There are many mysterious aspects of animal behavior which keep mesmerizing scientists. Zoologists dedicate their research to unravel these mysteries, not only to gain insights for our improvement, but also to understand the similarities and differences between animal and human behaviors. A great majority of human behaviors are learned after birth, guided by reason and choice, and even prime in accordance with the moral norms prevailing in society – the scope and nature of human development and the distance a human being covers throughout far exceeds that of animals.

Many of the daily activities carried out by humans and animals may look simple from the outside, but upon closer examination, we realize each to be pretty complex. Choosing the right nest for rest, ensuring the safety of offspring and food, even the seemingly straightforward task of finding the way back to the nest from long distances involve a series of complex actions fulfilled in the right order. Many animals engage in even more mysterious activities, such as exhibiting government-like social structures among bees, termites, and ants, navigating across long distances and determining migration routes, building nests with specific architectural designs, detecting and transporting nectar sources, making honeycombs, and many more. One can’t help but wonder the underlying algorithm that governs these mysterious behaviors. How are these social insects directed to do all these activities? Are these originating from the neurons in their brains or are they somehow inspired internally or guided by some kind of a revelation? How is the genetic basis processed and transmitted to offspring? What serves as the source of willpower, knowledge, and consciousness behind these algorithmic calculations?

The diversity and complexity of life challenge us to seek wisdom, and an all-comprehensive knowledge and power beyond a materialistic and naturalistic framework. Contrary to claims made by some scientists, attributing these astonishing behaviors to such a power opens doors to a wider range of research.

Measure, order, and algorithm

When we hear the word “algorithm,” we immediately think of the concepts of computation and programming. Algorithms are at the heart of many branches of mathematics and engineering, and they appear in many aspects of modern daily life. Examples of algorithms are found on internet search engines such as Google, smartphones, route orientation with geographic positioning (GPS), voice recognition and more. Navigation apps in your car use complex algorithms to calculate the most efficient route to the desired destination, determining which of several possible routes will be the fastest. And of course, we all acknowledge the fact that such algorithms are not there as a result of a blind material process happening by chance; they are each a product of intelligence and are there for a reason.

Animal architecture

Spiders are one of the master engineers of the book of nature. Take, for instance, the golden orb weaver spider, equipped with seven types of silk glands producing six strands. These threads serve diverse purposes, from weaving webs, to wrapping prey and shielding eggs. Despite great efforts and expenses, mankind has yet to replicate materials equivalent to these spider silks, known for their strength surpassing that of steel of the same thickness, more stretchable than rubber, and adhesive properties superior to most tapes. The algorithms governing these specialized productions by spiders are encoded in their genomes. While a multitude of genes may serve as visible “causes” for such behaviors, they do not provide satisfactory answers for discerning minds and hearts seeking to understand how, for instance, spiders possess the chemical formula for silk and the engineering knowledge behind their intricate webs.

Social insects

Zoologists classify bees, termites, and ants as “social insects” due to their intricate societal structures that operate akin to a government, displaying mind-boggling functionalities within their colonies. How is this phenomenon possible? Did these insects learn to establish a “state” through a process of trial and error and education over many years? How many attempts and failures did it take for them to reach this level of sophistication?

Desert ants have brains roughly a quarter the size of honeybees’ brains. Despite this size difference, studies of their foraging trips reveal a remarkable ability for pathway integration. This capacity is not learned but rather innate, instilled in them naturally. In addition to identifying factors such as sight-based landmarks, fragment details on their routes, a solar compass, a biological clock and an odometer, these ants also use the detection of odors and the sense of chemotaxis (turning to a chemical substance) near a food source. Research shows that ants are also programmed to use which navigation method is suitable for certain meteorological conditions.

It requires an incredible technology to digitally encode the programs transmitted by neurons that underlie both individual behavioral characteristics and the integration of honeybees into the hive community. The Asian honeybee (Apis cerana) is a community based on cooperation. It has only one female and a few males that are reproductively active. In this community the non-breeding individuals care for the young or maintain the group. A genome study of this species showed that they consist of 10,651 genes, about 20% (2,182) of which are unique (not found in other bees). These genes did not exhibit commonalities with the Western Honeybee (Apis mellifera), just as they didn’t in other insects that live individually. This contradicts the claims of some scientists who argued that these two species diverged from a common ancestor one or two million years ago. The average length of the Asian Honeybee genes was determined to be 7,577 base pairs. The challenge lies in the fact that for significant beneficial mutations to occur in more than two thousand genes of this length, it would require millions of years, far exceeding the timeline proposed by these scientists.

Honeybees are tasked with many vital activities, including selecting and synthesizing building materials for honeycombs and the entire hive, repairing honeycombs, caring for the brood, and regulating hive temperature. All of these critical elements within a bee colony are interdependent, forming a complex system of behavior, that is irreducible. Attributing this perfect system solely to nature and blind chance, without acknowledging its irreducible complexity, puts an already difficult task in a complete bind. Similar to animal migration, the interdependence and integration of numerous programmed behavioral systems invalidate explanations solely based on mere chance.

Bees operate within a radius of 50-60 km², utilizing various methods—such as sight-based landmarks, the solar compass, and the polarized light compass—to determine direction based on weather conditions. When a “scout” bee returns from exploration, it performs a “swing dance” within the hive, conveying the compass direction and distance to the flower location. Remarkably, this intricate process occurs in the bee brain, which has only 950,000 neurons, compared to the human brain with 85-90 billion neurons. The question arises: Could such a process, involving engineering calculations and complex algorithmic encoding emerge spontaneously in the pinhead-size brains of honeybees? To claim this is tantamount to believing that the construction materials of a multistory building could come together without an engineer, seemingly orchestrating the process independently.

Although termites are similar to bees as social insects, they display qualities that are unique in many ways. Termite communities are structured as multi-generational family groups, where the majority of members collaborate to support a few leaders, occasionally just a single leader. They exhibit remarkable behaviors, constructing mound-shaped nests with impeccable architecture. They employ war tactics to safeguard the gardens where they cultivate mushrooms from potential threats. Additionally, they adeptly control ventilation shafts to regulate the humidity and temperature within the nest. These complex

In mushroom-growing termite communities (Macrotermitinae), the young termites consume both collected plant material and fungal spores. Symbiotic gut bacteria then assist in partially digesting the plant-fungus mixture before excreted as feces. The fungi continue to grow and break down new sources of plant material introduced by older worker termites. From a materialistic perspective, scientists may argue that this tripartite relationship between termites, the bacterial community, and the fungus gradually develops over time. However, explaining how three distinct genomes evolved together to promote this symbiosis poses a challenge. This intricate relationship involves numerous genes from all three species, making it highly improbable that multiple mutations in three different and independent genomes could have occurred in harmony.

Navigation and migration

In migrating animals, the amount of fat they consume for the duration of their journey is crucial. Storing too much fat can lead to fatigue due to excess weight, while too little fat may result in running out of fuel midway through the journey. The balance of fat is essential for the success of their migration. Birds, for instance, are able to choose the route with optimum distance using a compass system that detects polarized light, enabling them to determine the position of the Sun even on cloudy days. Additionally, birds ensure they select the safest route, considering challenging weather conditions like storms, clouds, and rain. Birds can follow a real navigation map based on the positions of stars, detect the earth’s magnetic field, and perceive information about its density and tilt, allowing them to identify latitudes. The black-billed shearwater, for instance, covers 10,000 km with navigation precision surpassing that of a commercial cargo plane.

The challenge of distance calculations on the spherical shape of the Earth is addressed by long-distance migratory birds using a form of knowledge related to spherical geometry, which is intricate due to the absence of straight lines. Consequently, standard (Euclidean) geometry doesn’t apply, leading mathematicians to use complex spherical trigonometry for calculations. The intriguing aspect is that we are uncertain how animals, often with relatively small brains, can perform such complex calculations for navigation. Humans, with their larger brains and high intelligence, achieve similar feats using advanced mathematical concepts. It suggests that migratory birds possess an innate programming designed specifically for these navigational tasks

Elucidating the origin of the genetic programming underlying complex migratory behaviors poses a substantial challenge when solely attributing it to material causes and chance. Consider, for example, the legendary migrations of monarch butterflies. During their collective journey spanning four or five thousand kilometers, sometimes two or three generations of migratory birds travel together under cloudy skies, relying on the innate solar compass bestowed upon them by their creation. How much information is needed to be encoded in the genome of a supposedly evolving butterfly for this migration? In fact, when the genomes of migratory monarch butterflies are compared to those of non-migratory monarch butterflies, it has been revealed that more than 500 genes are involved in migration behavior.

The presence of evidence for the role of epigenetics, in addition to genetics, in the migratory behavior of some animals suggests a comprehensive source of knowledge that encompasses all environmental and genetic characteristics. This source conducts changes in a coordinated manner at multiple levels. It becomes challenging to characterize this process as purely scientific if we assert that coordinated genome changes, executed with infallible and perfect precision, could occur through a blind and untargeted process.

Even seemingly simple animal behavior has a genetic basis. In a behavioral study, the sea snail (Aplysia californicus) exhibits a reaction by retracting its gill and siphon into the body mantle when poked. With repeated poking, the snail gradually becomes accustomed to the stimulus, and its reaction diminishes over time. It has been established that this simple habituation response in the sea snail is carried out through a network of about three hundred neurons, including sensory neurons, locomotion neurons, and interneurons. If a basic guard reflex behavior is so neurologically complex, then much more complex programmed behaviors must logically rely on more complex neural mechanisms. Where do we attribute the origin of genetically encoded algorithms and neurological controls that underlie such intricate animal behavior? Specifically, what skilled engineer could have designed and optimized the layout needed to incorporate these algorithms into such small brains?

In conclusion, these intricate systems are encoded in the genomes of various animals, including butterflies, bees, ants, sea turtles, and birds. While some animal behaviorists refer to these complex programmed behaviors as “instincts,” the sophisticated and highly integrated programming, along with the rich algorithms found in the micro-brains of social insects and other animals, strongly suggests a source of infinite knowledge and a teleological orientation. Attributing this perfect organization to God is not an obstacle to knowledge and further research.

People have different tastes when it comes to food. Some like it hot while others dote on sour things. Still, others opt for mixing hot food with dessert. Similarly, the wasp also has a very striking palate. Dr. Gudrun Herzner from the University of Regensburg, Germany, and his team conducted research on wasp and cockroaches and came up with some interesting information on food and hygiene [1].

Cockroaches on the menu

The animals that feed on cockroaches face serious risks, as their preys may contain various microbes in their tissues or bodies, due to their living conditions. Among the animals with unique and curious tastes that fall into this risk category are wasps. Actually, it is not the wasp itself, but its larva, that has a stunning palate.

Both males and females of the emerald cockroach wasp Ampulex compressa have similar characteristics with other species in their family. Yet, female wasps of this species resort to a mind-boggling process for reproduction. As written in their genetic codes, the female wasp first selects a cockroach that will serve as a source of easy food for its larvae.

A surgery of its own

The wasp’s first move is to sting the belly or neck of the cockroach, injecting a specialized blend of venom produced in its glands. The first injection partially paralyzes the cockroach, allowing it only to bend its legs. As a result, the insect is immobilized and unable to flee and, more importantly, its head movement is impeded. Before comprehending the situation, the cockroach receives a second injection directly into a special area of its brain.

Despite its typical response of fleeing from danger or risk, the cockroach appears to challenge the wasp while under the influence of the venom. This seemingly courageous act is not due to the insect’s bravery; scientists have discovered that the wasp’s venom suppresses the activity of octopamine, a neurotransmitter. As a result, the insect loses its capacity for complex voluntary movements, but it can still be guided in a certain direction.

One might wonder: Would the venom, with its unique composition, produce the same effect if injected into another part of the cockroach? Painstaking studies on this matter revealed that the wasp’s sting precisely targets a specific section of the brain by penetrating the chitin shell. Similar to a surgeon using laparoscopy in surgery, the wasp uses the hairy sensors located on both sides of its sting to pinpoint the target area in the prey’s brain. It maneuvers the sting in various directions until it reaches a relatively narrow region of the brain containing the motor neurons. Once the venom is precisely delivered to the targeted part of the brain, it loses its ability to execute complex movements that rely on brain and neural coordination, such as walking and running. Simultaneously, it transforms into a zombie, capable of movement only under external influence. With mind-blowing guidance, the wasp seizes the cockroach’s antenna and steers it towards its nest, akin to a handler guiding a horse with reins. This method allows the wasp to avoid the cumbersome task of transporting the weighty burden of the cockroach, which will serve as both nourishment and a cradle for its larvae. Is it possible for a wasp, devoid of scientific knowledge and comprehensive consciousness, to carry out these intricate processes independently?

As the complex mechanism culminates, the enigmatic climax of a cinematic saga unfolds, featuring the female wasp.

“Mom, feed me fresh meat”

The female wasp completes its duty by delicately situating its larva on the belly of the paralyzed cockroach. It then proceeds to seal the nest using small stones, crafting a home that will cater to the needs of the larva and provide it with sustenance until it matures into a fully-fledged wasp. Roughly three days after the larva is deposited, the paralytic impacts of the chemical blend in the cockroach’s brain begin to diminish. However, it is now compelled to serve a profound purpose. During this period, the larva of the wasp consumes the nutritious internal organs of the cockroach, akin to the richness of breast milk in terms of nutrients. Surprisingly, the cockroach remains alive throughout this process. Who imparts the knowledge to the ignorant wasp larva on what and how to consume? The larva gradually feeds on the fresh bounty provided for about a week. Once it has devoured all the cockroach’s internal organs, the emptied chitinous exoskeleton of the cockroach serves as a dwelling for the larva, within which it begins to construct a cocoon. Upon completing its transformation inside the cocoon, the wasp emerges as an adult.

A lesson on hygiene

Upon hatching, the wasp larva infiltrates the cockroach’s body, which presents an incredibly hostile environment. Teeming with spoilage and potentially pathogenic microorganisms, cockroaches typically inhabit unsanitary conditions, leaving them susceptible to various digestive and pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses. The question remains: how does the wasp larva manage to survive amidst such conditions? Dr. Herzner from the University of Regensburg in Germany found inspiration in this query. Together with his team, Herzner devised a unique experiment that involved comparing the microorganisms found on a regular cockroach with those on the tissues of a cockroach harboring parasitic wasp larvae, meticulously monitoring the larval stages throughout.

Special sauce on the menu

The scientists aimed to uncover the defensive strategy employed by the larvae against the microbes within their hosts. For this purpose, they closely monitored 8-day-old larvae within their hosts through small apertures in the abdominal cuticle. The researchers observed that the larvae secreted oral fluids before feeding on their living hosts. They noticed that the larvae deposited clear droplets of secretion on the host’s tissue and then spread them across the surface.

It seemed as though the larvae were adding a special sauce to the fresh meat, perhaps to make it more delectable. Dr. Herzner and his research team, driven by curiosity, subjected the secreted droplets as well as other liquids to a specialized analysis method. The comparative chemical analysis conducted on substances extracted from parasitized and healthy cockroaches uncovered two compounds: an isocoumarin derivative called mellein and micromolide. If the larvae weren’t producing these secretions for the purpose of aiding in the digestion of the fresh meat, one might wonder why they excrete droplets containing mellein and micromolide. Could it be possible for inanimate atoms to combine and generate such complex molecules independently, without any knowledge of the needs of the wasp larvae? The initial hypothesis put forth by the research team was that the oral secretions from the larvae function as a protective measure against the microbes within their hosts. To investigate this proposition, the researchers devised a nutrient-rich broth medium conducive to the growth and proliferation of microbes. They discovered that the addition of mellein and micromolide to the broth medium inhibited the growth of isolated Gram-negative S. marcescens and Gram-positive S. hyicus, which are known to propagate rapidly in this medium and cause intestinal ailments [2].

The study indicated that wasp larvae use a perfect antibacterial mixture against many lethal microbes present in the organs and tissues of their host cockroaches. While it is noted that this antibacterial secretion is a specialized mixture acting as a first line of defense against a variety of bacteria, viruses and fungi, the question of how the mindless wasp can devise such a complex chemical defense and reproduction strategy remains unanswered [3].

Given humanity’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the research conducted by Dr. Herzner and his colleagues may herald a new era in food and body hygiene, potentially leading the development of novel antimicrobial cleaning agents in the near future.

The nature is an amazing book spread before our eyes so we can study and be filled with amazement. Everything, even those as small as cockroaches or wasps, intrigue us to do more research and contemplate on the One who created them.

Notes

1. “Direct Injection of Venom by a Predatory Wasp into Cockroach Brain”, www.bgu.ac.il/life/Faculty/Libersat/pdf/JNB.2003b.pdf
2. “Larvae of the parasitoid wasp Ampulex compressa sanitize their host, the American cockroach, with a blend of antimicrobials”, PNAS, (Proceedings of The National Academy Sciences of The USA), Jan 7, 2013, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3557021/
3. Ibid.

Sea sheep is a cute and cuddly animal, which could have been appropriately called “leaf sheep,” for it really looks like a sheep among lush green leaves. It is also called the solar periwinkle. What is unique with it is that photosynthesis, an event unique to the plant kingdom, takes place in this its body.

This tiny inhabitant of the seas (Costasiella kuroshimae) is a type of sea slug that runs in its body a process called kleptoplasty, by which it utilizes the energy of light and obtains food—a process normally reserved for plants. This is not a usual way for an animal to survive. It is an exception that does not only show the variety within creation but also lifts the veil of what could be perceived as monotonous in the universal order and regularity within the universe [1].

A marvelous phenomenon: Kleptoplasty

Kleptoplasty is the process by which a creature that cannot photosynthesize feeds on another photosynthesizing creature and moves some chloroplasts from that creature into its body for storage [2]. This unusual phenomenon occurs in some creatures that feed on algae, usually microscopic or macroscopic algae.

Some sea slugs, like the sea sheep, also feed on macroscopic algae. They retain only the chloroplasts of the seaweed Avrainvillea and store them in specialized cells in their digestive tract. The rest they digest completely [3]. They can keep these chloroplasts in their bodies for 10 months or much longer. The chloroplasts retained are used for photosynthesis to meet the sea sheep’s energy needs, as well as for food production and storage.

While we cannot claim that sea sheep and sea snails photosynthesize themselves, we can say photosynthesis takes place in their bodies. Through the chloroplasts hosted in their bodies, they photosynthesize through the phenomenon of kleptoplasty. With such a marvelous mechanism, light is transformed into nutrients and provides the tiny sea sheep with sustenance.

Several key experiments were carried out on the functional dimension of kleptoplasty, and the contributions of kleptoplasts—i.e., chloroplasts—to the living host [4]. The experiments suggest that chloroplasts function as a “pantry” that helps organisms survive periods of starvation, even when their photosynthetic activity is blocked. In addition, these studies revealed that kleptoplasts from algae remain functional in the cytosol of an animal cell for a long time.

A closer look at the sea sheep

Sea sheep belong to the Costasiellidae family of mollusks, a class of gastropods. After arthropods, mollusks are the second most diverse branch of the animal kingdom, with about 93,000 known species [5].

These creatures are rather tiny, ranging in size from five millimeters to one centimeter. First discovered in 1993 near the coast of the Japanese island of Kuroshima, the sea sheep (Costasiella kuroshimae) are prevalent in the waters of Japan, the Philippines, and Indonesia [6].

As is common in other mollusks, their bodies comprise three main parts: the muscular foot, the internal mass—which contains the viscera—and the mantle, which covers the internal mass. The organs called radula are vital in transporting food. Like a grater with small teeth on it, this organ is designed for scraping, and it allows them to rasp their food into their bodies.

Sea sheep have fascinated ocean researchers and divers since they were first discovered. Researcher Ara Juan said that when he first saw the creature in the Philippines, he was surprised by how tiny it was. Later, on his second encounter, he saw five of them perched on a leaf and likened them to sheep grazing on a field of algae [7]. These creatures have a world of their own, which they build on the algae leaves and in which they spend their entire lives. Occasionally you can even see their eggs laid in an impressively neat, measured spiral on the seaweed. The eggs, arranged as if drawn with a ruler, are a magnificent sign that the world is created with inimitably precise and delicate measurements.

Sea sheep are remarkable for their close-set, black, beady eyes, horn-like appendages resembling sheep’s ears, and dotted green cerata protruding from the upper surface of their bodies. Cerata are leaf-like structures with pink, purple, or white tips, similar to those of the aloe vera plant, and contain branches of the digestive gland. The guest chloroplasts involved in photosynthesis are also held in the cerata.

Besides these specific organs, the two tentacles on the back of the head, acting as chemosensors, have also been exclusively created and equipped. These act as the olfactory sensors of this sea slug, enabling the animal to find food sources by picking up and analyzing chemical signals in the water.

Several comparative studies have also been carried out on various species of Costasiella living on algae of the genus Avrainvillea [8]. It was observed that the eyes of the sea sheep were larger than those of the other species and were between two large tentacles extending like horns. When the ceratas were examined, it was found that they were orange and iridescent blue spotted, tapering from two ends, and containing albumin glands. For each species, all these organs are individually engraved and decorated with different colors and patterns.

What a precious grace it is for us to observe such astonishing works of creation, which are paraded before our eyes in the depths of the sea. Just as the sea sheep is provided with sustenance from the chloroplasts, we are provided with the sustenance of knowledge of the One who creates all of it for us, perhaps wrapped in concentric layers of meanings in one of which is the sea sheep found.

Notes

1. Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, Addendum to the Sixteenth Word, The Words, Risale-i Nur Collection
2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3949400/
3. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aaw4337
4. Gregor Christa, Sven B. Gould, Johanna Franken, Manjavleugels, Dario Karmeinski, Katharina Handeler, Wiliam F. Martin And Heike Wagele, Functional Kleptoplasty In A Limapontioidean Genus: Phylogeny, Food Preferences And Photosynthesis In Costasiella With A Focus On C. Ocellifera (Gastropoda: Sacoglossa), Journal of Molluscan Studies (2014) 1–9. doi:10.1093/mollus/eyu026
5. https://ekog.org/2020/12/26/yaprak-koyunu-costasiella/
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costasiella_kuroshimae
7. https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20210324-the-odd-sea-creature-powered-by-the-sun
8. Kathe R. Jensen, Patrick J. Krug, Anne Dupont, Masayoshi Nishina, A review of taxonomy and phylogenetic relationships in the genus Costasiella (Heterobranchia: Sacoglossa), with a description of a new species, Journal of Molluscan Studies, Volume 80, Issue 5, December 2014, Pages 562-574,  https://doi.org/10.1093/mollus/eyu048

In daily parlance, feather is used in various idioms or phrases such as “light as a feather,” “feather-brained,” or “featherweight.” The word is often used in a diminutive effort to denote simple, easy, or unimportant things. However, a recent study has revealed that feathers play vital roles and are miraculous beyond perfection.

For survival, living beings are indebted to a number of skills and devices they are equipped with in advance by creation perfectly suited according to the troubles and difficulties a living being will face and what they will need. Similarly, feathers are perfectly designed for survival.

Structure of bird feathers

Bird feathers have diverse characteristics for different tasks such as flying, maintaining body temperature, and sensing through touch. Feathers are made of a sulfurous protein called keratin. Our nails and hair are made of the same substance. Keratin is synthesized as the cells in the dermis die during their upwards division and multiplication. Keratin is a very durable and flexible substance, and it is quite resistant against chemicals and corrosion. Therefore, it is the most convenient substance for feathers.

Seen through a microscope, the microanatomy of a feather looks like very finely embroidered lacework. A typical feather has a long and hard pipe called the rachis at the center, with hundreds of side branches (barbs) coming out of it, as well as side branches coming out of the barbs, called barbules. Finally, barbicels attach barbules to one another (Figure 1). Thanks to barbicels, barbules are interlocked just like a zipper, ensuring the integrity of the feather as a watertight surface. If the barbules are somehow unzipped and released from each other, the bird can just shake off or preen them with its beak in order to return them to their former state.

In order to survive, birds must always keep their feathers clean, well-maintained, and ready to use at any time. They use the oil sacs in their tails to care for their feathers. Using their beaks, they take some of this oil and distribute it through their feathers to preen and polish them. This oil prevents water from reaching the skin of swimming birds when they are in water or under rain. Moreover, birds fluff up their feathers so that air moves between them, preventing their body temperature from falling in cold weather. In contrast, they keep their bodies cool in hot weather by sticking their feathers to themselves and reducing the air in between.

Types of feathers

The feathers on different body parts have different characteristics and functions. Wing feathers, which are larger and have extensive surfaces, open up and expand their surfaces to generate a force for lift. Tail feathers, which have a similar structure, help to steer and brake during flight. As a bird flaps its wings on the downstroke, its feathers come closer to each other and prevent air from leaking between them. During the upstroke, the feathers are quite separated and positioned to allow air to pass between them. In order to maintain their ability to fly, birds undergo molting. Feathers that are worn-out or abraded are shed as they are unable to fully perform their duties.

There are three main types of feathers.

1. Contour Feathers

These feathers are large and long and found on the outside of the body, such as the wings or tail, and determine the bird’s body type and posture. These feathers, which help a bird to fly and steer, contain all the feather components mentioned above.

2. Plumules

Plumules lack barbicels in their structures. They are not interlocked and look tasselly. These feathers are created for thermal insulation, and they are located at the backs and lower parts of contour feathers and are abundant on the chest and abdomen. The bodies of young birds are generally covered with plumules.

3. Filoplumes

Filoplumes have a short calamus and few small barbs without barbicels near the tip of a thin, long rachis. In some birds, the filoplumes near the mouth and nose have sensory functions.

One can come across various types of feathers depending on age, season, gender, and breeding season.

Antarctic penguins have to endure some of the harshest conditions in the world. Emperor penguins (Aptenodytes forsteri) spend six months in one of the coldest habitats on the planet during winter and breed in Antarctica, where temperatures drop below -40 degrees Celsius and winds sometimes reach speeds up to 100 kilometers per hour. Their feathers are the best gift allowing them to survive in Antarctica. To feed their young, penguins dive to depths exceeding 500 meters in waters measuring -1.8 degrees Celsius, going deeper and further than other waders. Emperor penguins rely on their special feathers to provide 80-90 percent of their insulation and maintain a core body temperature of 38 degrees Celsius. The insulative integrity of the feathers persists even at their maximum dive depth of 560 meters.

As the stiff outer layer of feathers protect the bird’s skin, the contour feathers provide an impenetrable and rigid waterproof cover. Not only is there no consensus of penguin feather density, but published values vary fourfold, from 11 to 46 feathers per square centimeter.

In a study conducted to see how emperor penguin feathers function as protection against the cold, penguin carcasses were examined. For this purpose, the carcasses were skinned before the contour feathers were removed from the excised skin sections. Then, the attached feathers were carefully removed, and the location of each was marked.

While the initial focus was on the body plumage, for the purpose of a broader orientation, a detailed feathergram was made for the head, body, wings, tail and legs, and it was seen that a thermal insulation system, which defies any explanation, was in place.

Feather distribution model

To calculate density, the feathers were cut carefully and photographed and then, using special software, algorithms of this distribution were identified and expressed in mathematical formulas. Repetition of larger contour feathers and smaller plumules and filoplumes in certain numbers and certain intervals, as well as the correlation between air gaps in between and feather density and heat retention, signified the architectural integrity of a perfect divine project.

To make a gross estimate of the total number of feathers on the body (excluding the head, tail, legs, and wings), a model was developed using feather density and distribution patterns as well as morphological measurements of emperor penguins. Based on the lateral surface area (LSA) equations for two conical frustums, it was shown that the body shape in the form of two conical frustums was ideal and what the height of this body was (Figure 2).

Feather count model and total body feather numbers

A drawing was created to illustrate the distribution pattern of all feather types on emperor penguins. Although contour feathers are uniformly distributed across the penguin’s body, the pattern of all insulative feather types is complex and non-uniform, still following a different formula. According to this formula, each contour feather is surrounded by nine plumules.

Estimates suggest that each penguin had 24,000 to 30,000 contour feathers and 120,000 to 150,000 insulative feathers. Plumules are the main source of insulation, as these feathers form a dense mat beneath the contour feathers and are four times as numerous as other body feathers.

It was suggested that this arrangement of feathers facilitated penguins’ rapid underwater ascent, allowing them to fly out of the water on to sea ice. It was also argued that the release of air trapped in the downy layer into the boundary layer reduces drag, allowing penguins to reach high underwater speeds before exiting the water. The barbs of the feathers, and the accompanying barbule structure, causes small bubbles to form in the water, and as a result, it appears as if a trail of smoke is coming from the feathers as the penguin swims in the water.

The finding that there is a higher density of contour feathers on the ventral side compared with the dorsal of emperor penguins may be important for tobogganing—that is, exiting the water and resting on ice. The higher density on the chest provides more cushion for tobogganing over rough edges and for landing on the chest after leaping exits from the water. In addition, the higher ventral feather density provides increased insulation while resting prone on the ice.

Nevertheless, body feather density is not static and will change based on the season thanks to amazing design. Emperor penguins start foraging after molting in January, to prepare for the breeding season. In April, at the start of the breeding season, penguins weigh 30-40 kg, with lipid mass accounting for up to 25 percent of body mass. At this time, feather density will be lowest, and increased subcutaneous fat will provide more insulation. Over the next three months, body mass can drop 35-50 percent in the fasting male, which cannot go hunting as it looks after the egg in its incubation period, with 80-90 percent of the loss owing to subcutaneous fat reduction. The resulting reduction in girth and surface area will increase feather density without changing the number of feathers. At the end of the fast, when temperatures are near the coldest of the year and males have lost most of their lipid mass, feather density will be the highest. Although only a function of geometry, the increased feather density with decreased girth is advantageous.

Feathers serve other purposes, too. The mechanoreceptors at the calamus of feathers inside the skin are sensitive enough to detect even the slightest vibration and send it to the brain. Penguins are informed of even the slightest vibration in the air or water, and, as such, they can successfully hunt for fish or evade attacking seals thanks to these receptors.

The structure and diversity of penguin feathers will be a source of inspiration for those modeling heat insulation technology based on how the tiny structures and molecular architecture of penguin plumage is designed to limit heat transfer.

References

1. Williams, C.L., Hagelin, J.C. and Kooyman, G.L. (2015): Hidden keys to survival: the type, density, pattern and functional role of emperor penguin body feathers. Proc. R. Soc. B 282: 20152033. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2015.2033

The holy mystery called mercy embraces all beings. It is manifested in the most brilliant manner, particularly in the compassion of mothers. The mystery of mercy makes the mother’s womb the first place for preparing an infant for their brief visit to this world. The mystery of mercy makes all resources in the mother’s body available for the infant. Thanks to this mystery, specific processes, such as being able to produce breast milk, are specifically designed to satisfy all of the daily needs of the infant. Every moment, this mystery of mercy is woven into the very fabric of life, including the eternal life.

Just as human beings are equipped with reason and willpower and these attributes are always mirrors of mercy, mothers of unconscious living beings exhibit pictures of mercy. One of these beings is the Surinam toad (Pipa pipa), which carries its eggs on its back and makes its young go out of its skin. In this scene of divine wisdom, the mother toad keeps its eggs on its back buried under its skin until they hatch and attain sufficient maturity. Thus, toadlets are embraced in an envelope of mercy in the most secure environment, safe from dangers.

Pipa pipa is a toad in the family Pipidae. This interesting animal is prevalent in northern parts of South America. Although its name refers to Surinam, this toad lives also in countries neighboring Surinam as well. In particular, it lives in tropical and subtropical rain forests, muddy ponds, swamps, and certain rivers in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Equator, Guyana, Peru, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela.

General physical characteristics

This toad derives its name from its shape. Its body is completely flat. It appears as if it has been crushed in an accident. Unlike other frogs, it does not stand up on its rear feet. This gives it its flattened form. Its head is triangular and its wide body is like a thin pentagon. In Spanish, pipa means a “kite.” Indeed, when viewed from above, the toad’s shape is like that of a kite. While its average length varies between 10 and 13 cm, specimens that are as long as 20 cm were also reported. Male toads are smaller in size than female ones but their front legs are thicker. The eyes of Surinam toads are black and small. They have no eyelids, teeth, or tongue.

There are star-shaped extensions at the end of long arms of their front legs. Therefore, they are also referred to as the “star-fingered toad.” At the tip of these star structures are fibers which are very sensitive to touch. Compared to front legs, rear legs are stronger because they are used to push the animal forward. Likewise, its rear legs are webbed and very large. It is observed that male frogs frequently fight with each other using their heads and front legs.

The Surinam toad is a master of camouflage as it can be likened to a brown leaf floating in the water with its general structure and gray, brown, or olive color. Thanks to its pale color, flat body, and the fact that they generally lay motionless on the ground they are perceived as a plant fragment or a dead animal. This camouflage ability is closely related to its being an ambush predator.

Its skin is covered with wart-like, pointed protrusions. Small, tentacle-like appendages go out of the edges of its chin. Some toads feature a dark gray line stretching from the center of their throats to the end of this abdomen. The upper part of this line is crossed by a horizontal line extending along its chest, forming a T-like shape.

Hunting

Like all other frogs, this toad has a virtually aquatic life and when its habitat gets dryer or during heavy rainfall it can be found in damp areas. Actually, drought and saltiness are the greatest danger for toads that have naked skins. The nakedness of their skins may result in fast dehydration of its body but one significant advantage is that they can breathe in considerable amounts through their skin. In case of danger, it dives to the bottom of a lake or river and goes to the surface every 30 minutes in order to breathe. Sometimes they can stay underwater for more than one hour.

This toad is blessed with very sensitive neural receptors at the tips of its long star-shaped fingers so that it can hunt in muddy and dark waters. It lays an ambush for its prey and swallows them in one move. The Surinam toad feeds on worms, insects, crustaceans, and fish.

As is also the case with fish, Surinam toads have a lateral line organ on both sides of their bodies. This organ is sensitive to changes in water flows and pressure and helps the toad to be aware of movements in the water of other animals and locate them. Therefore, this organ is crucial in hunting and avoiding being hunted.

A different reproductive strategy

As an extraordinary creature, the Surinam toad is created differently from other frogs in terms of its reproduction strategy. First, the male toad attracts the attention of a female one with the sounds he produces underwater. As in other frogs, the eggs released by the female toad are fertilized by the male. After the fertilization the male cleans the dirt sticking to the gelatin protective layers around the eggs with its feet. Meanwhile, the webbed feet open like a curtain and the male uses its feet like a shovel to carry the eggs on the back of the female. It is interesting to note that the eggs cling on to the back of the female but not to the male’s feet. The full details of this marvelous incident are yet to be explained.

This process of laying eggs and placing them on the female’s back are repeated many times. Eventually, 69-100 eggs are placed on the female’s back. After all the eggs are placed the male moves away from the female. The mechanisms of mercy start to operate at the places where the eggs are placed. These eggs have to be buried within the skin of the female’s back during the first 24 hours. To this end, the skin on the female’s back starts to get thicker and be enriched with blood vessels just as the mother’s womb is prepared for reproduction in mammalians. This process can be likened to the act of hoeing the soil for aeration before spreading seeds in an arable field. The mother toad’s skin starts to swell and surge and embrace the eggs, which are slowly buried inside the skin. A womb made of back skin, resembling a honeycomb, is prepared to host an egg in each pocket.

Later, toadlets break out of hatching eggs inside these pockets. They grow up and start to squirm, riding on the back of the female. Bubbles form on the female’s back like popping pimples when the toadlets reach a certain size. It takes some four months for toadlets to grow up in these special pockets.

At the end of these stages the fully formed toadlets push and make holes in their mother’s skin and finally break free. It is an amazing sight to see them bring out their feet first and then their heads and their bodies out of the pockets. Starting from that moment, they are ready to meet their own needs, swim, and hunt. At once, they start to hunt their prey. The female’s skin, damaged with the leaving of toadlets, is shed and replaced with a new skin is for the next reproduction season and for new toadlets.

References

• Helena Nery Alves-Pinto et al. (2014). Morphometric Variation of Pipa Pipa with Notes on Diet and Gonad Development, Herpetology Notes, Vol. 7, pp. 347–353.
• owlcation.com/stem/The-Surinam-Toad-A-Strange-Amphibian-With-Babies-on-Board
• en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Surinam_toad
• animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/surinam-toad
• sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/documents/ogatt/Pipa_pipa%20-%20Suriname%20Toad.pdf

Great explosions similar to those of pistol sounds are sometimes heard underwater. These loud sounds come from pistol shrimps, measuring only 3-5 cm in length. The “bullets” used by this animal consist of bubbles. The entire process is called sonoluminescence, in which water is energized with specific vibrations causing emission of light through bubbles. It was found that resulting temperatures can be as high as 4,400 °C.

The sounds produced when the pistols of these shrimps are fired are among the loudest sounds that can be heard in the oceans. The tiny shrimps compete with larger sperm whales and beluga whales for the title of the loudest animal in the oceans. When with their colonies, they can cause interference with sonar and underwater communication.

So how does this shrimp’s “pistol” operate? How does it produce underwater “bullets” at such high temperatures? The pistol shrimp has two claws, one larger than the other. The larger claw, which is as large as half of the shrimp’s body, is the pistol. Unlike the smaller one, this claw does not have two symmetrical pincers, but two parts, one fixed (propus), the other moving (dactyl). The dactyl has a plunger which helps with the shrimp’s move. Its strong muscles allow the shrimp to snap its pistol claw with astonishing power. The explosion resulting from this miraculous snapping movement can generate an ear-splitting sound of 218 decibels and a maelstrom with a pressure of 80 kPa at its center. This strong sound wave is similar to a sonic boom. Thanks to this mechanism uniquely granted to it, the shrimp can easily hunt, knock out, and eat its prey.

When hunting, the shrimp hides itself in its underground burrow, patiently waiting for its prey to come within range. When prey comes within range it comes out of its hiding and fires up its pistol by snapping its claw with a very high speed. Coral reef biologist Nancy Knowlton of the Smithsonian Institute conducted studies on the chain of events that occur at this moment and explained that the resulting sound wave and highly heated bubble is fired up like a bullet. As the bubble bullet is hurtled forward with a speed of approximately 100 km per hour, a shock wave is created. The fired-up bubble implodes and its temperature reaches 4,400 °C all of a sudden. This astounding hunting event occurs in 300 microseconds only. As the bubble implodes, a sudden flash of light appears. However, the flashing of light is so sudden that the resulting light is not visible to the naked eye.

Besides hunting their prey, pistol shrimps may also use their sonic pistols to dig burrows into rocks. The impact from the firing up of their pistols is so powerful that they can dig proper burrows into hard basalt stones. In addition, these shrimps are known to attack their own kind. Similar to a Western duel they fire their pistols against each other at a close range to assert dominance. In this fight, shrimps may lose their claws. In this case, it was found, lost claws are re-grown. These shrimps may occasionally use their claws for communication as well.

Although they are equipped with a powerful weapon, pistol shrimps may exhibit lengthy symbiotic relationships in solidarity with other living beings. Some pistol shrimps may seek shelter in coral mazes while others live among the tentacles of sea anemones that resemble plants. Other species dig a burrow and invite a goby to share it.  In this relationship, the goby provides advance warning against threats while the pistol shrimp assumes the task of building a safe burrow.

Some species of pistol shrimps establish colonies inside sponges. These shrimp communities, ruled by a king and a queen, were first identified by marine biologist Emmett Duffy. Duffy noted that this social union, rarely seen among marine animals, is similar to those observed among colonies of ants and bees. When these sponge-dwelling shrimps face with an intruder, they snap their claws rhythmically to send an alarm asking help from other group members.

The pistol shrimp is among the endless works of art we can observe and study in nature. Each and every one of these works of art urges us to wonder the infinite source of knowledge, power, will, wisdom, and mercy that enables them for our benefit.

References

• How It Works Book of Amazing Animals, Imagine Publishing Ltd. 2012, s. 53-54.
• Koukouvinis, Phoevos; Christoph Bruecker ve Manolis Gavaises, “Unveiling the physical mechanism behind pistol shrimp cavitation,” Scientific Reports | 7: 13994 | DOI:10.1038/s41598-017-14312-0,  www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-14312-0.pdf
• tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synalpheus_pinkfloydi
• en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpheidae
• video.nationalgeographic.com/video/worlds-deadliest/deadliest-pistol-shrimp
• www.wired.com/2014/07/absurd-creature-of-the-week-pistol-shrimp

The amiable koala (Phascolarctos cinereus), which can often be found sleeping while clinging on to trees, may resemble a teddy bear but is instead a herbivorous marsupial (marsupials are endemic to Australia and Americas, and their main characteristic is they carry their young in a pouch). Being a symbol of Australia, koalas typically have a body length of 23 – 33 inches and weigh roughly 9 – 33 pounds. It is easy to recognize it thanks to its stout round body, a large head, large ears, and a spoon-shaped nose. Its fur is extremely thick, dense, and soft. Its legs are long and it has paws with sharp nails to help the animal climb trees easily.

The koala lives in eucalyptus forests and feeds on eucalyptus leaves that are toxic to other mammalians. As a matter of fact, these trees are an all-purpose system of sustenance for koalas, designed as a magnificent cradle that offers not only shelter but also food and water. The koala prefers to feed on the leaves of only 35 of more than 600 species of eucalyptus available in Australia. An adult koala eats in the same tree as long as a day. In other words, it does not have to hunt for sustenance – eucalyptus trees offer virtually all of its nourishment in its immediate vicinity. Due to the low energy content of the eucalyptus diet, the koala is largely sedentary. It sleeps on a tree for a significant portion of the day, approximately 20 hours. It climbs down only to climb another tree.

As in all marsupials, the young koala is born in the embryonic stage. As if already installed with a navigation app, the joey crawls into its mother’s pouch as soon as it is born and attaches itself to one of its mother’s teats – like the eucalyptus tree that will serve the koala later in its life, the pouch of its mother provides all the baby needs for about six months. This joey can be likened to a premature human baby who has to be fed in an incubator. The newborn joey measures approximately 19 mm in body length and weighs 5.5 grams. Six months later, its body length reaches 8 inches, its fur develops, and it leaves the pouch in a fully matured and furred form. In this period, it is also weaned. Now, the young koala is ready to begin feasting on eucalyptus leaves. The joey rides on the back of its mother for approximately six months after leaving the pouch.

Miraculous digestion mechanisms

The most amazing part of the koala’s body is its digestive system that functions like a biochemical refinement laboratory. All elements of the digestive system, from the liver to the cecum, are created with a special anatomy and physiology. Thanks to the special qualities given to its digestive organs, the koala is not only protected against the toxic effects of eucalyptus oils but also can get sufficient amounts of food and water from eucalyptus leaves. However, any other herbivorous animal may die if it eats these leaves. The koala, on the other hand, consumes these leaves as the primary source of food all through its life.

Although its alimentary canal is roughly similar to those of other herbivorous animals, the extraordinary digestive biochemistry of the koala has been in the limelight for many researchers. The robust 30 teeth located at the very beginning of the digestive system are shaped for special cutting and chewing functions so that they can easily grind up these hard leaves. Their incisors work like scissors to ensure that leaves are broken into pieces while premolars and molars make sure that food is ground and crushed. After they are chewed in the mouth, the ground leaves are sent directly to the stomach through the alimentary canal. The stomach and intestines are equipped with structures that produce special secretions for extracting energy from the leaves.

The key secret to the digestion is in the cecum of the koala. The cecum, which in humans can be found at the start of the large intestines, is the epicenter of a koala’s digestive system. Like other herbivorous marsupials, the koala cannot digest cellulose in the leaves. Microorganisms that can digest cellulose are employed to help this cute animal in this respect. The cecum is a very suitable ecosystem for these microorganisms to live. The microorganisms in this organ decompose cellulose using their secretions and use only a small part of the fermented leaves for themselves, leaving the most part to the koala. The cecum is created with extraordinary characteristics in terms of its size. The koala has the largest cecum in proportion to its body size among all known animals, and its cecum corresponds to approximately 20 percent of the total length of its intestines. With a length of about 78 inches and a diameter of 4 inches, the cecum is a perfect fermentation chamber suitable for bacteria growth. As cellulose is fermented in the chamber, the toxic quality of eucalyptus leaves is eliminated. Thus, the fermentation and microbial processes that occur here produce sufficient energy for the vital needs of the koala. Cytochrome P450, an enzyme produced in the liver, plays a crucial role in the breakdown of the poisons in the leaves.

Koalas move very slowly; their metabolic rate of is very low and this helps it to keep the fermented materials and particles longer in its stomach. Thus, digestion progresses slowly. This process can last for up to 100 hours in the wild, or up to 200 hours in captivity. In short, all members of the digestive system are ensured to function together for the koala’s nourishment.

The koala drinks water very rarely. This is because it can meet 40-65 percent of its water requirements from eucalyptus leaves. As the water ratio of the koala’s body is very high (up to 77.4 percent) and its digestive system is capable of retaining a high volume of water, it turns out that a significant proportion of water is kept in the cecum in the form of a bulk of wet food.

Like the tree-kangaroo, the koala does not look for shelter. The dense branches and leaves of eucalyptus trees provide the animal with sufficient shelter. Its fur covers 77 percent of its body and offers the best protection in this regard. On average, there are 54 strands of hair in every millimeter of the koala’s fur. The heat insulation of the animal is adjusted with the longer protective strands and shorter thick hairs of the fur who lengths vary depending on the season. Heat insulation is further facilitated by the fact that the fur is darker on the back and the hairs have angular changes depending on the wind.

The combination of all of these diverse elements in order to allow a small animal to thrive in such unique ways is magnificent.

References

• Robert Degabriele, “The Physiology of the Koala,” Scientific American, Vol. 243, Issue 1 (July 1980), pp. 110–117.

Athlete’s foot is a frequent infection that millions of people suffer from annually. I once had it during my military service where we had to wear boots almost an entire day. Once during a noon intercession, I performed my ablutions to pray and I placed my feet under the sunlight to dry them. I was also hoping that ultraviolet rays from the sun would be good for the infection. Soon, flies swarmed in between my toes. When I could not bear the excessive itching, I tried to kill the flies until I was stopped by a friend who reminded me of the great sage Bediuzzaman’s comments where he called flies “cleaning workers.” At that time, I also remembered Prophet Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) words on flies. So, I patiently endured the nuisance, and repeated the same procedure for the next three or four days. Eventually, my feet were healed and there was no trace of the fungi.

In one of his very interesting hadiths, the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, is reported to have said the following about flies: “If a fly falls into your drink, dip it into your drink, then throw it away, for on one of its wings is a disease, and on the other is a cure. It dips the wing with the disease to protect itself” [1]. This hadith has been a reason for much controversy mainly due to germ disease theory.  According to Jonathan C. Brown, “even before modern medicine, the Hadith of the Fly was raising skeptical eyebrows and prompting Sunni defensiveness as early as the writings of Ibn Qutayba (d. 276/889)” [2]. Brown also mentions that this hadith “could be false or it could be true, since scientists used the flesh of a snake to help prepare antidotes to its poison” [3].

Before the microscope was invented it was impossible to define microbes or talk about the anatomy or microbiology of flies as we can today. However, the introduction of experimentation and observation as an important scientific method with the Renaissance served as a turning point in Western scientific revolution. Thus, the “proof-based medicine” conception that relies on experimentation and observation emerged as a precursor to today’s medicinal and scientific research. The importance of perceptions that rely on causes relating to the material world in persuading the human mind cannot be denied. It is harder to make people believe in something unless they are provided with concrete results that appeal to our five senses. We should not rush to deny any claim solely based upon our preconceptions and prior knowledge without doing any research about it; rather, we should pass our judgment on it after experimentation and observation.

Some people may automatically reject the idea that when a fly falls in our food or drink that we should immerse this microbe-carrying insect completely and they may say that this would not eliminate the microbes. Indeed, it may sound reasonable to assume that this disgusting insect that feeds on all sorts of dirt would cause only diseases. If you have an ample supply of food or water and if you do not have the stomach for it, you can of course refrain from eating or drinking such a food or drink. But, you can hardly advise someone who has very little water or food in a desert or at the time of famine to throw away what they have because of a fly.

We should examine different types of flies in laboratory settings using the method of experimentation and observation. First of all, it is very difficult to prove that someone can contract an illness from eating food in which a fly had fallen into although he or she had immersed that fly completely in that food. If it is proven that someone becomes ill due to a fly’s alighting in their food, then strong objections can be raised. If it is said that there many diseases caused by flies, no one will deny it. The point is not whether flies carry germs, but whether this advice for being protected from the germs carried by flies is correct or not. As a matter of fact, the advice by the Prophet seeks to protect us from diseases that may be caused by germs carried by flies. The great scholar Bediuzzaman’s words on flies also give us an alternative perspective to consider about these “tiny birds”:

“…Flies are dutiful about cleaning away noxious substances or germs that cause disease. By sucking up and absorbing harmful germs, they destroy them, and they cause noxious or poisonous substances to change into other harmless forms, thus preventing the spread of many contagious diseases. A sign that they are both laborers for health and cleansing operatives and chemists, serving many instances of wisdom, is the fact that they exist in extremely great numbers. For the things that are valuable and beneficial are multiplied.” [4]

The hadith of the Prophet and Bediuzzaman’s commentary encourage us to explore more about flies and whether they can be a source of healing in any way.

Flies are very ubiquitous on earth. There are approximately 125,000 species of flies, but only ten species live in our homes and are of concern to us. They feed on garbage and organic waste materials that act as a breeding ground for microbes such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses. The female fly lays down more than 100 eggs in the dung of some animals or in garbage. After one day, the larva emerges to feed on the surrounding organic materials. In two weeks, they become full-grown flies. In four generations, one female fly can lay 1.5 million eggs, but fortunately the majority die due to weather circumstances or become food for birds, reptiles, amphibians, and other insects. A fly can live for 60 days at most.

Given the ecological balance in nature, one comes to accept that there should be species that will remove all sorts of organic waste, garbage, dead animals or plants, and similar things by eating them. Houseflies feed on the rotting corpses of animals while female horseflies suck blood. How can flies, which act as health workers that are charged with the duty of cleaning the world, digest so many diverse amounts of garbage and waste?

Flies get their nourishment differently from other animals. What other animals do for digestion is done by flies outside their bodies. They do not have teeth-like structures in their mouths in order to chew solid, dry food and therefore have to turn such food into liquid form or split it into 0.45-mm or smaller pieces. In this liquid form, flies can easily suck up their food using their suitably shaped mouths. To do this, flies vomit a saliva-like liquid, containing enzymes and acids, and that disintegrates the solid food into something that can easily be digested in a couple of seconds. In this process, some of the microbes in that waste food can be disintegrated while the rest will be sent to the stomach.

These foods and microbes taken inside in the form of vomit are sent to a sac called a “crop” if they are not small enough to go through the digestive tract. Flies produce fresh saliva regularly during which the vomit moves between their mouths and crops. Eventually, the sufficiently liquefied food is sent to the stomach which contains enzymes and acidic content as well as partially disintegrated microorganisms.

What does scientific research tell us?

Based on the theory that flies must have remarkable antimicrobial defenses and resistance to survive the bacteria from rotting dung, meat, and fruit, a team at the department of biological sciences at Macquarie University in Australia set out to identify those antibacterial properties.

“Our research is a small part of a global research effort for new antibiotics, but we are looking where we believe no one has looked before,” said Joanne Clarke, who presented the group’s findings at the Australian Society for Microbiology Conference in Melbourne.

Clarke’s research showed that flies produce their own antibiotics, and this was tested on four different fly species. Such research may lead to better treatments for human infections from Escherichia coli and other virulent bacteria even, perhaps, Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).

Upon preliminary results, a global pharmaceutical company decided to support the research over the next six months by trying to isolate antibiotic compounds from the material collected from the flies. The research team is trying to identify the specific antibacterial compounds. As antibiotics that will eventually be invented and chemically synthesized come from the body surface of flies, not from other fungi or bacteria, it is believed that any gene that gives resistance to microbes will not be easily transferred to pathogens and the new antibiotic form will have longer and more effective treatment duration [5].

Later, Russian doctors had developed interest in this topic and observed that flies contain many substances that can be more effective than traditional medications and certain fly larvae have very strong therapeutic effects [6].

Noting that flies should be kept away from hospitals, Professor Juan Alvarez Bravo at the University of Tokyo expressed his support for such research, saying, “But soon we will witness a rapid treatment for many diseases, which consists of extracts from flies” [7].

Some researchers at Auburn University of the United States discovered a protein in the fly’s saliva which can accelerate the lengthy process of healing wounds and chronic skin cracking. Entomologists Ed and Mary Cupp managed to isolate the protein which houseflies inject into their prey to increase blood flow in the skin of their prey. Mary Cupp and surgeon Steven Swaim demonstrated that surgical incisions, skin ulceration, and diabetic foot lesions treated with solutions that combine antibiotics and this protein heal faster and stronger than incisions treated with antibiotics alone [8, 9].

In another study, it was found that epithelial cells forming the inner layers of the front and back intestines of the fly protect it from the bacteria it swallows thanks to a special cuticular lining, and in this way, bacteria never directly touch the intestinal epithelium and cannot give any damage to it. In this study, it was noted that people nurtured a radical approach to flies and that fly control has been abused for the sake of human health, suggesting that flies may be the source of novel germicides that make use of their antimicrobial digestive enzymes, lysozyme, and antimicrobial peptides [10].

Viruses cause many diseases in cattle, sheep, and birds. These diseases include encephalitis, aphthous fever (foot and mouth diseases), and duck plague which can be transferred to people through infected animals. Some crops such as potatoes, tomatoes, bananas, and sugarcane can also be destroyed by viral infections.

Flies carry the viruses of many diseases which are consequently transferred to man’s food, drink, and body. Of these viral diseases are common flu, measles, mumps, chickenpox, warts, yellow fever, infectious liver diseases, some cases of paralysis, some types of cancer, and some chronic diseases of the central nervous system.

El-Naggar, Zaghloul, from Egypt, indicates that some of the disease-causing viruses may directly infect living beings and cause damage to their cells, while there is a type of virus which infects bacteria cells known as “bacteriophage.” These viruses, which can kill the bacteria they infect in a short time, are known as “virulent bacteriophage.” Those viruses that do not kill the bacteria they infect are called “temperate bacteriophage” [11].

After a bacteriophage infects a bacterium, more than 100 viruses are released from that bacterium and each of these viruses can infect new bacteria. The spreading of infection may continue until all vulnerable bacteria cells die. After it was discovered that bacteriophages are parasites of bacteria, they started to be used in treating the diseases caused by bacteria. However, their use in this manner declined after the discovery of antibiotics. Yet, the interest in phage treatment was revived after the emergence of bacterial resistance to antibiotics [12].

Researchers from Stanford University announced that they found a substance in flies that can improve the human immune system [13].

The work by Rehab Mohammed Atta from the Microbiology and Immunology Department, National Research Center, Cairo, Egypt, is quite remarkable [14]. In this research, the extracts taken separately from the left and right wings of flies were used against the bacteria and fungi calculated on nutrient “agar” media in the laboratory. It was demonstrated there was both bacterial and fungal growth for the left wing extract plates while no bacterial or fungal growth was reported for the right ones.

Given the fact that the garbage and rotting corpses on which flies feed from contain numerous dangerous bacteria, it is quite reasonable that it contains antibacterial materials necessary for its survival. In this case, the fly’s needs might be of service as sources of antibiotics that can prevent epidemics among human beings, and this may be the reason why they were created in the first place: not to be a source of nuisance but a source of healing for us.

Aj-Taili, et al., from the department of medical microbiology, Qassim University in Saudi Arabia, conducted an experiment using water, honey, and various fruit juices in different cups. They found no germ in the solution in which the whole body of fly was immersed while the solution in which only one wing of the fly was dipped indicated the presence of germs [15].

In sum, we can say that antibacterial materials produced in the bodies of flies protect them against the microbes in their environments and that these microbes can prevent epidemics among human beings. At the very least, this topic deserves in-depth research. Atta’s study confirms the virtue of the hadith that says, “The best way to release this vital antidote is to dip the fly in a liquid because these substances are concentrated on the outer surface of the fly body and wing.” Abduldaem al-Kaheel refers to this study in his website: “This is logical because the fly has a lot of harmful bacteria on the outside of her body and therefore in order to continue in her life, it should also carry anti-bacterial materials; these materials were furnished by God to protect it from viruses and diseases.” In the light of these studies, the need for conducting more research for obtaining antibiotics from the right wing of the fly is clear [16].

References

1. Abu Dawud, At’imah, 49. Also see Bukhari, Tib, 57, Bed’u al-Khalk 17; Ibn Majah, Tib, 31, Nasa’i, Far’, 11.
2. Brown, Jonathan A. C. 2009. Hadith: Muhammad’s Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World, p. 264.
3. Ibid. p. 255.
4. Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said. 2008. The Gleams. The Light, Inc. p. 376.
5. Danny Kingsley, ABC Science Online, 1 October 2002, The new buzz on antibiotics. Clarke, J., Gillings, M. and Beattie, A. (2002). Hypothesis-driven drug discovery. Microbiology Australia, pp. 8–10.
6. Petersburg State University, (2006). The fly effect: Russian Scientists Invent new medicine with the help of flies.
7. Bravo, J. A. (1994). The ointment in the fly: antibiotics. New antibiotic derived from a common fly. The Economist (US).
8. Ed and Mary Cupp (2005). Protein in Fly Saliva Speeds Healing of Incisions Wounds. Auburn University. R Am Ex Ars Medica, Inc., 7:23.
9. Protein in Fly Saliva Speeds Healing of Incisions, Wounds 20-Jan-2005. www.newswise.com/articles/protein-in-fly-saliva-speeds-healing-of-incisions-wounds
10. Nayduch, D. and Burrus, R.G. (2017). Flourishing in Filth: House Fly–Microbe Interactions Across Life History. Special Collection: Filth Fly–Microbe Interactions. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 2017, Vol. 110, No. 1.
11. El-Naggar, Zaghloul, (2010). Housefly Falls into One’s Drink! 09 September 2010. www.quranandscience.com/quran-science/sunnah-science/204-housefly-falls-into-ones-drink-274
12. Aydogan, D.Y., Hadimli, H.H. (2016). Bakteriyofaj Tedavisi (Bacteriophage Treatment), Etlik Vet. Mikrobiyol. Derg.; 27 (1): 38–47.
13. Stanford University Medical Center, 2007. Fruit Fly Insight Could Lead to New Vaccines. Science Daily. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/03/070308220904.htm
14. Atta, R. M. (2014): Microbiological Studies on Fly Wings (Musca domestica) Where Disease and Treat. World Journal of Medical Sciences 11 (4): 486–489.
15. Aj-Taili, S.I., A.A.R. Al-Misnid and K.D. Al-Uteybi, (2002). Wing One and the Other Disease Carrying the Cure. Qassim University. Danny Kingsley.
16. Abduldaem al-Kaheel, 1995. New facts: fly have a cure, www.kaheel7.com/eng.

An exceptional oddity occurs in Africa, Australia, and South America during dry seasons: an oval-shaped, cocoon-like structure that is found under the ground which when gently broken open produces a long and curled live fish like something out of a sci-fi movie! One can continue to dig the surrounding area and find hundreds more of these fish peacefully resting under the ground.

This fish, bestowed with life in a cocoon of mud it fashions under the ground, is called the “lungfish.” It has been discovered that lungfish can survive thanks to their wonderful features for several years in cocoon-like pits under extremely severe and arid conditions. The secrets to this amazing phenomenon lie in the fish’s exclusive respiratory system.

While lungs are the respiratory organs for vertebrates that live on land, the respiratory organs known as gills have been granted to most aquatic animals. Lungfish actually breathe through both gills and lungs. This is why they are also known as dipnoid, a special type of “double breathing” species which have one or two lungs next to their gills. These are not actually lungs but are instead air sacs surrounded by capillaries. They function as lungs when the fish need to utilize them. In particular, these sacs are activated when the water in the fish’s environment dries up. Lungfish are able to overcome drought periods that may last many years by remaining buried in mud and breathing through these God-gifted air sacs.

There are six lungfish species known to be living in Africa, South America, and Australia. The fish resembles the eel due to their prominently long and cylindrical body structure. Studies have shown that the African species tend to be the largest and can reach up to two meters in length, while its Australian and South American counterparts can grow up to 1.25 meters. Fossil prints indicate that African lungfish emerged roughly 400 million years ago and are thus often called “living fossils.”

Just as everything is created and equipped in accordance with their exact needs, so is the lungfish. Lungfish do not have dorsal fins. Their chest and abdominal fins have features that make it easier for the fish to crawl on the ground. The fins are long, adhesive, and highly mobile, and their tips have a very delicate sense of touch. Moreover, the fish’s olfactory and taste receptor cells, and its lateral lines that detect pressure and turbulence, have been created to be extremely sensitive. These structures function as senses that support the fish’s weak sense of vision. Additionally, there are electro-receptors on the fish’s nose that help it to easily perceive their surroundings and aid with their survival.

As the water recedes during the dry season, each lungfish first digs a tunnel for itself in the slime and settles in it. At the top of the tunnel is a porous cover that allows air to smoothly enter and exit. It is within this tunnel that the fish fashions a cocoon for itself made out of a mucous it spews which is designed to keep moisture and allows air in. After these meticulous preparations, the fish goes into a summer sleep that is similar to hibernation. Its physiology also changes during this period as its metabolic speed is lowered to 1/60 of the normal circumstances and its body functions are brought almost entirely to a halt. The fish spends this whole period in this way until the next rainy season arrives.

The lungfish, no doubt, also need to maintain their energy during this deep sleep. They can generate energy by dissolving a portion of their own muscle tissues as a sort of “fat reserve.” Consumption of muscle tissue as food leads them to lose about 3 centimeters in size during one season, and they also lose almost half of their weight during extensive droughts.

An incredible respiratory mechanism

Animals of the underwater world use their gills for breathing. The multi-functional gills are delicately structured to allow the dissolved oxygen in the water to be released into the bloodstream and have the carbon dioxide removed. The gills are also instrumental in several processes including gas exchange, osmoregulation, acid-base adjustment, and nitrogenous waste disposal. A fish normally only has oxygenated blood in its gills. In the fish classified as dipnoid, the extremely thin membrane covering the inner surface of the air sac connected to the circulation system is conducive for gas exchange, thus it helps respiration by acting like a lung.

Different from other species, the lungfish are equipped with a highly developed exclusive respiratory mechanism that enables them to live both in water and on land. While some fish species that can breathe air do so by using basic gas sacs, the system in lungfish is far more complex.

There is a main canal in their breathing organs that serve as a type of de facto lungs, and this canal is surrounded with numerous chambers that increase when expanded but decrease in size. Most chambers have a central space linked with a ventilation duct. The inner surfaces of these structures are lined with numerous honeycomb-like air sacs fed by fine capillaries. A gas exchange occurs in these small vesicles, thus maximizing the surface area on which this gas exchange takes place. Additionally, these fish also have a circulation dedicated to the air sac which functions as a separate lung that is the same as in land vertebrates.

Lungfish go up the surface to breathe and position their heads in a way so that the tip of their nose touches the water’s surface. Meanwhile, they open their mouths and draw air from just above the water. During this process, they usually make a characteristic sound that varies slightly across species. The lungfish in Australia are a little different from the others; they breathe air through their nasal openings while their mouths are closed. In addition, the lungfish in Australia breathe air in shorter periods and they use their lungs only in high activation periods in their natural environment. This is why their gills are very strong since they have only one lung. Due to intense use under severe climatic conditions, the African and South American lungfish have two lungs instead of one and their gills are much smaller than that of other lungfish.

With unique features bestowed to their respiratory system, lung and gill structures so they can survive under extreme conditions, lungfish are a treasure for us to think and marvel on the mysteries found in nature.

References

• Olga Carvalho, Carlos Gonçalves. “Comparative Physiology of the Respiratory System in the Animal Kingdom.” The Open Biology Journal, 2011, 4, 35–46.
• en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lungfish
• www.britannica.com/animal/lungfish
• www.nationalgeographic.org/media/west-african-lungfish

Many animals would tell us fascinating stories about their behaviors and marvelous abilities if only we could understand their language. As a result of years of research, many outstanding features of different animals have been discovered by scientists and these findings have formed the basis for numerous inventions. The Pacific golden plover (or the kolea, as it is called in Hawaii) is one such animal that is created with amazing abilities, like conserving huge amounts of energy with incredible techniques.

The Pacific golden plover is a migratory bird. The mother and father birds leave their nests in Alaska when their chicks are only a few months old, and return to Hawaii where they are originally from. Chicks by then have not yet learned how to fly [1]. After spending the summer in Northwest Alaska [2], when the winter comes chicks take off en route to the Hawaiian island where their parents are and where they have never been before. Considering that the distance is 4500 km (~2800 miles), this journey seems almost impossible for such a small bird, which, unlike many birds capable of trans-oceanic migrations, cannot swim, soar, or glide and weighs approximately 130 grams (~4.6 ounces).

Flying over the Pacific Ocean all the way from Alaska, the most extreme point of North America, to the island of Hawaii, the golden plover does not have a chance to land even for a short time to gather energy. The bird absolutely cannot fall under 130 grams either, because under this weight it would not have the energy needed for the remaining distance, which would be the end for the bird. To complicate matters even more, the Pacific golden plover loses 0.6% of its body weight every hour that it flies non-stop. There are two significant problems in this long journey; the fact that it cannot gain energy during its flight, and the problem of navigation. Not knowing which direction to fly in the vast ocean, or flying in the wrong direction for a short time, means an inevitable death for the bird.

The information we have obtained about this bird’s amazing ability to conserve energy journey is amazing. The flight time is 88 hours, or three days and four nights. For comparison, a modern Airbus A380 or Boeing 777-200LR can only fly about 18 hours without refueling [3]. During the flight, the Pacific golden plover flaps its wings 250,000 times, setting another record. “Imagine” says Dr. Oscar Wally Johnson from Montana State University “that flight you made from L.A. to Honolulu – only without the plane” [4].

Observations that have been made during the bird’s flight help us to understand how it overcomes these challenges [5]. The birds prepare for their journey by eating a lot and gaining a lot of weight in a short time. An average golden plover weighs roughly 130 grams and gains 70 grams of more weight, more than half of its body weight, during this intense eating period. Imagine a person that weighs 176 pounds (80 kg) gaining 100 pounds (45 kg) more to become 125 kg (275 pounds) in two weeks. The bird would normally lose 0.6% of its weight every hour it flies without a rest, and at the end of 88 hours it would remain only 117.8 g. As mentioned above, should the bird fall below its regular weight of 130 grams, it would be too exhausted to complete the journey. As soon as the bird runs out of energy, it would still have more than 497 miles (800 km) left before it reaches its destination. So, how is this problem solved?

If we want to save money on long car drives, then we set our cruise control to 110 km/h (~68 m/h) and drive at a constant speed. The bird does just that, and flies the whole distance at a constant and optimal speed of 51 km/h (~ 32 m/h) [6]. Flying slower than this speed would increase the amount of “fuel” that would be consumed, and flying faster would increase the energy consumption due to air resistance. Pacific golden plovers also fly in a “V” formation where the foremost birds flap their wings thus generating airflow that allows the birds in the rear of the formation to not have to use their wings in order to conserve energy [7]. Birds that are tired in front of the formation change their position with the ones who have had some rest at the back. Thus, they save about 23% of their energy and reach their destination of Hawaii while being slightly overweight. This excess weight is not stored in vain; it is estimated that more energy will be consumed in the case of bad weather conditions. During their flight, it is possible that the air could be foggy, cloudy, very sunny, or even rainy and windy, in which case their energy consumption can increase.

How does this bird determine the direction it should go? Imagine that this bird flies in absolute darkness for three nights without getting lost despite the fact that even a small deviation from their path could cause a huge deviation in the long run and cost the bird a fortune. They keep their flight formation and reach their destination despite all kinds of difficult conditions, including rain at night. With the help of a compass miraculously placed in the brains and eyes of these birds [8], they follow the magnetic field lines of the earth at a certain angle, adjust their position and follow their paths without facing any surprises [9]. Some scientists believe that the magnetic field map of the world is recorded in the eyes of migratory birds.

Migratory birds can also use the sun to correct their flight path. This difficult journey is successfully completed with the immigration program embedded into their genetic code by the Almighty Creator.

With their excellent energy saving and navigation features, the Pacific golden plover, a migratory bird species that has been doing this long-distance journey for thousands of years, provides us with very important lessons that can lead us to deep contemplation.

 “Have they never considered the birds above them, flying in lines with wings they spread out and fold in? Nothing holds them up except the All-Merciful. He indeed sees everything very well.” Mulk 67:19

References

1. If animals could talk-Wenn Tiere reden könnten Werder Gitt, K.-H.Vanheiden
2. https://academic.oup.com/auk/article-abstract/100/3/607/5185692
3. https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/232416/umfrage/reichweite-der-airbus-modelle/
4. https://hanahou.com/7.6/flight-of-the-navigators
5. https://www.nabu.de/tiere-und-pflanzen/aktionen-und-projekte/birdwatch/index.html
6. Peter F. Major, Lawrence M. Dill: The three-dimensional structure of airborne bird flocks. In: Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Band 4, Nr. 2, 1978, S. 111–122.
7. Cutts, J. Speakman: Energy savings in formation flight of pink-footed geese. In: J. theor. Biol. Band 189, Nr. 1, 1994, S. 251–261.
8. https://www.weltderphysik.de/thema/hinter-den-dingen/wie-finden-zugvoegel-den-weg/
9. https://www.spektrum.de/frage/orientierung-wie-finden-zugvoegel-ihren-weg/1425607