In 1981, scientists discovered ways to derive embryonic stem cells from early mouse embryos. Since then, they have been the subject of intense scrutiny, controversy, and advocacy.

They are unique cells, which can be derived from human embryos and can be differentiated into virtually any kind of different cells. In humans, there are about 200 different types of cells including bone, muscle, and nerve cells, and within these cells there are about 20 different types of structures or organelles. Essentially, stem cells can be derived from human embryos, and with the right enzymes, can be stimulated. For instance, bone cells can originate from osteocyte cells, or liver tissues can come from hepatocytes.

Stem cell types and research

There are three types of stem cells:

• Embryonic stem cells
• Adult stem cells
• Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSC)

Embryonic stem cells are derived from human embryos. Adult stem cells are undifferentiated cells (meaning “clean slates” with the potential to change into another cell variant) found throughout the body after development; they multiply via cell division to replenish dying cells and regenerate damaged tissues. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSC), which were discovered in 2006, are derived from skin or blood cells that have been reprogrammed back into an embryonic-like pluripotent state that enables the development of an unlimited source of any type of human cell needed for therapeutic purposes. While these types of cells are interesting and certainly worthy of research, this article will focus on embryonic stem cells as they are consistently the most well-known and discussed type by the general public.

Embryonic stem cells are potent and often sought after due to their abilities to proliferate without limit and contribute to any cell type. However, with great power comes great responsibility and stem cells are no exception. Poorly processed cells have been documented to mutate into cancerous tumors that can wreak havoc upon people’s bodies. Bearing this in mind, scientists also do not believe that this should derail stem cell therapies considering that there are DNA tests to check if stem cells will turn out to be problematic or not.

The stem cell project is regularly a subject of ethical debate in both the academic and public sectors. Most embryonic stem cells are derived from embryos that develop from eggs that have been fertilized in vitro—in an in vitro fertilization clinic—and then donated for research purposes with the informed consent of the donors. People willingly donate their eggs for this research, and this process does not constitute child-killing since the eggs are near their zygote phase, not a whole mature embryo. Scientists obtain those types of cells from an embryo which has not yet completed its formation to develop into a human being. Researchers then use these cells for various treatment and research purposes. It is important to stress that they are not derived from eggs fertilized in a woman’s body and that they are produced in a plastic laboratory culture via clinics in vitro.

Some examples of embryonic stem cells being used in research include the following:

1. UCLA stem cell gene therapy cures bubble baby disease

Researchers at UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) have developed a cure for babies born with Bubble Baby Disease, a rare and life-threatening condition that can be fatal within the first year of life, by using stem cells from multiple patients and gene therapy to correct the genetic mutation of these patients.

2. Asterias biotherapeutics restores some independence to those suffering from paralysis caused by spinal cord injuries

Asterias Biotherapeutics spent much of 2016-2017 developing a stem cell therapy to restore upper body motor function to quadriplegic spinal cord injury victims. Through lengthy and rigorous testing in human clinical trials, the therapy was found to be safe for use in people with all patients treated reporting at least some improvements. Asterias is now expanding its clinical trials to include patients with sub-acute injuries.

3. UC Irvine scientists engineer stem cells to destroy cancer

In a study conducted by University of California, Irvine researchers, a stem cell-based technique was devised to find and destroy breast cancer cells that had already metastasized. The cells “feel” the stiffness of the surrounding tissues and destroy the cancer-causing cells.

Embryonic stem cells can remain undifferentiated when they are grown in a well taken care of culture that is under stable conditions. Problems primarily begin to arise if cells are allowed to clump together to form embryoid bodies in which they begin to differentiate, or change into more specific cell variants, spontaneously. Although spontaneous differentiation is a good indication that shows which cultures of embryonic stem cells are healthy, the process is uncontrolled and, therefore, an inefficient strategy to produce cultures of specific cell types.

The ability of stem cells being able to differentiate into hundreds of other types of cells continues to amaze scientists as this is no small discovery. Researchers believe that the possibilities with stem cells are near endless, especially in regard to “regenerative medicine,” the process of “replacing, engineering, or regenerating human cells, tissues, or organs to restore or establish a new function.” It is even believed that even whole organs could be synthetically grown by using them.” Additionally, stem cells have the potential to rebuild healthy tissues, help people with heart disease, diabetes, ALS, Alzheimer’s disease, liver disease, Parkinson’s disease, cancer, and many more illnesses.

In a stem cell transplant, embryonic stem cells are first specialized into the necessary adult cell type. Then, those mature cells replace tissue that is damaged by a disease or injury. This type of treatment could be used to:

• Replace neurons damaged by spinal cord injury, a stroke, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, or other neurological problems.
• Produce insulin that could treat people with diabetes and heart muscle cells that could repair damage after a heart attack
• Replace virtually any tissue or organ that is injured or diseased.

Sometimes scientists use stem cells as a drug. For example, it is possible to inject a stem cell into joints to reduce swelling and pain, or in order to promote the healing processes of soft tissues. Stem cell therapy is performed by injecting the patient’s own stem cells to stimulate the body to repair and replace damaged tissue in any joint or soft tissue structures – such as knees, shoulders, hips, wrists, ankles, elbows, tendons, ligaments and non-healing bone fractures. Cellular Dynamics, a large biotechnical company, sells human heart cells called cardiomyocytes that are derived from induced pluripotent stem (IPS) cells. Pharmaceutical companies are adapting to this new and innovative trend on a day-to-day basis. Stem cells can also be used to test the quality and safety of investigational drugs by testing them on stem cells that have been transformed into tissue-specific cells. Researchers are able to monitor the side effects before exposing the drug to a patient and thus have a greater expectancy of how their body may respond to the drug. This allows us to test for cures for potentially fatal diseases in ways that would otherwise be risky or unethical.

With all of the aforementioned advantages, stem cells are a fairly new, but exceptionally promising, research area. For some people, it may seem unethical to use stem cells on the grounds that extracting stem cells damages the blastocyst, which is a structure formed in the early development of mammals, more specifically the sixth or the eighth day of the development of an embryo. In 2006, President Bush vetoed the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act stating that the federal government should not support “the taking of innocent human life.” Although stem cells are very promising for science and can open new doors to many new treatments in the medical field, it looks like there are still differences of opinion on their ethical use. This is perhaps because there is need for more convincing evidence or people are not informed accurately on the details of this research area.

References

• https://stemcells.nih.gov/info/Regenerative_Medicine/2006Chapter1.htm
• https://www.healthline.com/health/stem-cell-research
• https://www.statnews.com/2017/04/26/stem-cells-cancer-mutations/
• https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/stem-cells/
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5398703/
• https://www.mayoclinic.org/documents/the-amazing-stem-cell/doc-20249792
• https://www.unmc.edu/stemcells/educational-resources/history.html
• https://www.cirm.ca.gov/patients/power-stem-cells
• https://www.nature.com/news/stem-cells-take-root-in-drug-development-1.10713
• https://hsci.harvard.edu/examining-ethics-embryonic-stem-cell-research#:~:text=Opponents%20argue%20that%20the%20research,taking%20of%20innocent%20human%20life.%E2%80%9D

Cancer is a prevalent disease among humans and animals, affecting millions of lives across the globe. It can be caused in a variety of ways and can affect virtually every part of our bodies, ranging from skin cancer caused by prolonged exposure to the sun’s harmful UV rays to lung cancer that results from carcinogenic substances smokers inhale. However, plants do not die of cancer despite sometimes being exposed to the sun for over a thousand years – and they do not use any sunscreens!

Humans and animals who live to a certain age are very likely to get cancer one day. We see this situation mostly in our pets which have been specially bred and protected from predators and diseases. Cancer has become part of our lives and remains a top world health priority. The probability of prostate cancer is roughly 80% in 80-year-olds, 90% in 90-year-olds, and 100% in 100-year-olds. However, these statistics yet again do not apply to trees.

What is cancer?

Cancer is a disease caused by the uncontrolled growth of cells that have become abnormal in a part of the body. These abnormal cells are not foreign invaders that have entered our bodies from outside but are instead our own cells. However, in time, various factors such as radiation, viruses, and chemical substances that they are exposed to cause the accumulation of errors, or mutations, in the genetic codes of cells. Some of them then acquire very different characteristics and become alien to their own body.

With old age, errors arise in the genetic code in an increased rate when our cells divide by copying their own DNA. External factors, such as “free radicals” and various radiations that affect our DNA, play a role in these errors. For young people, when there are too many errors in a cell’s genome, a process called “apoptosis” takes place after which faulty cells die before they can multiply in a potentially cancerous manner and forming a tumor. However, sometimes these accumulated errors cause the cell’s growth process to become stuck in the “on” position, and the cell begins to grow and divide continuously. Cells that emerge with out-of-control divisions ignore the commands coming from the healthy cells of the body, continue to grow and reproduce according to the erroneous commands from the cell’s disrupted genome. This situation lasts until death.

What is a tumor?

Cell growths that result from defective genome proliferation will eventually form a mass called a tumor. Some cells grow very slowly and stop at a certain size after a while and do not spread anymore and are called benign tumors. Masses formed by fast-growing, defective (cancerous) cells are known as malignant tumors. Cells that detach from malignant tumors and grow rapidly can attach to another organ where they will begin to grow again when they enter the bloodstream. The process by which cancerous cells start from a tumor and spread all over the body to different organs is known as metastasis.

Why does this process not happen in plants?

One of the most destructive features of cancer when it enters metastasis is the mobility of malignant cells to varying degrees according to their type. Blood vessels, i.e. the transportation pathways of the circulatory system, act like a highway for cancer cells. As the blood vessels surround the entire body, a single cancerous cell can travel to and settle almost anywhere in the body, from the toes to the head.

Plant cells have a vital feature that is different from human and animal cells. In plants, cells do not change their locations because their cells are surrounded by a very rigid, strong, and impenetrable wall outside of normal plasma membranes. Cell walls are made of cellulose, which constitutes the main substance of plants, and form the wooden structures that ensure the plants stand upright and harden while at the same time locking each cell in place and preventing it from migrating within the organism.

Another important difference that is unique to plants is that they do not have blood circulation in which cells are carried; they have a circulatory system in which only water and food are carried. This system is often used to pump water from the roots to the leaves and to transport organic products such as sugar, which is a product of photosynthesis, from the leaves down. Therefore, there are no blood cells or immune system cells in these carrier channels, which are known as wood and roe tubes (xylem and phloem), in plants.

In addition, animal cells are specifically employed in tissues and organs such as muscle, bone, liver, and skin during embryonic development. Thus, when they divide only new cells of the same type are created. Tumors that occur in animal tissues can metastasize into different tissues and disrupt different organs. We can think of animal and human biology as a very complex system in which each cell, tissue, and organ has a task and purpose. In such a system, all elements work in cooperation for the continuation of life. This system is of a kind of irreducible complexity. A human being cannot live without organs like brain, heart, or lungs, while plants, on the other hand, have fewer simpler internal structures which are not as vital. When plant cells divide, they retain their ability to form new cells of any type. This is called totipotency.

In plants, every necessary structure can be recreated from the few tissues they have. For this reason, a gardener can grow new plants from the roots, branches, or leaf parts of a plant.

Plants are equipped with very powerful antioxidants to protect them from the sun’s harmful rays and mutations that may be caused by radiation. Therefore, tumors can develop only due to bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and insects. For example, in a situation that we can call “information confusion” that occurs when Agrobacterium Tumefaciens bacteria insert some of its DNA into the plant’s DNA, an anomaly occurs in the plant’s genome. Cells that go through a rapid growth process and form tumors are not normally classified as cancer, since they simply remain in that area and cannot be transported elsewhere. Since the tumors cannot spread to the whole plant, they may cause only minor distress at most in a specific area rather than a fatal disease such as cancer. Just as the plant continues to grow around a rock that it encounters, it grows around the tumor as well. The tumor can continue to grow for years, but does not spread to the rest of the plant, meaning there is no metastasis.

In summary, plants can also be cancerous, but a cancerous tumor is not a deadly threat to a plant, as its cells are immobile and do not have vital and complex organs like humans and animals. Thanks to the cellulose walls gifted to the them, plants continue their role in the ecosystem by continuing to grow with healthy cells around the tumor as if nothing had happened.

References

• Luis Villazon. “Can a plant die of cancer?” www.sciencefocus.com/nature/can-a-plant-die-of-cancer
• Sam Westreich. “Do Plants Get Cancer?” medium.com/@westwise/do-plants-get-cancer-60eb435c6d1a
• Stuart Thompson. “Plants couldn’t run away from Chernobyl—but that’s what saved them. Why plants don’t get cancer.” www.popsci.com/chernobyl-plants-radiation-cancer

Robots continue to advance and develop every year, and these consistent improvements continue to amaze us with how much they physically resemble humans. Even though these robots lack spiritual qualities and function way below the human brain, we still admire these developments, for they lead to even more discoveries and help us understand the miraculous human body even more.

Notwithstanding our medical knowledge that continues to build upon nearly 3,000 years of shared human experience and research, new discoveries about the human body, the magnificent work of God Almighty, continue to increase our admiration.

The discovery of the “Interstitium” and the “Subcapsular Proliferative Foci” in 2018 allow us to develop an even greater appreciation for the complexity of our bodies. They are called the “macro organ” and “micro organ” according to the amount of space that they occupy in our bodies, along with the nicknames “buffer organ” and “control center organ” according to their function. These newly discovered biological structures did not attract much attention earlier because, in accordance with our current understanding, organs are more easily visible structures such as the hands, arms, eyes, nose, kidneys, and lungs that have a certain shape and a set of clearly-defined functions. It is interesting that although these complex structures are so widespread in our bodies, they were not known until recently; they are now considered as organs [1].

The Macro Organ: Interstitium

According to an article published in Scientific Reports on March 27, 2018, the “interstitium” was discovered rather serendipitously by David Corr-Loce and Petros Benias of Mount Sinai Beth Medical Center along with Neil Theise, a pathologist from New York University. The discovery came when these physicians were analyzing a cancer patient’s bile duct. Although they had been conducting the same routine over the years, it was the first time they had the sight of slots between examined tissues. They realized that the interstitium was unnoticed earlier due to the disappearance of interstitial fluid after they had examined the tissue with their usual histological methods. Subsequently, the researchers found that this structure was found not only in the bile duct but also in many other organs.

Specifically located under our skin, these micro-compartments were also found in almost all organ membranes except the intestines, lungs, veins, and muscles in order to form a network around the organs with malleable but sturdy proteins. The interstitium, the entirety of the intercellular spaces filled with liquid, has been defined as the largest organ in the body. Actually, examining cells and tissues has been the subject of histology and cytology science for the last 150 years, and the fluid that fills the tissues and forms a basis for supporting these cells was not new to the medical world. However, its definition as a new organ was a first.

The researchers froze the biopsy tissues obtained from the bile ducts of 12 patients in order to preserve and examine the anatomy of the discovered structure. One of the reasons that this organ exists is because it protects the surrounding organs by acting as a shock-absorber and has an effect similar to that of a car’s bumper. Damage to tissues and internal organs remains minimal when one falls, hits something or is impacted Using a micro-endoscopic camera, the volume of this whole organ was revealed to be about ten liters in an adult human [2].

It was later discovered that the interstitium is also present in the structure of lymph nodes, the most important part of the body’s immune system, and that cancer cells enter the lymphatic system through the interstitium. In this case, the interstitium play a significant role as a passageway, or conduction interface, for spreading cancer cells across the body. In an analogy, this organ is akin to the water in which fish swim, the air that surrounds us, and the soil that borders the roots of trees. In this liquid that rotates the cells and spans on the base where they are positioned, any exchange of substances of body biochemistry is regulated within the required amount and size to provide a good setting to the cells, and the hard mechanical effects that may impact the cells are alleviated and absorbed by this liquid pad.

Each discovery of the interstitium’s features, including its significant contributions in the fight against cancer, reveals more and more about how this great organ aids in intercellular communication.

The Micro Organ: Subcapsular Proliferative Foci

One of the most important features of the immune system is that it has its own “memory.” The cells of the immune system can remember the infections a person has contracted before, and can fight infections before they spread. How quickly the immune system reacts based on memory may vary, for instance depending on the type of infection, but is usually quite rapid. Considering how many bacteria multiply in a matter of seconds, a quick response must be launched to prevent infections from spreading across the body.

Professor Tri Phan of the Garvan Medical Research Institute led the team of researchers that discovered the subcapsular proliferative foci (SPF), a “micro-organ” that appeared in the lymph nodes during an infection. Lymph nodes and lymphoid organs such as tonsils, thymus, and spleen are surrounded by a protective capsule made of connective tissue. This capsule was considered to serve the purpose of a mechanical support only to enclose and protect the lymph nodes. However, recent research has shown that in some areas under this capsule, cells that had been alerted to previous encounters with harmful invasive organisms are gathered. These main subcapsular cells are memory B cells that carry information on how to counter the invasive organisms. Memory B cells also proliferate into plasma cells, which are highly important for producing antibodies. Therefore, when an infection reoccurs in our body the subcapsular proliferative foci act quickly to form the first defensive front to prevent the possible spread of infection.

The purpose of vaccines is to activate the attenuated form of a harmful organism to be stored in the body’s memory as an immune response. If the body comes back into contact with similar bacteria in the future, the immune system will remember how to fight it. The discovery of the sub-capsule foci also revealed that these centers are the home for the memory B cells. If they can unveil the development and training processes of the memory B cells in these slots, scientists can produce vaccines that enhance the memory of the immune system even more quickly and efficiently.

The reason why these structures have not been noticed earlier is due to their emaciation, brief emergence, and disappearance. The sub-capsule proliferation centers presented in the article “Memory B Cells Are Reactivated in Subcapsular Proliferative Foci of Lymph Nodes” published in Nature Communications on August 22, 2018 are defined by some authoritative scientists as the “micro-organ.” According to the findings about this new organ, if our infection-fighting immune system would have activated longer than it currently does, we would easily die. Every minute is very crucial in this struggle. These excellent centers that produce memory cells under the lymph node [3] capsules fight bacteria which can replicate in multitudes every 20–30 minutes during an infection.

Although the world of science has been working with the microscope for about 400 years, these centers that have been embedded in our body since its creation could only be noticed today when the microscope design has reached its technological peak.

There are trillions of bacteria living in the intestinal cavity, skin, and orifices of our body. Some of these are already protective and beneficial, yet others are pathogenic. But they do not make us sick because of B cell production centers. When our immune system is weakened for any reason (such as stress, insomnia, or malnutrition) these bacteria can cause illnesses and meet little resistance. These sub-capsular micro-organisms surrounding the lymph nodes were placed in the most strategic places across the human body to fight infections in the fastest way, while the lymph nodes were placed at locations that are most vulnerable to microbial attack.

Consequently, these discoveries increase our admiration for the palace and magnificent realm called our body. It is likely in the light of this information that the anatomy and histology books may be rewritten and the definitions of organs and tissues may be redefined.

References

• Claire Maldarelli, “Scientists found a new organ, but it might not be what you’re expecting,” Popular Science, 3 April 2018.
• iflscience.com/health-and-medicine/newly-discovered-microorgan-helps-explain-how-vaccine.
• nature.com/articles/s41598-018-23062-6

Embryonic stem cells are cells in the early stages of embryonic development when a fertilized egg cell is divided first into two cells and then into four, eight, and sixteen. Each grows into a brand new cell type and multiplies as per the codes present in its DNA program as tissues form and organization starts. 

After twenty years of research and accompanying debates on the human embryo, we are finally on the threshold of both reshaping our present concepts in biology and moving on to clinical case studies. The first human embryonic stem cells were produced in 1998. Studies researching the question, “Can we treat diabetes by reprogramming the DNA in these cells at the beginning of life?” switched first to how human genes worked and which genes are responsible for the development of particular tissues and then to the embryonic stem cells for these areas and ultimately to replacing or reprogramming a “faulty or deficient” gene.

The most controversial topics in genetics and embryonic studies are related to bioethics. Many scientists are grappling with questions like whether is it ethically correct to intervene with the genetic programming of a fertilized human egg (zygote)? If so, what should be the limits? Are we trespassing a divine domain?

Embryonic stem cells have been an excellent source of information that we lacked throughout history about how living organisms started to develop. Like astronomers who trace their knowledge to the Big Bang in order to obtain fundamental information about the origin of the universe, biologists have been researching how the molecules in a single cell went through sequential and planned changes, how they transformed and acquired new functions that triggered the mind-blowing developments in diverse, miraculous living organisms. Scientists have found out how primordial embryonic cells transformed into more than 200 cell types that constitute various tissues and organs. The number of studies has skyrocketed about which molecule types can be used to regenerate the damaged tissue, say, after a traffic accident. Embryonic studies that focus on the regeneration or reparation of medulla cells (spinal cord) have been a source of hope for some patients with permanent paralysis because of a broken back injury or severed spine in a traffic accident or those who are still stranded in wheelchairs. Similarly, the preliminary findings of research into Parkinson’s and diabetes are extremely promising, and a new study reports of two blind people with macular degeneration (which causes blindness) who have been treated.

Initial studies

In 1981 researchers successfully obtained stem cells from a rat embryo culture. They soon realized that the cells held a secret potential: they could grow into 200 different types of cells. Later Wisconsin-Madison University biologist James Thomson derived stem cells from primates for the first time. Three years afterwards, Thomson derived the first human embryonic stem cells from donated but unused embryos.

The increasing number of research studies into embryonic stem cells sparked off intense debate both in religious circles and among the science community that care passionately about the sanctity of humans. Allegedly, lab studies were conducted on human embryos without restrictions, which were grown until tissues and organs formed but were then killed. In 2001, the US president George W. Bush slashed federal funds, stating that stem cell research was not strictly ethical. Deriving embryonic cells was banned in many countries including Germany and Italy. In other countries, however, studies went full speed ahead. Indeed, reports flooded in about stem cells grown by researchers in Australia, Singapore, Israel, Canada and the USA into nerve cells, immune system cells, and heart cells.

Before long, a new idea emerged about transferring new cells into the egg cell – like nuclei of body cells used in cloning Dolly the sheep – to produce various tailor-made, fully DNA-compatible tissues and organs, as they had the same genome as the donor’s. It became a topic of everyday conversations that spare organs could be cultivated for the human body just like spare parts of cars or other machinery were produced to replace a faulty or damaged part. In fact, if it were not for claims such as “creating a new human” there would be no objections against producing a kidney, lung, or heart from the DNA of a patient and thus overcome the major problem of tissue rejection in transplantation of organs.

If faulty or defective genes could be removed and replaced by healthy genes in the DNA of stem cells, many incurable genetic diseases could easily be fixed and many prospective parents who avoid having a child because of a defective gene they carry would welcome the development enthusiastically.

We are on the threshold of reshaping our present concepts in biology and moving on to clinical case studies. Embryonic studies have been a source of hope for even patients with diseases like paralysis and blindness.

Just in time and in the right amount

Embryonic stem cells are cells in the early stages of embryonic development when a fertilized egg cell is divided first into two cells and then into four, eight, and sixteen. Each grows into a brand new cell type and multiplies as per the codes present in its DNA program as tissues form and organization starts. It is most mysterious and miraculous that the molecules that lead a stem cell to transform into a new type of cell are synthesized at exactly the right moment and in the precise amount.  Scientists are currently trying to figure out which molecule leads a cell to become a nerve, muscle, or bone cell when attached to it. They are likely to decode the molecules by monitoring the tissues that remain undeveloped because of missing genes resulting from DNA mutations observed in certain genetic diseases.

The new field that has developed in the last two decades called regenerative medicine is predicated on tapping into the potential of stem cells by repairing missing or faulty tissues, or completing a link in the chain necessary for the functioning of a dysfunctional metabolic process. In 2006, stem cell biologist Shinya Yamanaka of Kyoto University in Japan successfully transformed adult rat cells into an embryonic state. The following year, human body cells were transformed into embryonic stem cells. The ensuing research has led to the acknowledgement that it was theoretically possible to transform stem cells into any cell type, a promising cure for diseased embryos that have genetically missing parts.

The major problem, however, is keeping these delicate cells alive in a culture medium. In 2007, Yoshiki Sasai discovered a molecule called rock inhibitor that nourished the cell colonies he grew. The success rate in generating new cell colonies rose to 27%. Parmar from Swedish Lund University heralded “a new golden era” by producing new neurons from embryonic stem cells for the treatment of Parkinson’s.

As new techniques were developed for producing cells fast and reliably, these cells turned out to involve a very low risk of developing cancer. “We don’t yet know how this hidden power and balance that can be transformed into any cell type is controlled,” states Hiromitsu Nakauchi, a stem cell biologist at Tokyo University who researches making blood platelets out of stem cells derived from the embryo or somatic cells.

Experiments are underway that aim to treat disorders by activating stem cells stored in the body that have not yet differentiated through the help of proper stimulating molecules. 

Miraculous differentiation

As the techniques for producing and feeding stem cells got easier, researchers aimed at growing and forming tissues and organs. A connective tissue or an outer covering like the skin that lacks a shape but takes the shape of the underlying muscles and bones can be produced even in a Petri dish and then transplanted to a burned or missing area of the skin. The present aim is the production of organs such as the kidney or the heart that has a particular shape and is made up of a number of different tissues. If the correct signal molecules responsible for cell division and differentiation can be identified and readily used where necessary and at the right amount, then organs including any type of tissue can be produced. Researchers like James Wells at Cincinnati Children’s Hospital in Ohio have tested the damage of drugs on intestines by using the partial intestines they developed from stem cells rather than administer them to normal humans, thereby hailing the imminent age of intestine transplants.

In 2004, the doctors who did tube baby experiments for a patient in Chicago known to have a genetic disorder started to produce a series of stem cells from generated embryos. They made models at the cellular level of the emergence of such genetic disorders as thalassemia, Huntington’s disease, Marfan syndrome, and muscle dystrophy. In 2007, they used embryonic stem cells to suppress molecular changes that trigger mental disorders caused by a genetic disorder called fragile X syndrome.

Research shows that multipotent (mesenchymal) cells stimulated at the outset of tissues are even more promising than embryonic cells with respect to diseases because it is easier to repair damaged or missing tissue by guiding them. However, it is essential in a genetic disorder that cells derived at the beginning of the embryonic stage should be used in order to replace faulty genes with healthy ones and address the disorder at its outset.

Experiments are underway that aim to treat disorders by activating stem cells stored in the body that have not yet differentiated through the help of proper stimulating molecules. In this way, as many as ten illnesses are likely to be treated, some of which include diabetes, macular degeneration in the eye, and neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s.

Douglas Melton from Harvard Stem Cell Institute in Cambridge has worked for fifteen years to transform embryonic stem cells into insulin-producing β-cells. He has produced pancreatic cells that sense glucose and produce insulin and he hopes to transplant them to end the dependence of patients of diabetes type-1 on insulin shots. The last obstacle remains to be the introduction of these cells to the system so that they are not destroyed by the patient’s immune system.

Clinically, it is believed that stimulated multipotent cells have a greater advantage than embryonic cells because the produced cells and tissues have the same DNA as the patient and thus do not cause any immune reaction when they are transplanted. The problem for many genetic disorders including type-1 diabetes is that the patient has the same mutation in his or her genes, and a method should be devised for cleaning and replacing these cells.

Another problem is the cost. It is reported that preparation of a series of multipotent cells will cost about one million dollars. However, the cost is expected to decrease and cells will be developed for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease, which is caused by a loss of neurotransmitter substance, which enable communication between nerves, and dopamine.

Treatment of macular degeneration is a popular target in this field. Patients gained the ability to read, though slowly, one year after the transplantation of part of stimulated multipotent cells to a damaged retina.

Such research studies normally cause some opposition. Playing with genes and embryos involve certain ethical and health risks. Yet, as reported in a Prophetic tradition, with all our God-given abilities like intelligence, curiosity, and willpower, humans can, and hopefully will, find cures for all diseases. Research into stem cells has the potential to provide many breakthroughs in these efforts to find healing for every human. Scientists and ethicists have to work together to determine our direction not to cause any unintended harm to any single soul while moving forward with this research.

We vessels can be divided into three main groups in terms of structure and function. The ones with thicker walls, which bring every organ the blood they need from the heart, are the arteries. The pressure inside us is higher and we easily carry blood to the organs. The ones with thinner walls, lower pressure, and larger inner space are called veins. As a matter of fact, both arteries and veins have a three-layered structure that is very suitable for holding a fluid like blood. Since our walls are strengthened with both connective tissue and smooth muscle layers, we bear the pressure coming from the heart and help blood proceed by contracting and relaxing. Since arteries are directly subjected to the strong pressure from the heart, our walls were created in a thicker and stronger form. Since the veins return blood to the heart and thus have lower pressure, we have valves that close after blood passes, so it does not flow backward due to gravity. This is a serious challenge for the blood passing through your legs. Varicose veins might develop due to weight gain from pregnancy or obesity, which increases pressure on the legs, or to hours of standing, walking, or running on hard surfaces.

Capillaries are the most delicate blood vessels, with walls made of a single layer of epithelium, which enables us to exchange substances between blood and tissues. As blood vessels, our total length is about 120,000 kilometers. Try to imagine if a fisherman’s net were made from a rope of this length and how wide it would be! And yet, such a vast network of blood vessels is located in your body, and capillaries take blood to every part, without neglecting an area as tiny as the head of a pin.

The well-being of your organs is directly related to us. If our interiors begin to narrow, because of fatty cholesterol plaque for instance, then we begin to lose our flexibility. This means malnutrition for that organ, since a lesser amount of blood than expected can come. If a blood clot sticks to our wall and blocks the blood flow, the relevant organ may be in terrible trouble. If other arteries supply blood to that organ, then it can handle this, but if a main artery is blocked and if secondary channels do not exist or are insufficient, you experience infarction. Taking this into consideration, you need to be careful what you eat and lead a physically active life. When you get old, if sufficient blood does not pass through us in your brain, failures with brain activities appear and you go senile. As the walls of veins and arteries have a rich network of nerves, we let the suitable amount of blood flow according to the need of the organ we’re serving, under the control of the autonomous nervous system. While blood vessels that are connected to an organ not currently requiring much blood contract to reduce the amount supplied, those that are connected to currently more active organs expand. And dear Peter, the greatest blessing here is that none of these activities require any conscious effort from you; everything works smoothly without your even being aware.

This wonderful network of ours finds its value in the vital fluid we carry. If it weren’t for blood, we would have no value at all, and such a perfect means of distribution would be unnecessary. Even the duty of the heart is to make this fluid circulate throughout the body. Now, let us step aside and allow blood to have the floor.

Resurrection plants are desiccation (extreme dryness) tolerant plant species. All are relatively small and mostly found in Southern Africa, North America, Brazil, and Australia. They are able to stay in a dehydrated state under conditions in which other plants would perish. They come back to life and resume their physiological activities when water becomes available again. During the dehydration process, leaves of resurrection plants shrink and curl up due to water loss. Some of them fold up their stems into a tight ball as they desiccate to limit surface area and conserve internal moisture. It is not yet clear how the leaves and stems reduce their size. However, electron microscopy revealed desiccation-induced cell wall folding in the majority of mesophyll and epidermal cells of a resurrection plant. Thick-walled vascular tissue did not fold and supported the surrounding tissue, thereby limiting the extent of leaf shrinkage and allowing leaf morphology to be rapidly regained upon rehydration (Moore et al 2006, 651–62). When the resurrection plant is dehydrated, its stomatal conductance and intercellular CO2 concentration is decreased and hence its photosynthetic rate, but sugar, starch and non-structural carbohydrate reserves increased during this stage. Mature tissues of resurrection plants such as leaves and roots are able to remain in the air-dried state for months by reaching an inactive state, comparable to dormancy in seeds in several aspects. All metabolic functions are reduced to a bare minimum and they appear to be dead. Resurrection plants take immediate advantage of rainfall after dry periods: they absorb water, grow rapidly, and reproduce (Bartels 2005, 696–701; Xu 2010, 183–190).

One of the most common examples of resurrection plants is Myrothamnus flabellifolia, grown in southern Africa, the only known woody resurrection plant. Craterostigma wilmsii and Xerophyta viscosa are other resurrection plants from southern Africa. All these plants are used extensively in African medicine and traditional culture. Ramonda serbica and her sister Haberlea rhodopensis are members of Gesneriaceae family from the Balkan peninsula; they are rare and forbidden for collecting. Anastatica hierochuntica is native to western Asia, while Selaginella lepidophylla is collected from the wilderness of the southwestern United States and Mexico, sold to tourists, and exported worldwide—it can even be bought online, in their dry and lifeless form. After buying this plant, we soak it in water and voila! If one does not have a “green thumb” and still want to have greenery in one’s home, this resurrection plant might work best for you. However, its downside is that sometimes people complain that the gray-brown ball and its branches do not become fully green or open up in water totally, which does not look very attractive. But even though you may not like how it looks, your kids might enjoy it as a science project.

Why is it important to know how these plants survive drought and come back to life?

The world’s need for water is likely to become one of the most critical resource issues of this century. The International Water Management Institute predicts that by the year 2025, one-third of the world’s population will reside in regions that experience severe water scarcity (www.iwmi.org) (Bartels and Salamini 2001, 1346–1353). Drought is a factor that dramatically threatens the world’s food supply. Therefore, plant scientists have been interested in using resurrection plants as model organisms to find out noble cellular mechanisms for improving the drought tolerance of important crop plants. Research on the molecular genetic mechanisms, metabolic and antioxidant systems as well as macromolecular and structural stabilizing processes in resurrection plants have been carried out (Moore et al 2009, 110–7). One study of Craterostigma wilmsii demonstrates that it relies almost entirely on protection during natural drying; however, it also induces a repair mechanism during rehydration that enables recovery from rapid drying. Thus, it apparently has the ability to repair if protection is inadequate and damage is incurred (Cooper 2002, 1805–13). In addition to repair mechanisms of resurrection plants, the processes that involve regulation of gene and protein activity that allow these plants to use energy storage efficiently have been investigated. The resurrection capability appears to be associated with the accumulation of a carbohydrate in the tissues as they dry. In a majority of cases, sucrose is the major carbohydrate that accumulates (Norwood et al. 2000, 159–65). In addition, an unusual disaccharide named trehalose, which is the main blood sugar in insects and serves as a major energy storage molecule enabling flight, is found in high levels in resurrection plants. This is unusual, because normally there is not much trehalose in plants. It has been proposed that trehalose serves as an osmoprotectant (Avonce et al 2005, 276–279). Osmoprotectants are small molecules that help organisms to survive when a rapid change in the movement of water across their cell membrane occurs. Peter Scott of the Annuals of Botany wrote a summary of the ability of resurrection plant Craterostigma plantagineum to survive dehydration and revive (Scott 2000, 159–166). According to his botanical briefing the roots, being in the soil, are most likely to sense the decrease in water availability first. Abscisic Acid (ABA), a plant hormone, is synthesized and released by roots as a response to drought stress. Once released, ABA could activate batteries of genes required for metabolic processes such as the accumulation of sucrose from either stored carbohydrates or through an alteration in photosynthetic carbon partitioning. In addition, the synthesis of other proteins such as dehydrins and Late Embryogenesis Abundant proteins (LEAs) could help to stabilize the plant cells as they lose water. Thus as the tissues dehydrate, leaves shrink, chlorophyll is degraded, sucrose accumulates and ultimately the xylem, which is one of the transport tissues in plants, fills with air and the plants become desiccated. On addition of water, the xylem refills with water and cells begin to take up water and expand, enzymes present in the tissues are activated, sucrose is metabolized, and chlorophyll is resynthesized. Within 24 hours the plant is restored, and is reproductively active within two weeks.

Based on these findings, it is of particular significance to understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms of resurrection plants and focus on biological engineering strategies for improving plant drought tolerance in important crop species such as cotton, soybeans, peanuts, corn, and potatoes. But these plants do not merely represent a unique model for scientists to understand a plant’s ability to cope with drought; they also serve us to deepen our faith for the Day of Judgment and rationalize it in our minds. The astonishing changes in the tissue of resurrection plants, and how they are brought back to life when they appear to be completely dead, remind us of Qur’anic verses such as the one below regarding the resurrection of decayed flesh and bones (36:78–79).

“And he puts forth for Us a parable, and forgets his own creation. He says: ‘Who will give life to these bones when they have rotted away and became dust?’ Say: ‘He will give life to them Who created them for the first time! And He is the All-Knower of every creation!’”

Time-lapse videos of resurrection plants in action, like Xerophyta and Jericho rose, are available on the web. Enjoy!

References

• Moore JP, Nguema-Ona E, Chevalier L, Lindsey GG, Brandt WF, Lerouge P, Farrant JM, Driouich A. 2006. Response of the leaf cell wall to desiccation in the resurrection plant Myrothamnus flabellifolius. Plant Physiol. 141:651–62.
• Bartels D. 2005. Desiccation Tolerance Studied in the Resurrection Plant Craterostigma plantagineum. Integr. Comp. Biol. 45: 696–701
• Xu D, Su P, Zhang R, Li H, Zhao L, Wang G. 2010. Photosynthetic parameters and carbon reserves of a resurrection plant Reaumuria soongorica during dehydration and rehydration. Plant Growth Reg. 60: 183–190.
• http://faculty.ucc.edu/biology-ombrello/pow/resurrection_plant.htm
• Bartels D, Salamini F. 2001. Desiccation tolerance in the resurrection plant Craterostigma plantagineum. A contribution to the study of drought tolerance at the molecular level. Plant Physiol. 127:1346–1353.
• Moore JP, Le NT, Brandt WF, Driouich A, Farrant JM. 2009 Towards a systems-based understanding of plant desiccation tolerance. Trends Plant Sci. 14:110–7.
• Cooper K, Farrant JM. 2002. Recovery of the resurrection plant Craterostigma wilmsii from desiccation: protection versus repair. J Exp Bot. 53:1805–13.
• Norwood M, Truesdale MR, Richter A, Scott P. 2000. Photosynthetic carbohydrate metabolism in the resurrection plant Craterostigma plantagineum. J Exp Bot. 51:159–65.
• Avonce N, Leyman B, Thevelein J, Iturriaga G. 2005. Trehalose metabolism and glucose sensing in plants. Biochem Soc Trans. 33:276–279.
• Scott P. 2000. Resurrection Plants and the Secrets of Eternal Leaf Annals of Botany. 85: 159–166.

Nanoscience and nanotechnology started off in the early 1980s when scientists were able to detect materials on the nano-level through microscopic systems. This development enabled the synthesis of nano-level materials such as carbon nanotubes, nano crystals, and metal oxide nanoparticles. Nanotechnology is a type of technology, resulting from the research conducted on the atomic, molecular and macromolecular levels. A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter. Nano-level studies are conducted with materials whose sizes range between one to a hundred nanometers. Studies on the nano-level are conducted in the contemporary science fields such as chemistry, materials science, physics, biology, etc. One of the most compelling reasons that renders the research with nano-level materials so significant is that nanoparticles reflect a lot more different characteristics than when they do at the macro-level. Due to their small sizes, nanoparticles, especially those under 20 nm, have magnificent optical, magnetic, and chemical properties.[1] Nanoparticles include much more energy than the macro-level materials; this is because the ratio of the surface area of nanoparticles to their volume is much more bigger than the ratio in macro-level materials. A significant amount of energy is stored in nanoparticles as free surface energy. This energy revealed on the nano-level not only increases the reactivity of iron nanoparticles (the propensity to chemical reactivity), but also renders the magnetic qualities of materials quite differently than they would be at the macro-level.

Many types of nanoparticles are widely used in our daily lives. Iron, gold, silver and cadmium sulphide nanoparticles are some of the most commonly investigated nanoparticles. Yet iron nanoparticles receive special attention from scientists essentially in the field of biotechnology. Iron nanoparticles demonstrating different magnetic features have a wide range of use in fields, including but not limited to health care and electric/electronic industry. Owing to its magnetic feature, iron is also used in magnetic recording. The production of needle-shaped iron nanoparticles with high magnetic features has facilitated the manufacturing of mobile electronic devices with a high recording capacity. In this paper, we will focus on the use of iron nanoparticles’ contribution to the advances in the field of biotechnology, among numerous other contributions of iron nanoparticles in other fields.

Nanobiotechnology

Nanobiotechnology, among other fields of nanotechnology, is the field that focuses on biological systems. Nano-level devices designed to work with biosystems, nano-level cell biology, cell and nanoparticle interactions are some of the applications used in nanobiotechnology. Through those applications, biochemical processes and reactions in living beings can be scrutinized in great detail, which, in turn, enables scholars to come up with innovations in both diagnosis and treatment of various illnesses.

The following are the primary application areas of magnetic nanoparticles in the field of bionanotechnology: development of magnetic resonance imaging systems, and cancer research. Especially, iron oxides (magnetite, Fe3O4, maghemite, Fe2O3), owing to their cohesion with the chemical structure of biological systems, are prevalently used in biotechnology.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

MRI, mostly used in the medical field, is the method to monitor the internal structure of living mechanisms. Through the magnetic area and radio frequency waves, the image of a living tissue is formed. MRI is a complex system that produces images based on the intensity and movements of hydrogen atoms in the tissue. The MRI technique is used to diagnose almost all sorts of illnesses today. Yet it is most frequently used with illnesses pertaining to the central nervous system, brain and spinal cord. It has also been used to diagnose muscle-related and skeleton-related medical conditions, such as meniscus and herniated disc symptoms, as well as all types of neurological illnesses. MRI has not been found detrimental to any living organism thus far.

It is the paramagnetic ions such as gadolinium that are most frequently used as contrast enhancement agents in MRI applications. Although gadolinium has a high moment, this moment is too low compared to superparamagnetic materials. For this reason, superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles are known to be more efficient MRI contrast enhancement agents. Known as such, those iron oxide nanoparticles are quite advantageous over gadolinium. Those nanoparticles can easily be functionalized to interact with biological samples. For example, superparamagnetic nanoparticles, which are not normally taken up by cells efficiently, can do so after being covered with another material (e.g. Dextran) that can ordinarily go into a cell. Thus, MR images of particular tissues could be obtained clearly, which enables us to make more accurate diagnoses and treatments.

Iron oxide nanoparticles are also deemed to be an efficient potential future method in cancer treatment. The results of several studies conducted to fulfill this goal are encouraging.

Iron oxide superparamagnetic nanoparticles are being tested as a method in hyperthermia treatment. Hyperthermia is defined as an abnormally high body temperature, and its treatment is carried out through the removal of certain tissues by increasing its temperature up to (42–46) 0C for 30 minutes. For instance, cancer infected liver tissues are exterminated through the hyperthermia method, which sends biologically activated iron oxide nanoparticles to those infected tissues. Moreover, none of the healthy tissues are damaged during this process. You may find more detailed information in references [1, 2, 4, 6] on how nanoparticles are aptly sent to the cancer infected tissues only while the surrounding healthy tissues remain unaffected by them. Hundreds of researchers carry out experiments and publish their findings on this topic everyday. Yet, further research needs to be done in order to reach solid conclusions.

Iron, which seems to carry greater potential significance than we previously thought, should receive much attention from scholars due to the fact that a chapter (surah) in the Holy Qur’an is entitled “Iron” (Hadeed). The question is, why was a 29-line chapter in the Qur’an is called (Iron) when the word “iron” was only mentioned once throughout the entire chapter.

The chapter “Iron” first begins by drawing the reader’s attention to the attributes and praised names of God. It invites people to believe in God and his messenger Muhammad (peace be upon him) by exalting God as the Almighty, Sovereign, Ruler, One whose existence is without a beginning and an end, Manifest and Hidden. Then, the chapter goes on to encourage believers to donate their wealth for the sake of God, for those who follow the word of God are rewarded with a place in Heaven. It also advises believers never to lose their ardor, while reminding them that even the earth will be resurrected after all has perished. And the wisdom behind the creation of iron is explained as such:

Assuredly We have sent Our Messengers with manifest truths (and clear proofs of their being Messengers), and We have sent down with them the Book and the Balance so that (relations among) humankind may live by equity. And We have sent down iron in [the essence] which is stern might and benefits for humankind, so that God may mark out those who help (the cause of) God and His Messengers, though they do not see Him. Surely God is All-Strong, All-Glorious with irresistible might. (57:25)

This particular verse includes several remarkable points. First, the very use of the phrase “sending down” for iron is so striking that it was also mentioned in [3, 5]. Another perplexing statement is, We sent down iron in [the essence] which is stern might and benefits for humankind, which might pave the way for thought-provoking venues regarding nanotechnology. The verse also indicates that which makes iron so special, its indiscernible or hidden qualities, rather than the outer surface of it. The specific reference to the “essence” of iron hints at this point. If the message of the verse had been related to the external qualities of iron, then the choice of the words would differ accordingly. Since the Qur’an is the word of God, there is wisdom behind the selection and sequencing of each word and letter. From this point of view, we can interpret that this verse informs us about the significance of the essence of iron on the nano level.

The significance of iron as stated in a single verse of the Qur’an has been briefly discussed. Numerous studies on the use of iron in nanotechnology seem to be on the horizon, which will only contribute to our admiration for the miracle of the Qur’an.

Kamil Ezgin is pursuing a PhD degree in chemistry in USA. For correspondence with the author kamilezgin@gmail.com.

References

1. Dale L. Huber. Synthesis, Properties, and Applications of Iron Nanoparticles, small, 2005, 1, No. 5, 482-501.
2. An-Hui Lu, E.L. Salabas, and Ferdi Schuth, Magnetic Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Protection, Functionalization, and Application, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 1222-1244.
3. Edib Masûkî. “Enteresan Bir Tespit: Demirin Sakladiði Sir,” Sizinti, 1985, No. 73.
4. Peter Majewski and Benjamin Thierry. “Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticles- Synthesis, Properties, and Bio-Applications,” Critical Reviews in Solid State and Materials Sciences, 2007, 32, 203-215.
5. http://www.mergeous.com/bullet.asp?tag=72
6. Volker Mailander and Katharina Landfester, “Interaction of Nanoparticles with Cells,” Biomacromolecules 2009, 10, 2379–2400.

In a healthy body, all of the involuntarily functioning mechanisms seem to know what to do, at the right time and in the right amount. But are these systems really “autonomous,” doing what they will? Can it be coincidence that each time the perfect choice out of thousands of possibilities is made?

Regular controlling mechanisms are needed for our bodily activities to function properly. This duty has been given to the nervous system. The autonomic nervous system (ANS), which is in charge of controlling the vital functions of the body, is designed to function in an involuntary, reflexive manner. The operating systems of several machines that make our life easier are developed by being modeled on the ANS. Take an air-conditioned car with a thermostat for example. When the air is cold, a heat sensitive mechanism automatically starts and it provides the engine with more gas and it produces more energy. And when it is warm enough inside the car, this time the thermometer urges the system to reduce the gas-flow back to normal. Likewise, sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves placed in the autonomic system are given the duty of a regulator that restores the altered functioning of organs back to normal so that they do not upset the balance of our body.

If the light coming to our eyes is too bright, vision is blurred. When the retina is exposed to excessive stimuli this causes the parasympathetic nerves to send signals to the eyes to contract the pupils so that the sensitive layers of the eyes are protected and the vision is cleared. In darkness or under dim light, the sympathetic system is called to duty again and this time the pupils are enlarged. The sympathetic-parasympathetic (autonomic) nervous systems granted to human beings play a role in optimizing eyesight under differing intensities of light.

Parasympathetic nerves are created in a way to stimulate the saliva and tear glands, as well as the glands in organs like the nose, stomach, intestines, pancreas, etc. When the secretion in these glands is surplus to our requirements, the canals in connection with them are shrunk and the secretion is lessened. Without such a system, germs would boom, morsels would not soften in our mouth, food intake would not decompose in our stomachs, the gastric mucus which protects the inner stomach from acid would not be secreted, and the final stage of digestion, absorption of digested nutrition, would not happen. Likewise, if our tear glands did not function, sores would emerge on our eyes; if there were no nasal mucus, dust and germs suspending in the air would easily reach our lungs.

The physiological functioning of the lungs and their protection are also maintained through the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. When our tissues need more oxygen, the sympathetic system is activated. The air sacs are enlarged and more air is let in. If toxic gases, dust, cigarette smoke or other harmful elements enter the respiratory tract or the lungs are exposed to any destructive matter, the air sacs are narrowed by the immediate intervention of the parasympathetic system. In this way, the secretion in the air sacs increases and the harmful substance is prevented from going deeper into the lungs. Then the harmful substance is thrown out through secretion and the reflex of coughing.

When the blood pressure drops below 50mm Hg for any reason (due to hemorrhage, medication, body position, etc), the sympathetic system immediately works to send blood to the brain and the heart. As these are the most vital organs, they are given priority at receiving blood. Our blood circulation is carried out within a closed-circuit system and there is a constant amount of blood. Therefore, sending an organ more blood means lessening the blood sent to other organs. To maintain this, the sympathetic system again works to cause narrowing. When food intake reaches the stomach, the parasympathetic system is stimulated to enlarge the relative veins. More blood is pumped to the stomach.

Everything in both systems is designed to protect the organs, tissues, and systems; in other words, the entire body. When a person’s blood pressure goes up, the baro-receptors, which help regulate the pressure in the veins, are stimulated in order to ward off the danger and the narrowing effect of the sympathetic system on the veins is taken under control. In this way, the pressure applied by the blood to the walls of the veins is eliminated. During physical exercise or in a state of stress, anxiety, or worry, the tissues use more oxygen and the sympathetic alarm is switched on.

Blood is pumped faster to meet the need of the tissues. During sleep, the body needs less energy and the metabolism is slow. Therefore, a slower heartbeat is required. During a time of distress or fear, the sympathetic stimulators are under pressure due to hyperventilation. Then the parasympathetic system is put into service and the heartbeat and the blood flow to tissues slow down.

Sphincters are ring shaped muscles that maintain the constriction of a body passage or orifice. With sympathetic signals they constrict and block the passage, and the parasympathetic signals ease them to open the way. If it weren’t for the sympathetic system, the urine produced in the kidneys would not be under control and we would wet our trousers. However, what happens in practice is that when the kidneys produce a certain amount of urine, two sphincters controlled by the sympathetic system contract and they prevent an untimely emptying of the bladder.

Similarly, there are sphincters in the gastro-intestinal tract. If the sympathetic system had not been given the duty of controlling them, the food we eat would not stay with us until it was absorbed and it would be disposed of immediately. On the other hand, the malfunctioning of the parasympathetic system would cause obstructions and we would suffer greatly. Take the parasympathetic system working in our urinary tract for instance. It works without our control and if it did not work, the urine collected in the bladder would press back on the kidneys and cripple them.

In some functions, like the breaking down of fats, ejaculation, increase in brain activity, or the contraction of skeletal muscles, the parasympathetic system is not involved. Since its involvement might harm the body, it is not given a duty here, and the sympathetic system on its own suffices.

There are several other functions carried out by the autonomous nervous system. It works without our will or conscious control. As humans we tend to claim: “I did this, I did that.” When you eat something, your conscious control is limited to chewing the food and swallowing it. We cannot tell our stomach to digest or not to digest the food. In a healthy body, all of the involuntarily functioning mechanisms seem to know what to do, at the right time and in the right amount. But are these systems really “autonomous,” doing what they will? Can it be coincidence that each time the perfect choice out of thousands of possibilities is made? Is it at all possible for these fascinating systems to be a just a work of random causes?

Immunity can be divided into innate immunity and acquired immunity. The mechanisms of innate immunity are given to us by our Creator as a tool with which to protect ourselves. These are used to fight against every kind of microorganism. These ever-ready forces do not need to have met the enemy microorganisms to fight them off. Acquired immunity comes about after the infectious microbe has been encountered; this is usually as a result of infection or vaccination. Such immunities only protect the body against a specific harmful organism. T and B lymphocytes and antibodies belong in the acquired immune system, whereas other mechanisms are part of the innate immune system. We can classify the very intricate immunity mechanisms as follows:

A – Layers that cover the inner and outer surfaces of the body: These are the physical structures that carry out the task of protection by covering the tissues like a shield or fortress.

1. Skin: Our skin is an organ in its own right. It is created with such perfect characteristics that no microorganism can penetrate our body if there are no flaws, like gashes, scratches, or wounds.

2. Oral mucous membrane: If the epithelial layer covering the interior walls of our mouth is healthy, microorganisms cannot infiltrate the blood.

3. Areas around the sexual organs: The sexual organ in males is, even at birth, more protected than that of females. For female children, the epithelium covering the interior face of the organ turns into a multi-layered structure due to the impact of estrogen (sexuality hormone) that starts being secreted after adolescence. That multilayered structure blocks infections that can result from sexual intercourse. Female children before adolescence do not have estrogen, thus their genital organs have a thinner layer of epithelium and are more likely to be infected. This is why cleansing after urination should be done from the front to the back and the genital organs should not come into contact with feces. Our God of infinite mercy also gives girls a hymen in order to protect girls from germs.

B – Flora bacteria (beneficial bacteria): These do not serve as mechanical obstacles, but are assigned tasks. There are some bacteria that do not cause illnesses in the urine and in the proliferation canals, the skin, throat, intestines, and the eyes. Those beneficial bacteria located in our body work for us and hinder other infectious bacteria from settling in these zones. Those places are sterile in the body of a fetus; no beneficial bacteria exist there. Protector bacteria are positioned in those places right after the birth; this is a revelation of God’s infinite compassion. For instance, a baby’s first feces are sterile because there are no bacteria in his intestines. As time passes, a baby adopts protector bacteria through his mouth by nursing, from bottles, and pacifiers. Parents should be careful about the purity of pacifiers, feeding bottles, water, and additional nourishments, particularly in the first couple of months, until the bacteria flora have been established in an infant’s body. Otherwise, babies can easily suffer from diarrhea. God equipped beneficial bacteria with some special peculiarities to be able to deter other microorganisms from settling in the body. Here are some of these peculiarities:

1. They compete with infectious bacteria on the consumption of nutrients, so they restrain the reproduction of other bacteria.

2. They emit bactericides that kill only pathogenic (harmful and infectious) bacteria.

3. Some flora bacteria are assigned a mission to impede the reproduction of pathogenic bacteria so as to reduce pH (increase acidity) in the environment. For example, the lactobacillus in the female genital passage produces lactose by breaking down the glucose in the uterine canal in order to acidify the secreted matters in that canal. Reproduction of fungi is also obstructed in the same way. Due to that fact, some fungal diseases might emerge in genital areas or in the ears, among other places, after antibiotic treatment. Antibiotics kill not only pathogenic bacteria, but also flora bacteria. Thus, desultory usage of antibiotics should be avoided.

Today, beneficial intestinal bacteria are taken orally in capsules, and infectious bacteria in the intestines are killed by supplementing the flora bacteria in that organ without the use of antibiotics.

C – Mechanical cleansing:

1. Secretions:

a.Saliva: Secreted continuously from the glands behind the ears, beneath the chin and beneath the tongue, saliva expels the intruder pathogenic bacteria by cleansing our mouths. It also prevents tooth decay and gum inflammation by cleaning leftover food on which bacteria could feed.

b. Tears: Tears are charged with the duty of cleaning the conjunctiva (the mucous membrane that lines the inner surface of the eyelids and that continues over the forepart of the eyeball) and the cornea (the transparent part of the coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and pupil and admits light to the interior).

2.Cilia: These are feather-like cell extensions of microscopic size.

a.Nasal Cilia: Covering the nasal mucous membrane, mucus (a slimy substance) grasps dust particles and microbes in the air due to its adhesive nature. Lumpy folds inside the nose do not let the air flow straight. Therefore, a turbulent air current occurs in the nose. This turbulent current causes the particles in the air to come into contact with this slimy substance and to get stuck there. Epithelial cells also have cilia expanding toward the nasal cavity. Every cell has nearly 200 cilia. These cilia push mucus and the dust particles attached to it toward the pharynx with an up and down whipping action (10–20 strokes per second) so as to keep them away from the lungs.

b.Cilia in the lower respiratory passages: The upper surface of epithelium that is spread on the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles is also covered with mucus. Epithelial cells in this area have cilia, too. These cilia do the same whipping action to push particles and microorganisms in the mucus toward the pharynx. They are pushed into the pharynx and expelled by coughing. One of the damaging impacts of nicotine on the respiratory system is that it paralyzes these cilia and disrupts the discharging process of harmful particles. As a consequence, smoking leads to many lung diseases.

D – Enzymes, acids and antibodies in body secretions:

1.Lysozyme: This is a substance found in body secretions (saliva, perspiration, tear, genital organ secretion etc.) that kills bacteria.

2.Stomach acid (Hydrochloric acid, HCl): Being emitted through stomach glands, HCl is a strong acid that can destroy bacteria that are able to reach as far as the stomach with the food we eat. Although we usually have our meals without cleaning our hands sufficiently or without washing them thoroughly, we rarely (except for situations where we are exposed to a high density of microbes like food poisoning or dirty drinking water) get infected via this route. The actors in this perfect protection are lysozyme and stomach acid.

3.Antibodies: Being present in the blood and body secretions, antibodies play a role in the defense against microorganisms. Antibodies in breast milk are passed from the mother’s blood to her milk via a very special mechanism, and are significant in the protection of an infant from infections.

E – Defender Cells: Resembling special operation forces, each of these cells is trained in different parts of the body and sent into the blood circulation. Those troop-like cells, which protect us against diseases by struggling fiercely with germs that can reach the blood after overcoming many obstacles, cannot have come about merely by chance, without the participation of the All-Knowing Designer.

1.Macrophages: Monocytes, a kind of leukocyte in the blood, pass from the capillaries to the tissue and turn into giant cells called macrophages that can phagocytose (swallow microbes) at a great rate. Macrophages swallow and tear down every kind of bacteria and virus that invades the body. These cells constitute the first defense line of the body and serve like advance guards. For instance, the first force to start fighting against the germs that can penetrate the skin through a scratch is the macrophages found just beneath the skin are called histiocytes. Germs that can infiltrate the blood through the intestines and reach the liver via the portal vein are eradicated by another type of macrophage. Therefore, almost no bacterium can pass from the intestines into the general blood circulation system. Germs that enter the body orally are destroyed by macrophages stationed in the lymph nodes on the tonsils. The ones that manage to reach the lungs through the respiratory paths are killed by the macrophages in the alveoli. Those cells also cause T-lymphocytes (very specially equipped cells) to proliferate by stimulating them. 2.Neutrophils: These are the most common type (60-70%) of leukocytes. These cells participate only in fights against bacteria. When bacteria enter a tissue, some poisonous matters emitted by them cause a chemical reaction called chemotaxis; this reaction attracts the neutrophils toward the infected tissue. In this case, the neutrophils leave their capillaries for the infected tissue and find and destroy the bacteria. How can germ-eating cells, like macrophages and neutrophils, distinguish normal body cells from microbes? Undoubtedly, the Creator of such an excellent defense system does not make us worry about such a problem; it was for this purpose that God created opsonins. Opsonins are similar to adapters in that they are able to attach two different parts together and connect themselves to a specific place on the germ. Thus, macrophages and neutrophils carry out their germ-eating job perfectly, connecting themselves to those opsonins. Since our own body cells do not have receptors that can handle opsonins, they cannot be eaten. 3.Lymphocytes: These are the troops of the immunity system with the most complicated organizations and strategies. These troops are categorized as T and B lymphocytes. They are the most important and powerful of the immunity mechanisms and constitute about 20-30% of the leukocytes in blood. They are regarded as the last defense line against those germs with which the other mechanisms cannot cope. a.T lymphocytes: When T lymphocytes are stimulated by macrophages, T cells that are a form of T lymphocyte secrete a matter called lymphokine. Lymphokine stimulates cytotoxic (microbe killer) T cells and B lymphocytes into action. Unless auxiliary T cells exist, the acquired immunity system collapses. Likewise, the HIV virus destroys auxiliary T cells and renders a person susceptible to disease. Even very simple infections can turn into a catastrophe for those patients. Cytotoxic T cells assault bacteria and particularly virus-infected body cells. They deliver porphyrins (proteins to make holes) into cell membranes by attaching themselves to the cells. In that way, a huge amount of water enters the cells and they get torn, due to over-swelling. Thus, viruses in the infected cells are dispersed and are neutralized by specific antibodies produced for that purpose with their infecting ability being impeded. (Viruses have to enter body cells to be able to proliferate. Only in this way can they protect themselves against antibodies and proliferate. Viruses that proliferate in cells use matters in those cells and cause them to eventually break apart, then move onto other cells.) b.B lymphocytes: These cells are stimulated directly by microbes. However, they need lymphokines to be completely stimulated and activated. Lymphokines are created capable of causing B lymphocytes to proliferate and transform themselves to Plasmocytes. Plasmocytes also emit antibodies to the blood. c.Killer cells: These play a role in the innate immune system, so they do not need stimulation like T and B lymphocytes. In particular, they assault body cells that are virus-infected or show a tendency to cancer. In this way, they establish a first defense line against viruses and block cancer development. Even though the working principles of lymphocytes are not known, they are related in some way to spiritual values such as love, enthusiasm, and peace of mind. Likewise, it is known that the immune systems of people whose spirituality has been weakened by depression and stress are more susceptible to break down. Unless those people recover by activating their spiritual dynamics, like faith in destiny, they are under a greater threat of cancer. Yet, this world is a place of examination. We cannot claim that every cancer is due to a damaged spirituality; we should not forget that cancer might occur due to different reasons. 4. Eosinophils: These are a kind of leukocytes that can kill some sort of parasites. They cling to parasites and release the granules in their cytoplasm into the parasites. These granules contain enzymes which destroy parasites. 5. Mast cells and basophils: Mast cells and basophils play a central role in inflammatory and immediate allergic reactions. They are able to release potent inflammatory mediators. Mast cells function out of the veins and protect the tissues in the body, whereas basophils are similar cells found in the bloodstream. F – Factors in plasma: 1.Antibodies: These are secreted into the blood by plasma cells. They fight against the germs that have stimulated them. They show their impact directly (neutralizing bacterial poisons, gathering and precipitating bacteria, neutralizing viruses, pulling microorganisms into pieces) or by activating a very special system called a complement. 2.Complement proteins: When inactive complement proteins in plasma are stimulated by antigens and an opposing antibody complex, active complement compounds are brought to life. These compounds have various effects like chemotaxis, opsonization, development of inflammation as a result of stimulation of mast cells and basophils, and the destruction of microorganisms. The complement system can be stimulated by microorganisms without a need for antibody development (without a need for lymphocytes); this can be seen as a manifestation of our Creator”s name Mudabbir (managing, administering, controlling every being in balance and order). This ensures the stimulation of a complement system under conditions that lack antibody production. Hence, the body is never left completely undefended. Is it really possible that such an amazing defense system, that requires unlimited knowledge and power, and that consists of every kind of alternative action, can come into existence by itself? 3.Interferons: Viruses invade body cells and synthesize proteins that contribute to their proliferation. Interferons, secreted by lymphocytes or other leukocytes, are created so that they can attach themselves to virus-infected body cells and obstruct the production of those proteins. Hence, these viruses cannot proliferate. 4.Lysozyme: Mentioned in the earlier part concerning body secretions, lysozyme is also available in the blood and kills bacteria there. 5.Properdin: This is a kind of protein available in the plasma which can neutralize viruses and destroy some bacteria types. 6.Acute phase proteins: These are a large number of serum proteins (C-reactive protein, etc.) that are swiftly synthesized by the liver and that are employed in defense during infections. 7.Beta-lysin: A substance that destroys some types of bacteria. G – Events caused by infections: 1. Inflammation: Inflammation is a response that is designed to protect tissues against tissue destruction, caused by factors like infection, excessive heat, and trauma. When a tissue is invaded by microorganisms, it starts to be destroyed; certain matters come out of those tissue cells (as mast cells) and lead to certain reactions in that zone. a.Vasodilation: As the little veins transporting blood to a tissue widen, more blood rushes in and more neutrophils are carried to that zone. Meanwhile, a color enhancement (blushing) occurs in that place. b.Increase in permeability of the capillaries: Neutrophils can penetrate into the tissues more easily. Plenty of water also passes through tissues, so some edemas (swelling in tissues) develop. Finally, coagulation proteins in the plasma, which can rarely infiltrate from capillaries to the tissues because of their large molecular structures, pass to the tissues and clot the liquid here. Hence, lymph veins, which are responsible for returning the liquid to the blood circulation, are plugged by clots. Consequently, inflammation detains microorganisms in that specific zone and prevents them from spreading throughout the body. Microorganisms are also destroyed by tissue macrophages in the inflammation zone and the migrant neutrophils working there. (The more a bacterium causes tissue damage, the harder it passes to blood.) Then, remnants of dead bacteria, damaged tissue cells, and neutrophils that are also destroyed after the phagocytosing of between 5 and 20 bacteria soften the inflammation by dissolving and creating some pus in that zone. The pus streams out by itself or is relieved by an incision being cut in the covering skin. 2. Fever:Toxins coming out of some bacteria and some secretions of microbe-phagocytosing cells lead to an increase in body temperature. Fever stops reproduction of microorganisms and kills them by ruining their structures. Within this framework, the occurrence of fever is beneficial; it indicates that the body is resisting and struggling to kill the microbes. Therefore, fever should not be reduced as long as it is not too high to cause brain damage (especially for children). 3. Cough: A cough helps the body discharge the microbes in the respiratory paths. Thus, cough medicines should not be used immediately, except in cases of whooping cough. 4. Diarrhea: This helps the body rid itself of feces quickly, so medicines to stop diarrhea should not be used, either. However, in cases of cough and diarrhea, a person should know their own strength and the strength of their immune system well and take medication accordingly. When we consider all these defense mechanisms, this question occurs in our minds: Do we protect ourselves against infections or is there someone who operates various immunity mechanisms in our bodies and controls them at every moment with His infinite knowledge and power?