The Ottoman Empire had absorbed Bosnia by the middle of the 15th century, and the Ottomans were to leave indelible marks on the Balkans for centuries to come. One demonstration of prowess was built in 1566 through the inspired vision of the architect Mimar Hajrudin: the Stari Most, which was, and is again, one of the world’s most imposing bridges, soaring over the Neretva River at Mostar in Bosnia and Herzegovina. 

The bridge, which in our time connects the largely Catholic population on the Neretva’s west bank to the Muslim population on the east bank, was destroyed in 1993 during the Yugoslav conflict. On an earlier visit to Bosnia and Herzegovina, I found many of Mostar’s walls still pockmarked by shellfire. The Stari Most, however, was rebuilt between 2001 and 2004 to perfect proportions of the original, at a cost of 12.5 million euros and was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The houses around it were still in a sorry state, though.

What did it all mean? Perhaps historically it was meaningless as far as our inclinations for war are concerned. The war had come and gone. Bosnia and Herzegovina were disputed on all sides and abused when the former Yugoslavia splintered. The Bozniak Muslim population was cornered and fired upon from the heights surrounding the city. It was horrible. It is always devastatingly horrible. We should hang our heads in shame. In fact, we saw a book titled Shame On You Europe. It seemed pointless to buy the book. There are many ambitious forces in the world, and ambition, geopolitically, seems to have led to war.

Eighteen years on, and we were about to visit again Bosnia and Herzegovina. We drove down from Austria, through Slovenia and Croatia. As we drew closer to Sarajevo, passing through what is a lush green landscape, we saw minarets spiking the sky, marking even the smallest villages.

Sarajevo today is gorgeous and not a little hectic. They sure drive fast in the city, and there seemed to be a Dervish-like whirl of dense traffic. The call to prayer must be something of a novelty for many of the tourists. The magic prevails, however, for there can be no more compelling sound in a public place than this most evocative call to piety. Many of the women in Sarajevo wore the hijab. True, some of the souvenirs may possibly be Made in China, but there is sufficient local color and exoticness to make your head swivel. We drank an awful lot of Turkish coffee, and none of it was awful. Nor was the baklava, or the ubiquitous Turkish delight. You can have falafel and doner kebabs coming out of your ears.

There are more restaurants of all stripes than is decent for any capital city, and they are densely concentrated in Baš?aršia, which as the word suggests is a bazaar district, and is situated close to the Miljacka River. Our favorite restaurant was just across the river. Check out Inat kucá (House of Spite), which obviously has a history that explains the name. The ambience, the interior design and architecture—and the food—are wonderful, and they speak perfect American English.

In the heart of the bazaar, the famous Gazi Husrev-Beg Mosque rests serenely amid the clamor and flow of the crowded lanes around it. I approached the door but the prayers had just finished, the imam was deep in conversation, and I turned away. 

The Caffe Divan is situated in a lovely inner courtyard. There are many Muslim customers, and the background music is a part of the Islamic atmosphere. Within the courtyard, flanking the cafe, is the magnificent “Isfahan” carpet shop. Their motto is, “The purpose of our art is to wipe off the dust of everyday life from our souls.” They have carpets, and plenty more artefacts besides, that are the stuff of dreams and ruined bank accounts. Above the courtyard, up a steep flight of stairs, was an exhibition of calligraphy. The artist is a genius, or a genii, probably both.

The visit was too short with respect to what Sarajevo has to offer. Our taste for the Islamic world briefly sated, we left heading south. A book fell to hand that told more about Sarajevo and the Balkans than could ever be recorded on what was little more than our weekend trip. Tharik Hussain has an impressive body of work to his name, including an award-winning radio program for the BBC on America’s earliest mosques and his recently published Minarets in the Mountains – a Journey into Muslim Europe was excitedly purchased. Hussain receives top marks for this book, in which he traces the footsteps of Evliya ?elebi, the Turkish Marco Polo, to seek out the Muslims of the Balkans. Evliya ?elebi’s Seyahatname – Book of Travels runs to ten volumes and is widely available in Turkish. Only extracts are apparently available in English. An Ottoman Traveller: Selections from the Book of Travels of Evliya ?elebi, edited and translated by Robert Dankoff and Sooyong Kim appears to be a standard work.

Due to the massive influx of refugees, there is today a burgeoning Muslim presence in Europe. Tharik Hussain’s quest, however, was to visit and research the indigenous Muslim populations within the Balkan states, populations that have been in Europe for centuries. Other than the obvious attractions of Sarajevo, Mostar, and Dubrovnik, the central mass of Balkan territories generally pass unseen beneath the wings of tourists flying south seeking Mediterranean sunshine. Hussain undertook a circuitous motor tour—taking his wife and two daughters with him—that included Bosnia and Herzegovina (population around 52% Muslim), Serbia (3%), Kosovo (95%), Bulgaria (10.8%), North Macedonia (32%), Albania (82.1%), and Montenegro (20%). Almost none of these countries are hot-spot tourist destinations, but there is a hugely diverse and rich cultural heritage to be found, and as the statistics show, an appreciable percentage of it is Muslim.

Hussain begins and ends his tour in Sarajevo. He writes, “The minarets seemed to be everywhere and is testimony that Sarajevo had always been a Muslim city, founded in 1461, two years before Sarajevo became an Ottoman district.” As a Muslim, Hussain’s first duty was to visit the Gazi Husrev-beg Mosque. He relates that the proceedings there were attuned to Turkish inspiration, in which chapters of the Qur’an were recited ahead of congregational prayer. Hussain’s text is beautifully written and explanatory of Islamic history in the city. The first chapter alone makes purchasing this book worthwhile. The war and the fate of Sarajevo are covered, of course. But Hussain does not dwell too much upon what is common knowledge concerning the horrors the people endured. The text otherwise sparkles.

His first stop after Sarajevo was Mostar, and then some smaller Muslim centers. Then came Visigrad and the border to Serbia. The part of Serbia they then headed for was “…so Muslim it was like Turkey,” Tharik relates. Despite the low percentage of 3% Muslim throughout Serbia, this amounted to the biggest surprise of the entire trip: Novi Pazar in Serbia is 80% Muslim. The entire atmosphere of the place tells of Ottoman influence. Hussain relates: “…I had to check that we had not crossed a border somewhere into Turkey.” There are a reported 66 mosques in Novi Pazar serving a Muslim population of almost 83,000. The obvious conclusion for any traveler seeking Muslim culture in the region, is that Novi Pazar would be a must visit. Tharik devotes more than 20 pages of sparkling prose to the town.

The journey continued to Pristina, the capital of Kosovo, and a chapter titled “The Grandfather of Muslim Europe.” The grandfather was Sultan Murad I who reigned in the 14th century. His tomb was visited by Evliya ?elebi and one Melek Pasha. What followed was a very enlightening description of Kosovo’s history. The modern history of Kosovo is devastatingly depressing. The 1998 conflict saw the rise of the Kosovo Liberation Army when autonomy was refused. Independence was achieved only in 2008 after NATO intervention. 95% Muslim, Kosovo is the most Muslim country in Europe. The chapter covered a great deal of Ottoman history and was enhanced by some excellent descriptions of religious observance.

Then over the border again into Serbia and the city of Niš, which is where resolute tourists stop overnight on their drive from the north of Europe to Thessaloniki and the rest of Greece.

Niš is now a modern metropolis and described as “…an orthodox town, with only the faintest whiff of its lengthy Muslim heritage.” Nevertheless, it turned out to be as full of Ottoman history as elsewhere, but there are now pedestrian zones, malls, and shopping centers. There’s a sufficiency of monuments, as well as a fortress of the 1st century AD covering 22 acres of parkland. There were additions to the architecture and plaques confirming 18th century Ottoman origins.

Then came the short drive across the border to North Macedonia and the capital, Skopje. The chapter began with an obscene rant by a Greek who was very upset about Macedonia, which amounted to a Hellenic nightmare since, as Tharik mentions, “I stood before a Disneyfied Hellenic fairground – though even Disney wouldn’t have got it this wrong.” Greeks are angry about the situation, claiming Macedonia to have originally been Greek. Alexander the Great, however, employed a great many Macedonians in his army, which probably added to the confusion. With 32% of the population being Muslim, there is a fair amount of Ottoman influence to counteract what can only be described as modern misdemeanors. The Sultan Murad Mosque is in a tourist-free area.

Albania followed. Some visitors speak of safety concerns, but Tharik Hussain, his wife, and two young daughters in tow were warmly welcomed and given all manner of assistance. In the deep south of the country lies Gjirokastër, which is designated “A Town Addicted to Prayer.” In Evliya ?elebi’s day, it was known as Egiri, and there had been at least fifteen mosques. It was where scholars of the Hadith came to train. In fact, it is the birthplace of the dictator Enver Hoxha who between 1944 and 1985 undertook to make Albania the first atheist state. Paradoxically, Hoxha’s father had been an imam. But Hoxha killed religion and all who dared oppose him in Albania in purge after purge of vicious excess. Together with some beautiful villages and sites of interest, including the capital, Tirana, a goodly amount of Albanian history was given in the following chapters.

Further reading may include Journals of a Landscape Painter in the Balkans – Edward Lear in Albania. A wonderful, almost poetic book by a sensitive artist about a 1848 tour. The paintings are lovely. Ottoman references abound in what in those times was known as Turkey in Europe. One can’t resist mentioning that Lear also wrote immortal verses for children, including the irresistible The Owl and the Pussycat.

What followed for Hussain, of course, was another border crossing and the Bay of Kotar in Montenegro. Here your correspondent is on familiar ground. We were astonished to find that the euro was the given currency. Apparently, a dispensation from Brussels had acknowledged the inevitable: that Montenegro would eventually be a member state of the EU, and that they needed a new currency following Yugoslavia’s splintering. But Montenegro is not just meant for tourists. 20% of the population is Muslim; there is reason enough for Hussain to visit. The capital, Podgorica, is related to have been little more than a provincial town in the 15th century when the Ottomans arrived. But Evliya notes the town was sufficiently important for the conquering sultan, Mehmet II, to build a fortress there. Together with a visit to the Osmanagic Mosque, Hussain’s indefatigable drive to see everything and, above all, to meet people, continued.

Then back to Bosnia and Herzegovina he went, visiting sites of interest both large and small. Not to be missed was Blagaj, about ten kilometers southwest of Mostar, and the traditional Dervish House. This Sufi brotherhood residence has been called the “the most peaceful place in Bosnia”—and it’s gorgeous, too. Mostar was visited on an extended tour of the country, ending in Sarajevo. There was again an extensive chapter about the city. Followed by a very useful glossary of terms.

With 338 pages of vividly related travel and religious history, the book also sparkles with some excellent color photographs. Who would have known that the Ottomans were so interesting? Tharik Hussain has reminded us that Muslims have long been in Europe. The book is wonderfully descriptive of a European Muslim presence, which has been there for centuries and has often been overlooked. It should be read by everyone, especially Muslims, interested in taking a vacation or study trip in the Balkans.

Some modern Western scholars would ascribe the long-lasting existence of Ottoman rule to oppression and a strong military presence. According to this view, it was fear and terror that brought authority and control over at least the Balkans, a dominantly Christian territory. Careful and accurate scholarship, however, has revealed that this was certainly not the case. The majority of historical sources and archives have so far disclosed highly advanced administrative skills in the Ottoman state affairs. The most recent scholarly works, both popular and academic, have unanimously praised and applauded the Ottomans’ cultural and social contributions to the regions they administered, as well as their equitable treatment of their subjects over long periods of time. The Ottoman experience of social and cultural life provides valuable lessons for those nations that live in these regions today: The value of putting aside ethnic, religious and cultural differences, of living together and cooperating for a better future, and the sacredness of human life and the respect for the right of others to live, as well as freedom of expression and religion all existed in this state.

Historically speaking, Western Europe has always been in contact with the Ottomans through commerce or other forms of international relations. Diplomacy in the Middle Ages and afterwards was made possible by ambassadors. These ambassadors would conduct negotiations regarding disputes and sign new agreements. The observations of these special envoys about their visits formed first-hand reliable information about the unknown “others.” For example, in the year 800 AD, on one of these occasions long before the Ottomans, Charlemagne sent an envoy to Harun al-Rashid, the Abbasid Caliph, with gifts. On his part, the Caliph also sent many gifts to Charlemagne, one famous one being a clock. In a similar vein, many ambassadors had the chance to see and study Ottoman life closely during their visits. These visits considerably increased in number with the agreement of concessions granted by the Ottomans. The ambassadors would often record their experiences as notes or letters, which have proven to be of indispensable value for us today in studying an era and civilization about which not much is known.

Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq (1520–1592) was one such ambassador for the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand. He came to Turkey and wrote about the life in Ottoman lands and their public administration practices. Busbecq grew up at Busbecq Castle as the son of the reputable Busbecq family. He studied in famous schools and like his father and grandfather he followed a career as a servant of the crown. He was first sent to England in 1554, and then appointed as ambassador to the Ottomans under the rule of Süleyman the Magnificent in Istanbul from 1555 to 1562.

For the duration of his service in the Ottoman lands, Busbecq constantly wrote letters to a friend in the Netherlands. These were later on published many times, most recently by Forster and Daniel in 1881 as the Turkish Letters. Widely accepted as one of the world’s first travel literatures, Busbecq describes public life and his adventures in the Ottoman land in the letters in some detail. One of the letters is of particular interest as it sheds light on certain historical aspects related to the Janissaries, the well-trained Ottoman guards.

The word “Janissary” had negative connotations in the West during the Middle Ages. The Ottoman Muslim conquests in Eastern Europe certainly contributed to this. However, Busbecq, after a prolonged visit to the Ottoman sultan, had the chance to evaluate the Janissaries and he developed some sympathy with them. In his letter he describes these guards as being of good character and spiritually elevated. In fact, Busbecq starts this letter with a description of these highly-educated Janissaries, how they function and their duties in the Ottoman lands, as well as their equitable and unbiased treatment of the public, poor or rich, Muslim or non-Muslim:

“At Buda I made my first acquaintance with the Janissaries; this is the name by which the Turks call the infantry of the royal guard… Janissaries are scattered through every part of the state, either to garrison the forts against the enemy or to protect the Christians and Jews from the violence of the mob. There is no district with any considerable amount of population, no borough or city, which has not a detachment of Janissaries to protect the Christians, Jews, and other helpless people from outrage and wrong.”

Busbecq goes on to comment about the gentle and polite disposition of Janissaries. In fact, he seems to be quite impressed by the simplicity and modesty of these guards, praising them highly, as can be seen in his next letter:

“These Janissaries generally came to me in pairs. When they were admitted to my dining room they first bowed, and then came quickly up to me, all but running, and touched my dress or hand, as if they intended to kiss it… After reaching the door, they would stand respectfully with their arms crossed, and their eyes bowed to the ground, looking more like monks than warriors… To tell you the truth, if I had not been told beforehand that they were Janissaries, I should, without hesitation, have taken them for members of some order of Turkish monks, or brethren of some Moslem college. Yet these are the famous Janissaries, whose approach inspires terror everywhere.”

According to Busbecq, these soldiers were ready to act even under extremely harsh conditions, accepting with resignation all that happened due to their faith. The Janissaries were certainly trained to obey their commander under the most severe of circumstances. In addition, Busbecq admired the Janissaries, who would never complain about difficulties:

“On such occasions (war or campaign) they take out a few spoonfuls of flour and put them into water, adding some butter, and seasoning the mess with salt and spices; these ingredients are boiled, and a large bowl of gruel is thus obtained. Of this they eat once or twice a day, according to the quantity they have, without any bread, unless they have brought some biscuit with them…”

Busbecq then goes on to compare the attitudes of these soldiers with their Western counterparts and admits the supremacy of the former with stunning self-assessment and criticism:

“From this you will see that it is the patience, self-denial and thrift of the Turkish soldier that enable him to face the most trying circumstances and come safely out of the dangers that surround him. What a contrast to our men! … On their side is the vast wealth of their empire, unimpaired resources, experience and practice in arms, a veteran soldiery, an uninterrupted series of victories, readiness to endure hardships, union, order, discipline, thrift and watchfulness. On ours are found an empty exchequer, luxurious habits, exhausted resources, broken spirits, a raw and insubordinate soldiery, and greedy quarrels; there is no regard for discipline, license runs riot, the men indulge in drunkenness and debauchery, and worst of all, the enemy are accustomed to victory, we to defeat. Can we doubt what the result must be?”

Thus, Busbecq sets out several universal virtues and ethical and moral principles as belonging to the Janissaries. Selflessness, humility, simplicity, integrity, and honor are among the virtues that Busbecq attributes to the Janissaries. He believes the way that individuals are ranked and merited for a job or promotion in the Ottomans is certainly of importance and may help us at least to partially explain the lofty character of the Janissaries. According to Busbecq, the merits for an important position in public service and authority should be based on character and ability, rather than privileges of birth, prosperity or social status:

“No distinction is attached to birth among the Turks; the deference to be paid to a man is measured by the position he holds in the public service. There is no fighting for precedence; a man’s place is marked out by the duties he discharges. In making his appointments the Sultan pays no regard to any pretensions on the score of wealth or rank, nor does he take into consideration recommendations or popularity, he considers each case on its own merits, and examines carefully into the character, ability, and disposition of the man whose promotion is in question. It is by merit that men rise in the service, a system which ensures that posts should only be assigned to the competent…”

These remarks are astounding, even to us today. Being awarded with a position is based on qualifications and past accomplishments rather than social status and rank. This normative statement certainly has political and social implications. Busbecq continues in his claim even further:

“Those who receive the highest offices from the Sultan are for the most part the sons of shepherds or herdsmen, and so far from being ashamed of their parentage, they actually glory in it, and consider it a matter of boasting that they owe nothing to the accident of birth; for they do not believe that high qualities are either natural or hereditary, nor do they think that they can be handed down from father to son, but that they are partly the gift of God, and partly the result of good training, great industry, and unwearied zeal; arguing that high qualities do not descend from a father to his son or heir, any more than a talent for music, mathematics, or the like; and that the mind does not derive its origin from the father, so that the son should necessarily be like the father in character, or emanates from heaven, and is thence infused into the human body. Among the Turks, therefore, honors, high posts, and judgeships are the rewards of great ability and good service. If a man be dishonest, or lazy, or careless, he remains at the bottom of the ladder, an object of contempt; for such qualities there are no honors in Turkey!”

Nobody is held responsible for the misfortunes or sins of their parents. Everybody is accountable for his or her own deeds. The lofty character of a mother and father does not pass to the children at birth. It is how a child is raised and educated that really matters in society. People who are elevated intellectually or spiritually are those who benefit themselves and society. Without a doubt these universal messages that Busbecq proclaims with honesty are ones that we wholeheartedly support.

In addition to being an indispensable source of information about Ottoman life more than four centuries ago, these letters also provide valuable lessons for policymakers. They remind us that the foundations of great civilizations and military power were lofty values and virtues. Power, when in the hands of the righteous, becomes an instrument for stability and balance. On the contrary, when in the hands of a tyrant, power causes chaos and anarchy in the world. Morality, integrity, equity and fairness, as well as merit, are some of the principles that may guide nations towards progress and prosperity. In a sense, a nation will rise when more of its members become selfless and are able to put the interests of “others” before “their own.” Societies that are made up of people who are ready to sacrifice themselves for the better good of others will indeed inherit a better world for their children. They will also be remembered forever. Those who put their own hedonistic ambitions before all else are doomed to be forgotten. Nobody will remember their lavish and inconsiderate lives or existence. The former U.S. president, J. F. Kennedy once said “Ask not what your country can do for you-ask what you can do for your country.” It may be most appropriate for us to conclude as follows: “Ask not how others can help you, but ask how you can help others.”

Osman Nal is an associate professor in finance, Texas Southern University.

Notes

1. Several uprisings by local populations in different parts of the Ottoman State occurred. But their number was very limited. In the case of the Balkans, for at least 200 years, and in the Middle East for at least 400 years, social life was very calm and stable.
2. A useful book on the Ottomans is Ottoman Centuries by Lord Kinross and Lords of the Horizons: A History of the Ottoman Empire by Jason Goodwin.

References

1. C. T. Forster and F. H. B. Daniel, eds. The Life and Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, Vol. I, London: Kegan Paul, 1881.
2. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1555busbecq.html