are not acting in the way that we prayed for, then it definitely means we are being disrespectful toward God, or worse, it means that we are “lying against God.” In the Qur’an (Anam 6:21) fabricating a lie against God is mentioned as the ultimate wrong.

If we do not really wish to attain virtues like sincerity, the good pleasure of God, loyalty, and faithfulness as much we wish to marry, have children, have worldly possessions-a car, a house, a summerhouse and so on-or to have our business run smoothly… or if these virtues do not have as great a place in our hearts as the worldly matters, please let us not be disrespectful against God and let us avoid paying lip service about being sincere in faith. Attaining the good pleasure of God is an incomparably greater aim than any other. So, we should not hold these worldly matters, which we are supposed to keep under our feet, at the same level as attaining the good pleasure of God. As I repeat many times over, we need to value matters of this world and the next as they deserve.

What I have explained so far is only one aspect of the issue. Another aspect is that we should not fail to ask for high virtues in our prayers. There might seem to be a conflict between this sentence and what I have previously said. In fact, there is no conflict at all. The issue explained above points toward a certain perspective and provides us with a target. Until reaching that target, a natural process will be experienced as mentioned at the beginning. While proceeding toward the target, the one thing we should never give up is praying. Praying sets a target for us, it feeds the conscience, lets our hearts take wing, makes us comprehend the finiteness of our power, and makes us feel a need to take refuge in an Omnipotent One. As Nursi puts it, supplicating to God in a heartfelt and sincere way is already a profound form of worship in itself. Sooner or later, God accepts the prayers of people who believe in such a way.

I would like to cite two examples here concerning how prayers set targets for us. Here is the first example: One day God’s Messenger saw Abu Umama al-Bahili sitting in the mosque, looking shaken. When he asked for the reason, the reply was “poverty.” Upon hearing this, the Prophet taught him the following prayer:

“O God, I take refuge in You from worry, grief, incapacity, sloth, cowardice miserliness, the burden of debt, and subjugation by men.” We can consider these one by one and see how each sets a target in order to free oneself from poverty:

“I take refuge in You from worry, grief….” Now think about it please. Does someone who wishes to be free from worry and grief just sit there and worry? Does he get entangled in things that lead him to grief? Or, on the contrary, does such a person get up and seek ways to overcome them?

“…from incapacity, sloth….” Complaining about poverty and passively sitting in the mosque-even if it is the Prophet’s Mosque-this just means incapacity and sloth, doesn’t it?

“…cowardice, miserliness,” and finally “the burden of debt, and subjugation by men.” As it is seen, every component of this prayer sets a target for a person who suffers from poverty and takes refuge in the mosque and shows him the ways to free himself from that situation. After that phase, what falls to the individual is to put into action what he prayed for.

The second example is about one of my childhood memories. My father once told me that “anyone who recites the sura Nasr (Qur’an 110) two thousand times at night will see the Prophet in his dream.” I believed this with the heart of a child and recited the sura two thousand times and went to sleep. That night, even if it lasted until the morning, I would recite it again; for my desire to see the Prophet in my dream could make me sacrifice not just one night, but hundreds of nights. So, if a person’s heart is truly in something, then he should definitely seek ways to obtain it.

To conclude, as much as wishing to attain good conduct, our efforts to realize this purpose are important. These two are the halves of a whole. And prayer, in many respects, is such an important act that it cannot be substituted by anything else.

Notes

1. Doing something purely for the sake of God.

2. See Hujurat 49:12.