From another perspective, austerity is described as holding back from carnal pleasures in order to acquire piety, righteousness, and nearness to God, and to discover the hidden realities of existence and the Divine truths. It combines the following of God’s way without any deviation, making use of willpower and conscience in the best way by taking refuge in the atmosphere of spiritual life against the pressures and excessive desires of the carnal soul.

“State” and “station,” regarded as crystal-like indicators of a person’s spiritual life, are certain “pools” of indescribable spiritual pleasures mixed with the breezes from the worlds beyond that one can experience through austerity on the way to God. These are based on love of God and the attainment of His approval. Reaching these “pools” and feeling and living in the spacious world of the spirit within the love of God and His good pleasure is possible through austerity and through training the carnal soul, and can be achieved by enhancing the spirit with virtues.

A person capable of sustaining an austere life is a person of tested faith or loyalty in relationships with the Creator, the Ultimate Truth, and also in relationships with the created. This is the natural state for austerity-the ambition to become a person of truth by liberating oneself from worldly ambitions and carnal inclinations and becoming devoted to the Almighty Truth. Austerity is training the carnal soul to realize true humanity and to make the love of God the source of human feelings, thoughts and behavior. In other words, the purpose of an austere life is to think for the sake of God, to speak for the sake of God, to love for the sake of God, and to remain in the sphere of doing or not doing something only for the sake of God, to obtain His approval and good pleasure-purely because God wants us to do it or not to do it-and to always be with God.

Some see austerity as humiliating the carnal soul, which we can interpret as the annihilation of the evil-commanding soul which always pursues evils, or as being freed from selfishness and self-conceit or overcoming bodily desires in accordance with the maxim, “Die before you die!” From this perspective, austerity can be regarded as plowing the carnal soul, as one plows a field, in order to sow the seeds of goodness and virtue, and bringing them into flower by giving them the necessary water and heat in favorable weather.

The couplet,
Be soil, such fertile soil, that roses can grow in you;
For nothing other than soil can have the honor of growing roses.

describes this state of soul which has acquired perfection, humility, and self-annihilation. Sufi scholars and thinkers have also taken another approach to austerity. They distinguish two types of austerity. The first is “austerity in manners,” which means being freed from weaknesses and vices in order to acquire a second nature, while the other is “austerity in goals,” which means having the best goal and pursuing it in this world. This approach can also be summed up as disciplining the carnal soul and acquiring good, laudable virtues. The statement found in the Lujja, “The wisdom in austerities is training the reason and the soul” confirms this approach.

Some who have acquired austerity in the most approved manner have made another classification of austerity, as follows:

• The austerity followed by those who are at the beginning of the Sufi way to God consists of combining and adorning good morals or good nature with knowledge, and the practice of religion with sincerity and purity of intention, and to observe both the rights of the Creator and the rights of the created.
• The austerity followed by those who have advanced on the Sufi way to God is to become free of all considerations with respect to anything other than God and, by paying heed to the voice of the inner sense of reliance on God and of seeking help -something that everyone feels in their conscience-to remain true to the direction to which their conscience points. Furthermore, this degree of austerity also demands being oblivious of even the way one is following, because of absorption in seeking God’s good pleasure.
• The austerity followed by those who have reached the end of the way enables them to experience the Divine manifestations free from all differences and polarities. That is, it enables them to feel in the depths of their heart the unity and harmony of apparently opposed Divine Names and Attributes, with all their manifestations. It is, therefore, a way to see and experience God without seeing any difference between His being the All-Favoring and the All-Requiting or the All-Expanding and the All-Straitening or the All-Granting and the All-Preventing.

In a globalized world, some regions – like Anatolia, which could be considered a bridge from east-to-west, past-to-future, and a melting pot for different cultures and religions – could pull from their centuries-long experience in child education to help others.
Ali Fethi Toprak

Child education or training is one of the biggest challenges parents face. During the child-raising process, every parent experiences some difficulties and needs help and guidance. Therefore, many parents naturally look for resources to educate themselves on how to better raise their children.

Pedagogy, defined as the art or science of teaching, offers different educational methods and models for children’s education. Some methods are so common that they are institutionalized. For example, there are about 4,000 certified Montessori schools in the United States, and about 7,000 worldwide. However, the necessity of a prepared environment and special Montessori teachers make this method available only to those who can afford it.

In addition to economic considerations, many pedagogical approaches in different countries have to balance cultural, religious, and regional considerations, so to better educate children. In a globalized world, some regions – like Anatolia, which could be considered a bridge from east-to-west, past-to-future, and a melting pot for different cultures and religions – could pull from their centuries-long experience in child education to help others.

Although most of the world only became interested in child education after the dawn of the twentieth century, there has been a long standing tradition of child education and training in Anatolia. Just as people specializing in child education today are called pedagogues, Anatolian professionals were called “mürebbî” and “murebbiye” during the Ottoman period. A mürebbî, or governess, provided great support in child training to parents, and when parents fell short or needed guidance in any respect, mürebbîs were in the immediate vicinity, available to help.

Fathers were also important figures in childhood education, and the Anatolian children were living as honorable members of society. Besides, Anatolia was an admired center for peace during this period. A Western observer, A. Ubicini (1818-1884, Lettres sur la Turquie – Letters on Turkey), made the following note in his diary on the role of the father; it is a great example of the father-model which today’s pedagogy is seeking:

“I don’t know of any other country where children live with so much love, care and compassion. Oddly enough, all this compassion and care is deepened in the fathers rather than mothers. It is really something to see that an Ottoman Turk holds his kid’s hand and walks with him on the road on Fridays (holiday in Ottoman times) or on another holiday. He keeps his steps as small as his child’s. When realizing that the child is tired, he puts him on his shoulders or let’s him sit by him while he rests in a coffee house, and he speaks to him with a great compassion and care.”

Understanding the roots of Anatolian pedagogy

There are studies to understand the basis of childhood education in the Anatolian model. Pedagogue Adem Güneş provides a systematic approach called “Anatolian Pedagogy.” According to his model, Anatolian Pedagogy aims to educate children in a way that is more compatible with the true human nature. It abstains from any behavior or stress that will disturb the nature of children. The nature of children is like that of plain paper. Since whatever is initially imprinted on it will remain for rest of its life, parents should aim to leave good images on this clean page.

In addition, according to Anatolian Pedagogy, a child should not be afraid to make mistakes, and parents, as much as possible, should not interfere with issues arising from childhood. Instead, mistakes should be accepted as strong and easily remembered lessons that provide a path for kids to correct themselves. Furthermore, Anatolian Pedagogy states that every child should be treated differently. Because Anatolian Pedagogy puts an emphasis on the differences of children, kids are not treated equal, but treated justly. For example, if one child is emotional while another is more social, the way parents show their love, mercy, and care should not be the same for both. Anatolian Pedagogy also implies that parents should not buy their children the same type of clothes. In addition, parents should not have the same expectations for the future education of different children.

Anatolian approach to reward and punishment

The approach of Anatolian Pedagogy to punishment is mainly shaped by the teachings of Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him. He educated kids not with punishment, but through mercy and compassion. Anatolian Pedagogy, thus, affirms that punishment will cause kids to lose self-esteem and will make them embarrassed. Moreover, Anatolian Pedagogy does not confirm giving rewards in order to change the unwanted behavior of kids. Thus, it aims to avoid the development of any artificial behaviors or false personalities in children.

The importance of living a child-centric life

Anatolian Pedagogy recommends that parents be tightly connected with their children. Interestingly, Anatolian Pedagogy advises parents to earn the love of their kids to avoid the common misconception that “your kids love you only because you are their parents.” From this perspective, mercy and love toward children should be unconditional. Kids must become aware of this, so that they do not fall into indebtedness.

Another aspect of Anatolian Pedagogy deals with the understanding of children’s emotions. Parenthood is not possible without this consideration. Parents in the Anatolian model were expected to adjust their lives according to their kid’s world – to live a kid-centered lifestyle. This also includes not disturbing the biological rhythm of children. A common problem of modern times is to live fast, and this may end up meaning “living without feeling.” Anatolian Pedagogy aims to prevent such carelessness.

Effect of culture on childhood education

Pedagogical advice cannot be independent from the traditions that compose a community. If cultural differences are not taken into consideration, the advice given for childhood education will be a new source of problems. The suggestions to solve similar problems in child training may even be different for families who live in the same region, but in different cities.

For instance, some habits considered as usual in a family from a metropolitan city can be unusual in a family from a rural city. If it is so different in the same country, imagine how pedagogical methods can differ from country to country? Would a German family and a British family have the same pedagogical perspectives? Could you compare the family structure and child training techniques in a French or Turkish family? In some cultures, it is essential that the child leaves his parents when he is 18, and he should be able to earn his own living, thus becoming an independent thinker who contributes to the social, economic, and intellectual welfare of the community. Under such conditions, the goal is to ensure that a child doesn’t have any emotional weaknesses. From this perspective, keeping a child’s emotions controlled is a positive. As a result, there are differences between this perspective and the Anatolian model.

These differences between Europe and Anatolia do not mean, “European pedagogy is bad,” and, “Anatolian Pedagogy is the best.” On the contrary, Europe defines its pedagogic standards by its own cultural values. European pedagogical approaches could be acceptable and valid for Europe. But if you try to apply them in Anatolia, or vice versa, they will likely be incompatible.

Each society should establish its own science of pedagogy from its own values. For this reason, pedagogical experts who understand their own cultural values should establish scientific theories for their own country and land. In the West, Piaget, Van der Horst, John Bowby, Alice Miller, and Maria Montessori have been influential; Sufi masters Mawlana Jalaluddin Rumi and Yunus Emre, who are marvels of love, compassion, and peace, offer great examples of Anatolian pedagogy that could inspire the world.

• Hatice Kocabas is a Psychology Student at FernUniversität in Hagen, Germany.
• Adem Gunes is the Chair of Child Education Department, Fatih University, Istanbul.
• Ali Fethi Toprak is a Senior Researcher, Texas Institute of Biotechnology at North American College, Houston, TX, USA

References

1. Montessori Schools. Retrieved from http://www.montessori.edu/FAQ.html on 03/04/12.

2. Montessori education. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montessori_education on 03/04/12.

3. Adem Güneş. Anatolian Pedagogy 1&2. Şebmen Dergisi. Retrieved from http://www.sebnemdergisi.com on 03/04/12.

4. Adem Güneş (Pedagogue). Pedagojide Anadolu Ekolü & Insanlığı zirvelere taşımış terbiye yöntemi. Retrieved from http://www.ademgunes.com/?p=271 and p=677 on 03/04/12.

“The human brain, then, is the most complicated organization of matter that we know.”
Isaac Asimov

If someone asks what you recall when you look at the following pictures, I can hear you say ‘President Obama’ and ‘Statue of Liberty’. You just see a fragment of the pictures and remember them.

So, how does it happen? This is just a simple task for the brain. It stores an image and retrieves it whenever a part of it is seen. Amazing features of the brain, especially its power to learn and make decisions, inspires computer scientists in the field of artificial intelligence.

In computer science, an artificial neuron is a simple computational model of a neuron in the brain that excludes biological properties. Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are composed of artificial neurons, and they are utilized to solve specific problems, especially those that require learning and decision-making. ANNs may not be the best solutions in various machine learning problems; however, they are accepted as strong alternatives. Although ANNs don’t claim to be so, currently they are not even close to producing a simple model of the brain. Let’s take a short journey into the world of ANNs to experience the extreme difficulty of modeling the brain.

Some Applications of ANNs

Figure 1: Overview of ALVINN structure. Images obtained from the camera installed on the vehicle are provided to the ANN, and ANN decides the steering angle.

(adapted from: http://virtuallab.kar.fei.stuba.sk/robowiki/images/e/e8/Lecture_ALVINN.pdf).

ANNs have various applications in very large spectrum of problems that require learning, such as the Autonomous Land Vehicle in a Neural Network (ALVINN). The structure of ALVINN is shown in Figure 1. The ALVINN project by Carnegie Mellon University started in 1986 and aims to make a vehicle without a driver (Mitchell, 1997). In this project, ANN learns the steering habits of a driver. A camera is mounted on the vehicle to capture the images of the road. With respect to the continuous images provided, ALVINN determines the steering level with 45 different angle positions from sharp left to sharp right. Steering is updated 15 times per second so that it allows real-time control while driving at 55 mph. The system is trained by the data obtained from a human driver in a simulator and a real vehicle. ALVINN was able to speed up to 70 mph and successfully drive at 55 mph for 90 miles.

Figure 2: Handwritten zip codes (LeCun, et al., 1989)

Another example is handwritten zip code recognition (LeCun, et al., 1989). Zip codes from US Mail written by various people with large variety of styles and sizes were used in the experiments. Figure 2 presents some examples of zip codes in the experiment database. After the ANN was trained with more than 7,000 digits in the zip codes, it was 99% successful in recognizing around 2,000 digits in new zip codes.

Learning and Decision-making in ANNs

In order to understand the challenges better, we will first examine learning and decision-making in neurons and ANNs on simple examples.

Figure 3: (a) A typical neuron (adopted from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Neuron_-_annotated.svg), (b) artificial neuron in computer

Figure 3(a) illustrates a typical neuron which is the constituent of brain’s complicated network structure. Each neuron receives information as signals via dendrites, then evaluates it and generates a signal that is transmitted through its axon. A neuron has many connections between its dendrites and the axons of various other neurons. Figure (b) demonstrates an artificial neuron in computer science. It is considered a function: dendrites as the inputs of the function and generated signal via the axon as the output of the function.

Let’s see an example of an artificial neuron that understands if a given produce is a red apple or not. Think about how you understand whether a produce is a red apple or not. You see the shape and the color. However, it might be an artificial one for decoration. Then you can taste it and you get the sweetness of the apple. Similarly, our neuron receives three pieces of information as the input; ‘has circular shape?’, ‘is sweet?’, and ‘has red color?’. If the output is ‘yes’, that means the neuron recognizes the produce as a red apple. Otherwise, it will be ‘no’, which means the produce is not a red apple (Figure 4). Here, the neuron’s function is defined in such a way that it only generates ‘yes’ when all the inputs are ‘yes’.

Figure 4: Example inputs and outputs for the artificial neuron.

In an artificial neuron, some of the information can be more important than the others. For instance, to have red color may be more valuable in determining the price of produce. Assume that round shape and sweetness has equal value of $1; however, having red color is $2 – twice as valuable as the other features (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Artificial neuron with different input weights. Arrow thickness indicates the importance.

So, what is the big fuss about artificial neurons if they are only functions? In fact, the main feature of artificial neurons is learning. Considering the last example above, the neuron initially does not know the importance of the dendrites, i.e. the weights of inputs are all the same. If not trained, the neuron will generate the following answers which are sometimes wrong as indicated in Table 1.

Table 1: Artificial neuron before training; highlighted answers are wrong.

In real life, a teacher trains students. For instance, the teacher asks a question and if the received answer is not correct, she provides the right answer. Students learn the right answer and use this correct information in their lives. It is similar in artificial neurons as depicted in Figure 6. When the response of the neuron is incorrect, it adjusts the importance of the dendrites with respect to the correct answer hence it answers the same question correctly next time. During the training session, the neurons will be continuously asked the values of all the produce until it learns them all.

Figure 6: The learning process of the artificial neuron.

What if the problem gets complicated? Then one artificial neuron will not be sufficient, and we will need a network of neurons; ANNs. A more complex problem, ‘learning the digits’ is indicated in Figure 7.

Figure 7: (a) Digit learning problem, (b) ANN structure that learns digits. Due to the difficulty, only the connections between the input layer and first / last neurons in the middle layer are shown.

ANN has 3 x 5 = 15 input units like receptors of an eye retina. Each input unit corresponds to one square in the digits; either filled or blank. Each input unit is connected to the dendrites of all neurons in the middle layer. The output of each cell in the middle is connected to the dendrites of all neurons in the output layer. There are 10 output neurons corresponding to the digits from 0 to 9. After the ANN is trained, it provides a correct answer to the given digit as input. When digit ‘3’ is provided to the network, the neuron labeled with number ‘3’ in Figure 7(b) is triggered and outputs ‘yes’ whereas the rest of the neurons output ‘no’.

Figure 8: Faulty digit ‘3’ with a missing black square on the top right side.

Initially, all neurons in the network have equally weighted dendrites. After a reasonable amount of training, neurons adjust their weights, and ANN is able to identify digits. Here, we have some major challenges: what does ‘reasonable amount of training’ mean? When the ANN is undertrained, it will not always answer correctly to the digits given in Figure (a). In the other case, when the ANN is overtrained, it will memorize the digits provided during the training and will not recognize the faulty ones such as the one in Figure 8.

Challenges of ANNs

Beyond the mentioned the overtraining / undertraining problems, ANNs have a bigger challenge – how to determine the structure of ANN that fits the problem? In the digit learning example, we’re lucky because the structure is provided in Figure 7(b). However, the outcome of the solution may drastically depend on the number of neurons and the connections among them which is indeed a hard problem for ANNs.

The huge capability of the brain in learning and decision making comes from the huge number of neurons – around 100 billion – and the enormous amount of connections among them – from 100 to 500 trillion. The challenge to design such a huge network requires huge computation power. With the increasing number of neurons, ANN dramatically slows down especially during the learning process. Here, our example is a simple learning task of 3×5 pixel digits compared to the brain’s acquisition capacity of hundreds of images in our daily life. 

When the number of neurons gets larger, the reliability of network also reduces. Small adjustments in weights may change the entire behavior of the network hence it is easy to lose control of ANN. In contrast, the brain has a robust system, and its fault tolerance is admirable. Although neurons die every day, this doesn’t affect its performance significantly. The training method and how to update the weights are other hard problems leading to many different approaches in the neural computation field.

We have presented some simple tasks that can be solved using a few neurons and their challenges. On the other hand, consider the thousands of problems, various and incredible amount of information we have learned, and the thousands of decisions we make. The brain is truly amazing from the computer science perspective.

Bibliography

• Hertz, J. A., Krogh, A. S., & Palmer, R. G. (1991). Introduction To The Theory Of Neural Computation. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
• Hopfield, J. J. (1982). Neural networks and physical systems with emergent collective computational properties. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA , 79, 2554-2588.
• LeCun, Y., Boser, B., Denker, J. S., Henderson, D., Howard, R. E., Hubbard, W., et al. (1989). Backpropagation applied to handwritten zip code recognition. 1 (4), 541-551.
• Mitchell, T. M. (1997). Machine Learning. McGraw-Hill.

This Word presents a brief comparison between the Qur’an’s sacred wisdom and human philosophy, a concise summary of the Qur’anic instruction and training for humanity’s personal and social life. 

First fundamental

Differences between the Qur’anic wisdom and human philosophy: A religious, skillful, and renowned ruler wanted to make a copy of the Qur’an as beautifully as required by its sacred meanings and miraculous wording in order to adorn its wonderful words in a worthy fashion. So, he wrote it in a truly wonderful fashion with all kinds of precious jewels. To point out the variety of its truths, he wrote some of its letters in diamonds and emeralds, others in pearls and agate, brilliants and coral, and gold and silver. He adorned and decorated it in such a way that everyone was full of admiration and astonishment. That Qur’an became a most precious artwork for the people of truth, for its outer beauty indicated its brilliant inner beauty and striking adornment.

The ruler showed this Qur’an to a foreign [non-Muslim] philosopher and a Muslim scholar. Seeking to test and reward them, he told each one to write about it. The two men complied. The philosopher discussed the letters’ shapes, decorations, and interrelationships, and the jewels’ properties and methods of use. He said nothing of its meaning, for he saw only an ornamented object and was unaware that it was an invaluable book with depths of meaning. As he was well-informed about engineering and chemistry, could describe things, and knew a great deal about jewelry but nothing about Arabic, he wrote his book accordingly. But the truth-loving Muslim scholar, understanding that it was the Clear Book (the Wise Qur’an), ignored its outward ornamentation and the letters’ decorations and described the sacred truths and secret lights behind the veil of decorations, for they are far more valuable and worthy of respect, more useful and comprehensive.

Both men presented their books to the ruler, who began with the philosopher’s book. Seeing that he had worked very hard, the ruler nevertheless refused his book and expelled him from his presence. Why? Because he had written nothing of the bejeweled Qur’an’s true wisdom, understood none of its meanings, and showed his disrespect for it by thinking that this source of truths consists of meaningless decoration. Looking through second book, and seeing that the truth-loving scholar had written a very beautiful and useful interpretation, a wise and illuminating composition, he congratulated him. It was pure wisdom, and its author was a true scholar, a genuine sage. As a reward, the scholar was given 10 gold coins from the ruler’s inexhaustible treasury for each letter of his book.

The meaning is as follows: The embellished Qur’an is this artistically fashioned universe; the ruler is the Eternal Sovereign. The first man represents the line of philosophy and philosophers; the second man represents the way of the Qur’an and its students. Indeed, the wise Qur’an is the most exalted expounder and a most eloquent translator of this universe (a macro-Qur’an). It is the Criterion that instructs jinn and humanity in the signs of creation”Divine laws regarding creation and the universe’s operation”inscribed by the Pen of Power on the sheets of the universe and pages of time. It looks upon creatures, each a meaningful letter, as bearing the meaning of another (on account of their Maker) and says: How beautifully they have been made, how meaningfully they point to the Maker’s beauty and grace. Thus it shows the universe’s real beauty.

Philosophy, focused on the design and decorations of creation’s letters, has lost its way. While it ought to look upon this macro-book’s letters as bearing the meaning of another (on account of God), it looks upon them as signifying themselves (on account of themselves) and says: How beautiful they are, not How beautifully they have been made. Thus philosophers insult creation and cause it to complain. In truth, materialistic philosophy is a falsehood having no truth, an insult to creation.

Second fundamental

Moral training in one’s personal life: Sincere students of philosophy are Pharaoh-like tyrants. They abuse themselves by bowing in worship before the meanest thing, if they perceive it to be in their interest to do so. These materialist students are stubborn, misleading, and unyielding, but so wretched that they accept endless degradation for one pleasure; unbending but so mean as to kiss the feet of devilish people for a base advantage. They are conceited and domineering, but, unable to find any point of support in their hearts, are utterly impotent and vainglorious tyrants. Such people are no more than self-centered egoists striving to gratify their material and carnal desires, pursuers of personal interests and certain national interests.

Sincere students of the Qur’an are worshipping servants of God. They do not degrade themselves by bowing in worship before even the greatest of the created. They are dignified servants who do not worship in order to obtain a benefit, even Paradise. They are modest students, mild and gentle, who only lower themselves voluntarily to their Creator, never exceeding what He has permitted. They are aware of their weakness and need, but are independent because the Munificent Owner provides them with spiritual wealth. Relying on their Master’s infinite Power, they are powerful. They act and strive purely for God’s sake and pleasure, and to be equipped with virtue. The training given by philosophy and the Qur’an may be understood through the above comparison.

Third fundamental

Moral training in human social life: Philosophy considers force to be the point of support in social life, and life as the realization of self-interest (its goal) and conflict (its principle). A community’s unifying bonds are race and aggressive nationalism, and its fruits are the gratification of carnal desires and increased need. Force calls for aggression, seeking self-interest causes battles over material resources, and conflict brings strife. Racism feeds by swallowing others, thereby paving the way for aggression. This is why humanity is not happy.

The Qur’an accepts right as the point of support in social life. The aim is virtue and God’s approval, and its principle is mutual assistance. The only community bonds it accepts are those of religion, profession, and country. Its aim is to control and thus weaken carnal desires by urging the soul to sublime matters, satisfying our exalted feelings so that we will strive for human perfection and true humanity. Right calls for unity, virtues bring solidarity, and mutual assistance means helping each other. Religion secures brotherhood, sisterhood, and cohesion. Restraining our desires and urging the soul to perfection brings happiness in both worlds.

The increasing use of e-learning methods and virtual university environments have focused researchers attention on the Socratic method: Playing students with questions and then demanding that they discover, organize, and structure their own responses to the problems posed in an attempt to overcome the constraints of traditional methods.(1) Socrates also believed that students could be successful only if they accepted responsibility and took the initiative.

The Web’s 1992 advent represents a watershed in the development of online education. Its user-friendly nature made the Internet accessible to the general public, and its powerful graphic capabilities expanded the range of disciplines that could be offered online by enabling virtual labs, studios, animations, and so on.(2) Currently, e-learning allows people to learn anywhere and usually at any time, as long as the computer being used is configured properly. With its available text, video, audio, animation, and virtual environments, its self-paced, hands-on nature has the potential to offer a more enriching level of training than students might experience in a crowded classroom.

E-learning methods

Contemporary e-learning methods contain elements of the Socratic model. Students select, organize, and structure the information in order to accomplish selected tasks. They see the functional value of what they are learning while they are learning, and benefit from working directly with the content.

The virtual university (VU) concept enables the application of e-learning methods in a wide range of fields. VU is a customized Web-based learning environment that delivers online education and seeks to support active, collaborative learning and cross-disciplinary knowledge-building.(3) Knowledge-building is the intentional process of solving problems progressively and developing and acquiring expertise.(4)

In a traditional instruction system, only the instructor is the active learner, for teaching someone else is a powerful way to learn. By selecting, organizing, and structuring the information for a group of students, instructors benefit by working with and mastering the content for themselves.(5) Students are only passive consumers of the content.

E-learning, a revised and updated form of discovery learning, is a student-centered learning approach based on knowledge-building. In this active learning environment, students encounter experiences that enable them to construct personal knowledge through problem-solving and experimentation.(6) These knowledge-building principles work particularly well in an e-learning setting, because e-learning provides memorable events. It is more likely that these events will come to mind as learners are challenged by on-the-job or real-life problems.

Intuitively, e-learning falls into four categories, as follows:

-Knowledge databases: These databases, the most basic forms of e-learning, offer indexed explanations, guidance, and step-by-step instructions for performing specific tasks.

-Online support: This comes in the form of forums, chat rooms, online bulletin boards, e-mail, or live instant-messaging support. It is slightly more interactive than knowledge databases.

-Asynchronous training (time independent): Such self-paced learning may include access to instructors through online bulletin boards and discussion groups, as well as e-mail.

-Synchronous training (time dependent): This consists of real-time training with a live instructor facilitating the training. Everyone logs in at a set time and can communicate directly with the instructor and with each other.

The VU must attain a high level of quality if it is to succeed in meeting local needs and competing internationally. Today, any VU is, by default, global. Hence, issues of quality are a key competitive advantage. The keys to successful e-learning are as follows:

-Vary content type: Images, sounds, and text work together to build memory in several areas of the brain and result in better retention. Mix images with words, or sounds (e.g., voices or music) with images.

-Create attention-grabbing interaction: Games, quizzes, and even required manipulation of something on the screen creates more interest, which in turn builds better retention by using multiple types of media.

-Provide immediate feedback: E-learning courses can build in immediate feedback to correct misunderstood material.

-Encourage interaction with other e-learners and an e-instructor: Chat rooms, discussion boards, instant messaging, and e-mail all offer effective interaction for e-learners, and do a good job of replacing classroom discussion.(7) Building an online community significantly influences the success of online programs.

E-learning benefits

E-learning has definite benefits over traditional classroom training. (8) While the most obvious are the flexibility and the cost savings from not having to travel or spend excess time away from work, there are also others that might not be so obvious. For example:

-Less expensive to produce: E-learning is virtually free after reaching the break-even point.

-Self-paced: Most e-learning programs can be taken when needed. Going through it at one’s own pace helps avoid missing information if, for example, the student has to leave the class or does not understand exactly what the teacher is saying. This is one reason why e-learning is so effective.

-Faster paced: This individualized approach allows learners to skip material they already know and understand and move on to new material.

-Consistent message: E-learning eliminates problems associated with different instructors teaching slightly different material on the same subject.

-Availability at any location and time: E-learners can work training sessions into their schedules, now that they are freed from traveling to and sitting in classrooms.

-Interactivity: This can assume the form of simply clicking on appropriate responses to questions, clicking to animate an object or start a process, or dragging and dropping items to practice a skill. Training-related interactive games are a very effective way of improving learning.

-Updated easily and quickly: This is especially easy, since all one has to do is upload the updated materials to a server.

-Increased retention and a stronger grasp of the material: Many elements, such as video, audio, quizzes, and interaction, are combined in e-learning to reinforce the message. Being motivated to learn is half the battle. Knowing that the course contains some fun elements like video, audio, animation, and gaming scenarios increases interest and curiosity. This, too, leads to better retention and faster learning.

-Easily managed: This is especially true in the case of large student groups.

Conclusion

Learning is both a social and an intensely personal activity. E-learning can enhance both elements, for unlike tell-and-test learning, e-learning builds a cognitive network of understanding. Electronic media-supported discovery learning provides a safe, private, and non-embarrassing environment for learning about hazardous systems, conditions, and operations. Such an environment encourages simulated experimentation and underscores the importance of proper procedures in the real world.

Footnotes

1. Michael Allen, How To Make Learning Active and Student-centered, e-Learning Magazine (Jan. 2002).
2. Linda Harasim, The Future of E(Learning) (keynote address at University of Warwick [UK], CAL 2001 Conference).
3. M. Bakardjieva and Linda Harasim. Collaborative Meaning-making in Computer Conferences: A Socio-cultural Perspective, in Proceedings from the Ed-Media Ed-Telecom conference in Freiburg, Germany (Charlottesville, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education, 1998).
4. Linda Harasim, What Are We Learning about Teaching and Learning Online-and so what? : Lessons from the Virtual-U Field Trial, (keynote speech presented at the Third Annual TeleLearning Conference, Vancouver, Canada, November 1998).
5. A. Feenberg, Distance Learning: Promise or Threat (1999). Online at:www-rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/feenberg/TELE3.HTM.
6. Milton Campos and Linda Harasim, Virtual-U: Results and Challenges of Unique Field Trials: Technical Report (2001).
7. Milton Campos, Conditional Reasoning: A Key to Assessing Computer-based Knowledge-building Communication Processes, Journal of Universal Computer Science 4, no. 4 (1998): 404-28.
8. A. Breuleux, T. Laferrière, and R. Bracewell, Networked Learning Communities in Teacher Education, (1998). Online at: www.coe.uh.edu/insite/elec_pub/HTML1998/ts_breu.htm.

Autism is four to five times more prevalent in boys than girls and knows no racial, ethnic, or social boundaries.(1) Family income, life-style, and educational levels play no role in determining whether the child will be autistic or not. Kanner observed that many of the children with autism seen in clinic came from well-educated, intelligent parents from the middle and upper social classes.(2) Surveys conducted in different countries concluded that between 2 and 4 children in every 10,000 develop autism, usually in the ratio of 3 or 4 boys to each girl. The Autism Society of America’s (ASA) equivalent estimate is 300,000 to 400,000 individuals in America.(3)

Diagnosing Autism

Autism impacts the brain’s normal development in areas of social interaction and communication skills. Autistic children and adults typically have difficulties in verbal and nonverbal communication, social interaction, and leisure or play activities. The disorder makes it hard for them to communicate with others and relate to the outside world. Sometimes, aggressive and/or self-injurious behavior also may be present. Autistic people may exhibit repeated body movements (hand flapping, rocking), unusual responses to people or attachments to objects, and resistance to changes in routines. Individuals also may experience sensitivities in sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste.(4)

Current research links autism to biological or neurological differences in the brain. Such medical conditions as phenylketonuria (PKU), tuberous sclerosis, and fragile X syndrome have been identified in some autistic children.(5) But not everyone with these conditions becomes autistic. As there are no medical tests for diagnosing autism, an accurate diagnosis requires observing the individual’s communication, behavior, and developmental levels. However, because many behaviors associated with autism are shared by such other disorders as mental handicaps and Asperger’s syndrome, various medical tests must be tried to rule out or identify other possible causes of the exhibited symptoms.

Since the disorder’s characteristics are so varied, ideally a child should be evaluated by a multidisciplinary team consisting of, among others, a neurologist, a psychologist, a developmental pediatrician, a speech/language therapist, a learning consultant, or another professional knowledgeable about autism. Diagnosis is difficult for practitioners with limited training or exposure to autism, and misdiagnoses do occur. Difficulties in recognizing and acknowledging this condition often lead to a lack of services to meet an autistic individual’s complex needs.

A brief observation in one setting cannot present a true picture of an individual’s abilities and behaviors. Parental (and other caregivers’) input and developmental history are important components of an accurate diagnosis. At first, some autistic people may appear mentally retarded, have a behavior disorder or a hearing problem, or even odd and eccentric behavior. To complicate matters further, these conditions can occur together with autism. However, autism must be distinguished from other conditions, since an accurate diagnosis and early identification can provide the basis for devising an appropriate and effective educational and treatment program.

Indications of Autism

Children within the pervasive developmental disorder spectrum often appear relatively normal in their development until the age of 24-30 months, when parents may notice delays in language, play, or social interaction. By themselves, any such delay would not result in a diagnosis of a pervasive developmental disorder. Autism is a combination of several developmental challenges. The following areas are among those that may be affected by autism (6):

Communication: Develops language skills slowly or not at all, uses words without attaching the usual meanings, communicates with gestures instead of words, and has a short attention span.

Social Interaction: Spends time alone, shows little interest in making friends, and is less responsive to such social cues as eye contact or smiles.

Sensory Impairment: May be sensitive to sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste.

Play: Shows a lack of spontaneous or imaginative play, does not imitate others’ actions, and does not initiate pretend games.

Behavior: May be overactive or very passive; throw tantrums for no apparent reason; show an obsessive interest in one item, idea, activity, or person; exhibit an apparent lack of common sense; may show aggression to others or self; and often has difficulty with changes in routine.

Some autistic individuals may have other disorders that affect the brain’s functioning (e.g., epilepsy, mental retardation, Down’s syndrome) or genetic disorders (e.g., fragile X, Landau-Kleffner, William’s, or Tourette’s syndromes). Many of those diagnosed with autism will test in the range of mental retardation. Approximately 25-30 percent may develop a seizure pattern at some point.(7)

As every autistic person is an individual having a unique personality and combination of characteristics, those affected show great differences. For example, some mildly affected individuals may exhibit only slight delays in language and greater challenges with social interactions. They might find it hard to initiate or maintain a conversation. Communication is often described as talking at others.

Autistic people process and respond to information uniquely. Educators and other service providers must consider each autistic person’s pattern of learning strengths and difficulties, when assessing learning and behavior, to ensure effective intervention. Individuals with autism can learn when information about how they receive and express information is addressed and implemented in their programs.

Their abilities may fluctuate daily due to difficulties in concentration, processing, or anxiety. Those who show evidence of learning one day may give no such indication the next day. Changes in external stimuli and anxiety also can affect learning. They may have average or above-average verbal, memory, or spatial skills but find it difficult to be imaginative or join in activities. Individuals with more severe challenges may require intensive support to manage the basic tasks and needs of daily life.(8)

Contrary to popular understanding, many autistic children and adults may make eye contact, show affection, smile and laugh, and exhibit other emotions, although in varying degrees.(9) Like other children, they respond to their environment in both positive and negative ways. Autism may affect their range of responses and make it harder to control how their bodies and minds react. Sometimes visual, motor, and/or processing problems make it difficult to maintain eye contact. Some autistic individuals use peripheral vision rather than looking directly at others.(10) Sometimes another person’s touch or closeness results in withdrawal even from family members. Anxiety, fear, and confusion may result from being unable to make sense of the world in a routine way.

Therapies

Therapies are available, among them applied behavior analysis, auditory integration training, dietary intervention, discrete trial teaching, medication, music therapy, occupational therapy, the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS), physical therapy, sensory integration, speech/language therapy, Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communication Handicapped Children (TEACCH), and vision therapy. There are various approaches to psychological therapies, and each one follows a different path. Behavioral therapy would stress shaping such adaptive behaviors as toilet training and decreasing mal-adaptive behavior, analyzing behavior through its causes and consequences to identify factors that would reward or encourage appropriate behavior, and discouraging disruptive behavior. Rewards are usually based on the patient’s values.

Behavioral therapy seems to be the most effective, for it replaces inappropriate behavior with appropriate behavior and helps the person fit into society. Psychotherapy probably would not be very helpful, for it is based on the principle that parents must become better parents if the child is to develop emotionally. As parents cannot cause their child’s autism, this premise is invalid.(11)

Functioning in Society

Autistic adults can benefit from vocational training by acquiring job-related skills, and from social and recreational programs. They can live in settings ranging from an independent home or apartment to group homes, supervised apartment settings, with other family members, or in a more structured residential care. More autistic adult support groups are emerging around the country. Many self-advocates form networks to share information, support each other, and speak for themselves in the public arena. They frequently attend and/or speaking at conferences and workshops on autism. Others provide valuable insight into this disability’s challenges by publishing articles and books and appearing in television specials about themselves and their disabilities.(12)

TEACCH, a program established by Eric Schopler in North Carolina and widely used in America, includes language- and behavior-focused intervention programs, as well as school and other agency consultation.(13) This treatment also works with parents by encouraging parent training and counseling or facilitating parent support groups.

With appropriate treatment, some behaviors associated with autism may change or diminish over time. Communication and social deficits continue in some form throughout life, but other difficulties may fade or change with age, education, or level of stress. The person often begins to use skills in natural situations and to participate in a broader range of interests and activities. Many autistic individuals enjoy their lives and make meaningful contributions to their community. People with autism can learn to compensate for and cope with their disability quite well.

Studies show that autistic people respond well to highly structured, specialized education programs tailored to their needs.(14) A well-designed intervention may include some elements of communication therapy, social skills development, sensory integration therapy, and applied behavior analysis delivered by trained professionals in a consistent, comprehensive, and coordinated way. The more severe challenges of some autistic children may be best addressed by a structured education and behavior program featuring a one-on-one teacher-to-student ratio or a small group environment. However, many other autistic children may succeed in a fully inclusive general education environment if they receive appropriate support.

Some autistic adults live and work independently, drive a car, earn a college degree, or get married. Others may be fairly independent and only need some support for daily pressures, while some depend on a great deal of support from family and professionals.

In addition to appropriate educational supports, autistic students should receive training in functional living skills at the earliest possible age. Learning to cross a street safely, buying something, or asking for help are critical skills that may be hard even for those of average intelligence. Tasks that enhance the person’s independence and give more opportunity for personal choice and freedom are important.

To be effective, an approach should be flexible, rely on positive reinforcement, be re-evaluated regularly, and provide a smooth transition from home to school to community environments. A good program also incorporates parent and caregiver training and support systems, along with general skills for all settings. Rarely can a family, teacher, or other caregiver provide effective help unless offered consultation or in-service training by an experienced specialist who is knowledgeable about autism.

Research into this puzzling condition continues. According to the Associated Press, (Nov. 28, 2000): Scientists have long theorized that about (15) different genes play a role … and now they’ve finally found one of those genes… The NIH [National Institutes of Health] called the finding a significant step in understanding what predisposes people to developing autism.15

Footnotes

1. http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/aut.html.
2. Simon Baron-Cohen and Patrick Bolton, Autism: The Facts (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
3. Ibid.
4. Michael Rutter and Eric Schopler, Autism, A Reappraisal of Concepts and Treatment (New York: Plenum Press, 1976).
5. Baron-Cohen and Bolton, Autism.
6. Rutter and Schopler, Autism.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Baron-Cohen and Bolton, Autism.
12. Rutter and Schopler, Autism.
13. Eric Schopler, Ph.D., is a professor of psychology, editor of the Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, and author of numerous books and articles on autism. TEACCH is the nation’s first and only comprehensive statewide program for the treatment and education of autistic and communication-handicapped children. (www.autism-society.org/package/edkids-erics.html) He developed TEACCH in the early 1970s. Also see Rutter and Schopler, Autism.
14. Ibid.
15. www.foxnews.com/scitech/112800/autism.sml.

Definition of Superior Intelligence

Superior intelligence results from the rapid operation on a high level of such brain functions as the senses, feelings, thought, intuition and inspiration. These functions appear in the form of the ability to think quickly and correctly, creativity, academic aptitude, leadership and talent in the visual and applied arts.

According to research findings, a large percentage (of the order of 85%) of superior intelligence is passed on from one generation to another through heredity. At the same time, environmental factors like education are extremely important for effective usage of superior intelligence and turning it into ‘genius’.

Characteristics of Superior Intelligence

We can divide these characteristics into four main groups: (a) reasoning power; (b) emotional attributes; (c) intuition; (d) social skills.

a)Reasoning Power

Possessing a lot of knowledge and not forgetting it.

High level of comprehension. (Comprehending the whole from its part.)

An unusual level of interest and curiosity in different subjects and asking a lot of questions.

Superior usage of language, large vocabulary and high language aptitude.

Fast thinking, rapid advancement and reaching conclusions quickly.

Flexible and different thought.

Broad synthesizing ability.

The ability to see strange, unusual and different relationships.

Ability to produce original ideas and solutions.

Early and rapid development in making generalizations, feeling results, abstract thinking and creating alternatives.

Stubborn, decisive, goal-oriented and sometimes even adventurous behavior.

Working in a disciplined manner, independent and usually rebellious behavior.

Easily bored, searching for things to do, and not staying idle.

Choosing complex and mixed things and enjoying debate.

Expecting interest, liking to be honored and talking a lot.

b) Emotional Attributes

Very sensitive to others. Sensing others’ thoughts.

Strange sense of humor. (This can sometimes offend or make others uncomfortable.)

Feeling different and trying to make others aware of.

Obvious idealism at an early age.

Deep feelings, emotional Perfectionism.(Consequently not liking themselves or others.)

Showing extraordinary success in some subjects.

Great interest in the unknown and mysterious subjects.

High concentration ability, seriousness.

Paying little attention to others’ rules.

Bringing up everywhere issues he deems vital.

c) Senses and Intuitive Powers

Extreme sensibility (regarding colors, sounds, smells, etc.)

An abnormal rate of physical and intellectual advancement.

Refusing to take part in physical activities where they are not successful, and avoiding competitive physical activities.

Displaying a lot of talent in one of the fine arts. (Even with no training.)

Beginning to think about metaphysical events before others of their age group, philosophical attitudes, strange thoughts, etc.

Poetical expression, beautiful and literary statements.

Productive in subjects requiring initiative and struggle.

Inner depth and loneliness resulting from it.

Giving importance to theoretical and esthetic values.

High level of love, eagerness, desire and sincere effort.

Frequently being absorbed in thought, strong imagination.

d) Social attributes

Realizing their wishes and early personality development.

Recommending good and sound solutions to social problems.

Leadership, setting up groups, making teams and directing.

Diagnosing and understanding social problems correctly.

Showing interest in high values like social justice, beauty and truth.

Possessing virtues.

High-level sense of justice.

Self-trust and decisiveness.

Preferring older friends.

All of the characteristics listed above may not be found in each individual student with superior intelligence. It is the accepted view that these students will display a superior performance in one or more of these fields. Those with superior characteristics who are supported with a good environment and strong education can emerge as ‘geniuses’ in society years later.

Characteristics of Teachers

Personal Character

They have strong egos. They are honorable, proud and strong willed; they give value and trust to the selves. They give as much value and importance to others as they do to themselves, and they respect, support and trust others.

They have above average intelligence.

They are flexible and open to new ideas.

They are interested in intellectual, literary and cultural subjects.

They strive for more knowledge and renewal; they are obsessed with success.

They are full of love, eagerness, effort and willingness.

They have strong intuition and are sensitive and understanding.

They seek perfection and are committed to it.

They act consciously and take on responsibility.

Professional Tendencies

They guide rather than using pressure and force.

They prefer to be democratic rather than authoritarian.

They concentrate on the process more than the results.

They favour novelty and experiment rather than rules and tradition.

They act quickly to achieve specific results and can solve problems.

Rather than answering questions, they use the method of securing answers from others.

Teaching Behaviour

They develop and implement programs of their own that are flexible and emphasize the desires of the individual.

They develop a warm, welcoming and tolerant atmosphere.

They implement strategies differing from one individual to another.

They respect people’s images and support positive behavior; they respect their beliefs and values.

They keep the lesson’s intellectual level high.

They respect individualist behavior and personalities.

While being in full control of the subject matter they are handling, they don’t neglect to renew themselves and broaden their horizons.

They believe in, trust in, and co-operate with their students.

Even if would-be teachers of students with superior intelligence do not possess all the characteristics mentioned, with time and training they can acquire them. The development of a sufficient number of them will take time and commitment. Generally a certain period of professional experience, the impression made during this experience and its results can be accepted as criteria in qualifying teachers for exceptionally gifted students. Other steps to be taken in the training of teachers for this field are seminars in university educational psychology departments in order to pass on the latest developments and to make it easier for teachers to get to know their students and so guide them effectively. Also special certificate programs or masters and doctoral programs can be set up. In the USA minimum qualifications for teachers in these schools are a doctoral degree and two years of professional training.

The personal computer industry has created an enthusiastic, ever-growing market for multimedia technology for use in homes and businesses, the high profile of Internet (‘the data superhighway’) and continuing pressure to work and learn more efficiently have added to the demand for new concepts in education and training. The characteristics in demand are flexibility, user- friendliness and lower costs.

Ten years ago computers were command-driven and mostly used for simple tasks such as word-processing. These days graphical interfaces and user-friendly programming have revolutionized the old ‘cold face’ of computer working. Applications such as Windows, OS/2, and Mac Systems are now mouse-driven, capable of multi-tasking, and less intimidating for the novice. Computers are now used for CAD (Computer Aided Design), CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing), graphics, communication, automation, simulation, animation, and much more. Complex tasks are easier then ever before and have replaced human labour in many areas.

Development of new and better computers, local area networks (LANs). remote access software (especially ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) and ISDN (Integrated System Digital Network)), using the latest in leased and digital telephone lines, have opened up new horizons in working, teaching and learning practices. These developments in remote communication systems have greatly reduced the need to travel. Wide availability of this technology has changed the working practices of some companies fundamentally. Teleworking is recognized as a practical alternative to conventional office working. Video-conferencing facilities enable direct visual and audio contact between emote offices, and almost instantaneous information/document transfer. Working from home means not having to be in the office, more control over daily schedules, the freedom to live further from the workplace, and relief from the stresses (and costs) of commuting. The company benefits from reduced office rental and personnel costs: expertise and skills can he dialled up as needed,

Reduced hardware and software costs and increased computing power have extended and popularized teleworking applications. Medical specialists can now examine patients on a screen and give advice down a phone line: just such a link-up exists between some hospitals as far apart as the USA and Saudi Arabia. It is possible to attend a lecture without leaving one’s favourite chair, while still having the opportunity to ask questions and have them answered. ‘Distance learning’ technology has especially important implications for the disabled who can access education without the stress of getting to a class or (unless they want to) facing class-mates. New York University’s School of Continuing Education is building its own Virtual College. Other institutions, such as California Polytechnic and the New Jersey Institute of Technology, are exploring similar projects.

Interactive distance learning is not just a future project. In many isolated places in the USA school children already enjoy such facilities via dial-tip modems: they do not have to travel through rain and snow any more. And getting on to the school communications network does not cost the user any more than an ordinary telephone call.

In the past, computers in schools ate into school budgets without providing any appreciable return. In companies, investments in information technology were used mostly to automate old learning processes instead of to enable new ones. All that is starting to change. Enormous growth in CD-ROM drives, LANs and Internet connections, multimedia, and collaborative software environments, is fuelling a wave of new, better teaching tools. Networking enables virtual workgroups to be set up almost instantly. There are dial-in services that permit anytime/anyplace access to course materials and fellow students.

The technology promises more than just an improvement in educational productivity: it may deliver a qualitative change in the nature of learning itself. Because computers have no feelings, they make very patient teachers, incapable of exasperation or anger: and they can work 24 hours a day. Also, because they have enormous memory capacity and don’t make choices about what to remember, they can be responsive to questioning in many disciplines. The information they can offer can therefore be multi-disciplinary, multilevelled. Multimedia interactive packages exploit this to the benefit of system users. The consequence is a dramatic change in educational methods. Instead of a one-way information flow to the learner – typified by TV broadcast, video cassette or a teacher addressing a class of students passively taking notes – the new teaching techniques are two-way, collaborative, interactive, and interdisciplinary. Multimedia enables teaching material to change from a flat, one-dimensional text to something that moves, speaks, sings, has innumerable examples and references and lines of inquiry on hand if the individual user feels inclined to follow them up. Cut- and-paste features, now more or less standard, mean the user can compose notes, essays and reports which are just as lively and varied as the source he or she is accessing.

Studies on multimedia argue in favour of its effectiveness as a learning tool. The Software Publishers Association’s 1994 report on technology effectiveness cites accounts of measurable improvements from the use of animation, video, laser discs, CD-ROM books, and hypermedia. Cognitive studies show thaw people get 80 percent of their information visually but retain only 11 percent of that. They acquire significantly less through hearing but then remember a much higher proportion of it. A combination of the two methods is, unsurprisingly, the most effective of all boosting retention rates by as much as 50 percent. Therefore, the new system of ‘Education on demand’, in homes and on-the-job, is likely to become part of everyday learning activities.

Producing educational systems and materials has long been very big business in the world. The US spends $300 billion yearly on education from nursery through high school. More than half the schools in the country now use computers in almost every discipline, and 99 percent of schools have at least one computer. According to a report from IBM Academic Consulting, American institutions of higher education have spent an estimated $70 billion on computer-related goods and services over the past 15 years; of that amount, as much as $20 billion was for teaching and learning technology. Training magazine, in its annual industry survey, estimates that US corporations with more than 100 employees budgeted $51 billion for training in 1994. Some estimates put the total spending per year by all companies and their employees at $90 to $100 billion.

The Software Publishers Association’s Report on the Effectiveness of Technology in Schools, 1990-1994, a summary of 133 studies, found that educational technology clearly boosted student achievement, improved student attitudes and self-concept, and enhanced the quality of student-teacher relationships. In this area of learning, the most promising technologies are interactive video networking and collaboration tools. Computers are amazingly diligent teachers, they can stimulate creative thinking, promote enterprise, and sharpen curiosity. Of course, availability of hardware and software is not by itself the solution to current educational problems. Reaping the benefits of available technology first requires extensive teacher training, adapted or new curricula, and, most important, changes to educational models. Modern educational concepts emphasize individualized, hands-on learning: teamwork; and guided discovery of information. All of these require technological assistance, and they are almost impossible to achieve without the help of computers. It is right to note that for teacher training and for the preparation of individually designed course materials, the latest software packages, even with relatively little preparatory training, provide the appropriate tools.

The interactive technology has made education more accessible and more enjoyable. With the help of computers educators can tailor tutoring to the individuals own needs. There is more information about any topic these days than anybody can handle. Therefore, storing and retrieving readily available study materials on computers mean teachers can focus on explaining in form at ion instead ol conveying information. The implications of this transformation affect both students and teachers. Teachers become more like coaches, while students are free to discover knowledge on their own – they can browse, pick and choose what and how, and how fast, they want to learn.

Multimedia applications include analogue and digital video, 2-D and 3- D animation, audio, and even hyperlinks and digital links: CD-ROM discs and drives, graphics display hardware and sound cards. Digital signal processors for speech recognition and signal processing are starting to appear in desktop systems and will play an increasing role in learning systems. Given the enormous growth of CDROM-equipped PCs in homes, multimedia could soon become the key ‘crossover’ application linking the home and school markets.

Instead of the conventional broadcast model of distance learning, which requires participating students to watch a live video transmission via cable or satellite links or wait for days to receive a videotape in the mail, new schemes allow students to dial in at their convenience and participate in a class asynchronously. While it isn’t in real time, the opportunity for feedback and participation is enhanced by rich two-way communications channels.

The new employee-training concept of training on demand, learning while working. promises to bring information to employees at their workstations. Training as a separate centralized department in a company may soon be a thing of the past. The changing nature and growing diversity of the work force require new kinds of training in cultural sensitivity, communications skills, and problem solving. Employees are more geographically dispersed than in the past, and staff turnover is higher because companies and employees are less loyal to each other. Hardly anyone holds a job for life. Technology is evolving so quickly that skills require frequent refreshing. Taking workers to traditional classrooms means losing man-hours, heavier training costs and less hands-on training. Also, employee-training is a risky investment, given that the employee is free, after training, to go elsewhere. Companies are therefore trying to link learning to the job itself. This can take the form of expert systems integrated into the work area or even hand-held computers connected via wireless communications to a constantly updated information base. This kind of distant’ and ‘on-the-job’ learning is significantly less expensive than transporting employees to a central location, putting them up in hotels, and forfeiting their lost productivity. If the training material is distributed throughout the Local Area Network, trainees can pick it up for themselves. This increases retention of information and decreases learning time.

The single recent advance that is making the biggest difference in training and education is the Internet. It gives everybody easy access to information they cannot find locally or even, sometimes, nationally. Via Internet anybody can access almost any library resources in the world, talk to any interest groups or obtain any information from more than 30 million users in the Internet ‘community’. Thousands of Gopher, WWW, FTP, WAIS, ARCHIE servers offer terabytes of information on every subject imaginable. One can visit virtual galleries, virtual museums, virtual schools, virtual libraries, virtual communities, shop at virtual malls – and play games.

But, but….

Clearly the new technology facilitates access to information and in doing so makes many tasks easier, more agreeable, often more exciting. However, as we are all social beings, the importance of direct contact between people in the creation of the more subtle human skills should not be forgotten. Being paid for the efficient performance of tasks is not the only reason people work; they may also need to be out at work, away from their home-base, for purposes other than recreation, and to he physically part of a team. The sharing and exchange of experience between people. both in the context of the family and the work-place, is certainly instrumental in the creation of sound, responsible human character. That in turn is relevant to the capacity people have for making good’ decisions relating to their own and other people’s lives.

Information is not quite the same thing as knowledge, still less is knowledge to be confused with wisdom. Few parents can equal the capacity of television programmes, for example, to convey information to their children. Nevertheless, the role of parents in conveying (however indirectly and inexpertly) their experience of life to their children is the more decisive influence in moulding their children’s characters. It is certainly true that, in some families, children have more contact with the ‘present, immediate’ world of TV images than with the ‘past’ of their parents’ experience of life, but in these cases the TV is being abused, which is not the fault of the technology. Similarly, the new interactive multimedia information technologies should not be rejected because they might be abused. Rather, the dangers, the possible abuses, should be pondered and understood and proper regimes introduced to avoid the dangers. These new technologies are there and make available a vastly increased potential to get at and handle information. They cannot be a substitute for human relations, nor can they replace the learning and understanding that come through the experience of human relations.